Scientific Audit of Marine Parks – Background information
relating to MPA outputs concerning Biodiversity and
Ecological Processes
This summary and associated references relate to the following Terms of Reference:
“Review the specific science relating to the effectiveness of marine parks in
protecting different habitat types and recommend further action and/or alternative
management arrangements if necessary”
Department of Primary Industries contacts:
Dr Alan Jordan, Marine Park Authority
Alan.jordan@environment.nsw.gov.au
Mob: 0439 418 142
Dr Bob Creese, Research Leader, Aquatic Ecosystems,
bob.creese@industry.nsw.gov.au
tel: 02 4916 3806
mob: 0419 204 967
The MPA Strategic Research Framework 2010-15 has categorised research themes and key
research areas as follows:
Research themes
Biodiversity and ecological
processes
Ecologically sustainable use
Specific environmental impacts
Social and economic influences
Culture and heritage
Key research areas
Habitat knowledge
Biological diversity
Ecological processes
Assessment of zoning
Recreation and tourism
Population biology and assessment of key
species
Fishing and collecting
Pollution and development
Pests and diseases
Climate change
Economics research
Social research
Aboriginal culture
Heritage
This document deals with the issue of “Biodiversity and ecological processes” and the related
key research areas. It provides background context to these research areas and a list of
published reports and journal papers, and unpublished reports and theses that are outputs
from NSW Marine Parks Authority research projects. It does not include the broader
published literature that has been used to examine these issues across NSW marine parks.
The primary criterion for establishing marine parks in NSW is that they contain a
comprehensive, adequate and representative selection of marine biodiversity.
Comprehensiveness refers to the extent to which the full range of ecosystems and habitats in
and across all bioregions are included in marine parks; adequacy is the degree to which the
size, boundaries and location of marine parks are adequate to maintain biodiversity and
ecological patterns and processes, particularly in relation to the ability to manage impacting
activities; and representativeness is the extent to which marine parks reflect the range of
biological diversity of communities within ecosystems and habitats.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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To ensure the above criteria are effectively met in zoning marine parks, information on
biological diversity (and their effective surrogates) and ecological processes are included in
the planning process. Initial broadscale biodiversity assessments as part of the NSW marine
park planning process were presented in a series of bioregional assessments (Breen et al.
2004, 2005a, b). These included an assessment of comprehensiveness and
representativeness, ecological importance, condition and vulnerability. Information on the
distribution and extent of estuarine macrophytes (seagrass, mangroves and saltmarsh) and
shallow nearshore reef and sand habitats throughout NSW were included in the bioregional
assessments. In 2004 an acoustic seabed mapping program was implemented by the NSW
Marine Parks Authority to provide information on the extent, distribution and structure of
seabed habitats throughout continental shelf waters of NSW. Since then marine habitat
mapping has been a core research and monitoring program undertaken throughout the state
to support the declaration and zoning of marine parks.
Over the past seven years approximately 760 km2 of seabed habitats in marine parks have
been mapped, and another 500 km2 in NSW coastal waters outside marine park boundaries.
An additional 570 km2 of existing seabed data have also been incorporated into digital layers
of bathymetry and seabed habitats (Jordan et al. 2010). These have been combined with the
estuarine map layers developed by NSW DPI to produce the first 1:25,000 seabed map
series for NSW. In addition, broad-scale bathymetry and sediments maps have recently been
completed for the entire NSW continental shelf.
Overall, the MPA has collected and collated extensive fine-scale and coarse-scale spatial
information on seabed habitats that has been used directly to examine zoning options that
most effectively represent the patterns of biodiversity surrogates in NSW marine parks.
Combined with targeted seabed assemblage surveys from diver and towed video, as well as
species diversity surveys using divers, baited underwater video and grabs, the MPA has tried
to ensure that marine park locations and zones represent the biodiversity of NSW waters.
A range of specific biodiversity surveys have been conducted in recent years that build on
other surveys conducted before the current zoning plans commenced, and complement
projects conducted within the marine parks by external research providers (e.g. university
projects, CERF Marine Biodiversity Hub, IMOS). This includes the recent high resolution
Autonomous Underwater Vehicle surveys of continental shelf seabed habitats that are
examining macroalgal and sessile invertebrate composition in various marine park zone
types.
An important component of the biological diversity in marine ecosystems is reef-associated
fishes, as they have ecological, social, cultural and economic value. Information on the
spatial patterns of fish community composition is combined with seabed habitat maps. For
example, surveys of the Solitary Islands Marine Park have focused on the composition of
shallow and intermediate-depth reef fishes (Malcolm and Smith, 2010; Malcolm et al. 2010a,
b, 2011). Other components of biodiversity have been examined in a number of marine
parks, including reef and soft-sediment macroinvertebrates and algae. Reviews and field
assessments of important marine faunal and floral groups have also been conducted
(Cardno Ecology Lab, 2010; Davis et al. 2010; Jordan et al. 2010).
The assessment of threatened, protected and endemic species is also a priority research
area, and a number of projects have examined this issue over recent years. This includes the
establishment of a monitoring program for black cod in a number of marine parks and
assessment of the population of endemic species on Lord Howe Island and assessment of
risk.
Ecological processes represent the interactions within and among species, and encompass
the numerous key processes within an ecosystem such as predation, grazing, recruitment,
behaviour and movement across the entire life cycles of the species involved. Measuring a
range of ecological processes across marine park zones is an important component of the
research program, and has been targeted primarily at issues relating to habitat associations,
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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measuring changes in assemblage composition in relation to zoning (e.g. Edgar and StuartSmith, 2009), and large scale processes of biological oceanography and connectivity (e.g.
Malcolm et al. 2011; Coleman et al. 2011a).
Assessment of species and assemblage interactions has primarily been conducted on
shallow reefs using visual census techniques to assess numbers and species of fishes on
reefs and changes through time of macroalgae cover and benthic invertebrate grazers (such
as the urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii). A number of current research programs, such as
the monitoring of intermediate depth reefs using Baited Remote Underwater Video are
collecting long-term data to examine this issue.
Understanding connectivity patterns of species helps predict how they will respond to such
changes as habitat loss and variations in oceanic currents due to climate change, and
whether they can recover from such perturbations. Several current research projects are
examining these issues using genetics and oceanographic modelling (e.g. Coleman et al.
2011b). Such research can also assist with zoning plans by understanding how pre and postsettlement factors such as dispersal and migration relate to spatial arrangements of
organisms. The recent deployment of acoustic tracking technology in marine parks aims to
examine the scale of movement for key fish and shark species, and will provide key
information required to assess the adequacy of zones for maximising protection for such
species.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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Bibliography –
NSW MPA published and unpublished literature – Biodiversity and ecological processes
Habitat knowledge
Published reports and papers:
Jordan A, Davies P, Ingleton T, Mesley E, Neilson J and Pritchard T (2010) Seabed habitat mapping of continental shelf waters of NSW. NSW
Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water Occasional Paper Series, 209 pp.
Jordan A, Davies P, Ingleton T, Mesley E, Neilson J and Pritchard T (2010) Developments in mapping of seabed habitats for Marine Protected
Area planning and monitoring. Proceedings of the International Oceans Science Conference, Sydney, May 2010.
NSW MPA (2010). Seabed mapping in the Solitary Islands Marine Park and Jervis Bay Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Dekker A, Mount R and Jordan A (2007) Satellite and airborne imagery including aerial photography In: Todd B and Greene G (eds.). Mapping
the seafloor for habitat characterisation. Geological Association of Canada Special Volume 47: 11-28.
Halley V and Jordan A (2007) The role of the hierarchical classification in addressing spatial uncertainty in mapping southern Australian
coastal seabed habitats. In: Todd B and Greene G (eds.). Mapping the seafloor for habitat characterisation. Geological Association of
Canada Special Volume 47: 157-170.
Jordan A, Davies P, Ingleton T and Pritchard T (2007) Application of swath acoustic technology as a tool for seabed habitat mapping in coastal
waters of New South Wales, Australia. Proceedings of the International Coastal GIS Conference, 2006.
Unpublished reports and theses:
Cardno Ecology Lab (2011) Subtidal algal-dominated rocky reef habitats in NSW: review of ecology, diversity and distribution. Report prepared
by Cardno Ecology Lab Pty Ltd for the NSW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water.
Lee M (2010) Assessing the representativeness of seabed habitats within marine parks: the Tweed-Moreton Bioregion as a case study.
Honours Thesis, University of Sydney, NSW.
Masens O (2009) Methods of monitoring distribution and heterogeneity of subtidal reef habitats within the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine
Park using underwater video surveillance with emphasis on urchin barrens. Honours Thesis, University of Newcastle, NSW.
Breen D (2007) Systematic conservation assessments for marine protected areas in New South Wales, Australia. PhD Thesis, James Cook
University, Queensland.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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Ku V (2007) Sediments around rocky reefs: Solitary Islands, Australia. Honours Thesis, University of Sydney, NSW.
Bickers, A. (2005) Mapping and classifying shallow water (<70 m deep) habitats of Cape Byron Marine Park using sidescan sonar and
underwater video. Report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Fitzpatrick BM (2003) Habitat heterogeneity of NSW marine protected areas. Honours Thesis, Australian Maritime College, Tasmania.
Mau R, Byrnes T, Wilson J and Zann L (1998) The distribution of selected continental shelf habitats in the Solitary Islands Marine Park. Report
prepared for the New South Wales Marine Parks Authority by the School of Resource Sciences and Management, Southern Cross
University, NSW.
Biodiversity
Published reports and papers:
Malcolm H, Jordan A and Smith SDA (2011) Testing a depth-based Habitat Classification System against reef fish assemblage patterns in a
subtropical marine park. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 21: 173–185.
NSW MPA (2010). Natural Values of the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Malcolm HA and Smith SDA (2010) Objective selection of surrogate families to describe reef fish assemblages in a subtropical marine park.
Biodiversity and Conservation 19: 3611-3618.
Malcolm H, Jordan A and Smith SDA (2010a) Biogeographical and cross-shelf patterns of reef fish assemblages in a tropical-temperate
overlap. Marine Biodiversity 40: 181-93.
Malcolm H, Smith SDA and Jordan A (2010b) Using patterns of reef fish assemblages to refine a Habitat Classification System for marine
parks in NSW, Australia. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20: 83–92.
Smith SDA, Jordan A, Creese RG and Gladstone W (eds) (2010) The marine environment of the Hunter-Central Rivers region of New South
Wales: a review of current knowledge. Report prepared for the Hunter-Central Rivers Catchment Management Authority, 190 pp.
Edgar GJ, Davey A, Kelly G, Mawbey R and Parsons K (2009) Biogeographical and ecological context for managing threats to coral and rocky
reef communities in the Lord Howe Island Marine Park, south-western Pacific, Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems
DOI: 10.1002/aqc.1075.
Baronio M and Bucher D (2008) Artificial crevice habitats to assess the biodiversity of vagile macro-cryptofauna of subtidal rocky reefs. Marine
and Freshwater Research 59: 661-670.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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Lindsay MJ, Patterson HM and Swearer SE (2008) Habitat as a surrogate measure of reef fish diversity in the zoning of the Lord Howe Island
Marine Park, Australia. Marine Ecology Progress Series 353: 265–273.
Malcolm HA, Gladstone W, Lindfield S, Wraith J and Lynch TP (2007) Spatial and temporal variation in reef fish assemblages of marine parks
in New South Wales, Australia - baited video observations. Marine Ecology Progress Series 350: 277-290.
NSW MPA (2008) Natural values of the Solitary Islands Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority.
NSW MPA (2008) Natural values of Jervis Bay Marine Park. NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Rule M, Jordan A and McIlgorm A (2007) The marine environment of northern New South Wales: a review of current knowledge and existing
databases. Report to the Northern Rivers Catchment Management Authority, 335 pp.
Winberg PC, Lynch TP, Murray A, Davis AR and Jones AR (2007) The importance of spatial scale for the conservation of tidal flat
macrobenthos: An example from New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 134: 310-320.
Breen DA, Avery RP and Otway NM (2005a) Broadscale biodiversity assessment of the Hawkesbury Shelf marine bioregion. Final report to the
NSW Marine Parks Authority, 127 pp.
Breen DA, Avery RP and Otway NM (2005b) Broadscale biodiversity assessment of the Batemans Shelf and Twofold Shelf marine bioregions.
Final report to the NSW Marine Parks Authority and the Australian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, 150 pp.
Breen DA, Avery RP and Otway NM (2004) Broadscale biodiversity assessment of the Manning Shelf marine bioregion. Final report to the
NSW Marine Parks Authority and the Australian Government Department of Environment and Heritage, 137 pp.
Unpublished reports and theses:
Harasti D, Malcolm HA, Gudge S and Kerr I (2011) Relative abundance, habitat association and size of black cod (Epinephelus daemelii)
within the Lord Howe Island Marine Park. Unpublished report for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Harasti D (2011) Distribution, relative abundance, habitat use and seasonal variation of black cod (Epinephelus daemelii) within the Port
Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park. Final report to the Hunter-Central Rivers Catchment Management Authority by the NSW Marine
Parks Authority.
Aquenal (2010) Ecological monitoring of reef communities at Lord Howe Island Marine Park, NSW 206-2010. Report prepared by Aquenal Pty
Ltd for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Malcolm HA (2010) Spatial and temporal patterns of reef-fish assemblages in the Solitary Islands Marine Park and their utility for protected
area management. PhD Thesis, University of New England, NSW.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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New T (2010) Assessing the vagile fauna associated with seagrass habitats in Jervis Bay: baited remote underwater video observations.
Honours Thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Rafael CB (2010) Distribution and habitat of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in Jervis Bay, New South Wales, Australia.
Honours Thesis, University of Sydney, NSW.
Davis A, Broad A, Roberts D and Jordan A (2009) Review of sponges in NSW coastal waters: ecology, diversity and distribution. Report to the
NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Heagney E (2009) Pelagic fish in coastal waters: hydrographic habitats, fine scale population structure and implications for spatial
management. PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales, NSW.
Hobbs JPA, Neilson J and Gilligan JJ (2009) Distribution, abundance, habitat association and extinction risk of marine fishes endemic to the
Lord Howe Island region. Report to Lord Howe Island Marine Park prepared by James Cook University, Queensland.
Rees M (2009) Seeking surrogates on temperate reefs: examination of fish and sessile invertebrate assemblage. Honours Thesis, University
of Wollongong, NSW.
Winberg PC (2009) Confronting challenges of tidal flat conservation: human impacts and scales of heterogeneity in a Marine Protected Area in
southern NSW, Australia. PhD Thesis, Institute for Conservation Biology, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Hammerton Z (2007) Spatial and temporal variation in fish assemblages on offshore rocky reefs, Cape Byron Marine Park. Report to Marine
Parks Authority.
Hughes LE (2007) Biodiversity of amphipods in the Solitary Islands. PhD Thesis, University of New England, NSW.
Lindfield S (2007) Spatial, temporal and depth related variation in reef fish assemblages of the Port Stephens-Great Lakes Marine Park
detected with baited remote underwater video stations. Honours Thesis, University of Newcastle, NSW.
Schultz A (2007) A comparison of species composition of shallow reef fish communities in Cape Byron Marine Park and at Brunswick Heads
using various survey techniques. Honours Thesis, Southern Cross University.
Wraith J (2007) Assessing fish assemblages on reefs in a temperate marine park using baited remote underwater video. MSc Thesis, Institute
for Conservation Biology, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Adams D (2006) A preliminary survey of mollusc communities found within the non-vegetated sediments of the Cape Byron Marine Park.
Report from Southern Cross University to the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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Aquenal (2006) Baseline surveys of marine flora and fauna at Lord Howe Island Marine Park, New South Wales, February 2006. Report
prepared by Aquenal Pty Ltd for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Hastie BF (2006) Spatial and temporal variation of benthic macrofaunal communities in the intermittently closed estuaries of the Solitary Islands
Marine Park, Australia. PhD Thesis. University of New England, NSW.
Bucher D and Hartley S (2004) Surveys of subtidal rocky reefs within and adjacent to Cape Byron Marine Park. Report to the NSW Marine
Parks Authority.
Butcher PA (2004) Mudcrab (Scylla serrata) and marine park management in estuaries of the Solitary Islands Marine Park, New South Wales.
PhD Thesis, University of New England, NSW.
Perera N (2004) Reef fish assemblages in kelp (Ecklonia radiata) habitats off Brunswick Heads and Byron Bay, NSW. Report from Southern
Cross University to the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Bullard JM (2003) Assessing the status of the marine benthic communities at Lord Howe Island using video transects. Honours Thesis,
Southern Cross University, NSW.
Smith SDA and James KA (2003) Rapid assessment of rocky shore biodiversity in the Byron Bay Region. Report from the National Marine
Science Centre to the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
Wosinski R (2002) Assessment of intertidal assemblages in the Jervis Bay Marine Park. Honours thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Brown J (2000) Non-destructive assessment of beach fish fauna using underwater visual census in Jervis Bay Marine Park, NSW. Honours
Thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Smart E (2000) An investigation into factors influencing molluscan species richness on the South Coast of New South Wales. Honours Thesis,
University of Wollongong, NSW.
Ecological processes
Published reports and papers:
Coleman MA, Chambers J, Knott N, Malcolm H, Harasti D, Jordan A and Kelaher B (2011a) Connectivity within and among a network of
temperate marine reserves. PloS One. e20168. doi:10.1371.
Coleman MA, Roughan M, McDonald H, Connell SD, Gillanders BM, Kelaher BP and Steinberg PD (2011b) Variation in the strength of
continental boundary currents determines patterns of large-scale connectivity in kelp Journal of Ecology, doi: 10.1111/j.13652745.2011.01822.
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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Malcolm H, Davies PL, Jordan A and Smith SDA (2011) Variation in sea temperature and the East Australian Current in the Solitary Islands
region between 2001–2008. Deep Sea Research 58: 616–627.
Scott A, Malcolm HA, Damiano C and Richardson DL (2011) Long-term increases in abundance of anemonefish and their host sea anemones
in an Australian marine protected area. Marine and Freshwater Research 62: 187–196.
Suthers IM, Young JW, Baird ME, Roughan M, Everett JD, Brassington GB, Byrne M, Condie SA, Hartog JR, Hassler CS, Hobday AJ, Holbrook
NJ, Malcolm HA, Oke PR, Thompson PA and Ridgway K (2011) The strengthening East Australian Current, its eddies and biological
effects – an introduction and overview. The East Australian Current – its eddies and impacts. Deep-Sea Research II 58:538-546.
Valentine JP and Edgar GJ (2010) Impacts of a population outbreak of the urchin Tripneustes gratilla amongst Lord Howe Island coral
communities. Coral Reefs DOI 10.1007/s00338-010-0610-9.
Edgar GJ and Stuart-Smith RD (2009) Ecological effects of marine protected areas on rocky reef communities - a continental-scale analysis.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 388: 51–62.
Hawkins ER and Gartside DF (2008) Social behavioural characteristics of Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops aduncus) in northern New
South Wales, Australia. Autralian Mammology 30: 71-81.
Bruce BD, Stevens JD and Malcolm H (2006) Movements and swimming behaviour of white sharks (Carcharodon carcharias) in Australian
waters. Marine Biology 150: 161-172.
Spencer JA and Lynch TP (2005) Boat surveys for White-bellied sea eagles (Haliaeetus leucogaster) in Jervis Bay, New South Wales. Emu
105: 1-6.
Cappo M, Harvey E, Malcolm H and Speare P (2003) Potential of video techniques to monitor diversity, abundance , and size of fish in studies
of marine protected areas. In Proceedings of the World Congress on Aquatic Protected Areas Cairns, Australia 2002. (Eds) Beumer J,
Grant A and Smith D.
Patterson H and Swearer S (2007) Long-distance dispersal and local retention of larvae as mechanisms of recruitment in an island population
of a coral reef fish. Austral Ecology 32: 122–130.
Unpublished reports and theses:
Runck A (2010) Modelling the distribution and habitat selection of bottlenose dolphins in Jervis Bay, NSW, Australia. Honours Thesis,
University of Sydney, NSW.
Ryan L (2010) Predation pressure on sessile invertebrate communities in southern NSW Marine Parks. Honours Thesis, University of New
South Wales, Sydney, NSW
Scientific Audit of NSW Marine Parks: Biodiversity and ecological processes
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Tan M (2010) Effects of seals and environmental variables on fish assemblages in Batemans Marine Park. Honours Thesis, University of
Sydney, NSW.
Vahtra C (2010) Temporal change of the fish assemblage and trophic feeding guilds of Batemans Marine Park using Baited Remote
Underwater Video. Honours Thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Brown KE (2009) Fine-scale distribution of humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) on their southern migration past Cape Byron, northern
NSW. Honours Thesis, Southern Cross University.
Heagney E (2009) Pelagic fish in coastal waters: hydrographic habitats, fine scale population structure and implications for spatial
management. PhD Thesis, University of New South Wales, NSW.
Hobbs JPA, Neilson J and Gilligan JJ (2009) Distribution, abundance, habitat association and extinction risk of marine fishes endemic to the
Lord Howe Island region. Report to Lord Howe Island Marine Park prepared by James Cook University, Queensland.
Black K, Swearer S and Symonds G (2007) Understanding larval dispersal and the inter-connected wave- and wind-driven circulation at Lord
Howe Island: numerical modelling, empirical observations and model validation. Report prepared for NSW Parks and Wildlife Service,
ASR Ltd Marine Consulting and Research, Raglan New Zealand.
Hawkins L (2008) Behaviour and acoustics of inshore bottlenose dolphins in Byron Bay. PhD Thesis, Southern Cross University, NSW.
Christie AM (2007) Distribution and biomass of the pipi, Donax deltoides in Cape Byron Marine Park. Honours Thesis, Griffith University.
Goulden E (2007) Haematological responses as biomarkers of stress in the estuarine ghost shrimp (Trypaea australiensis). Honours Thesis,
University of New England, NSW.
Scott A (2007) Sexual reproductive biology of the host sea anemones Entacmaea quadricolor and Heteractis crispa in the Solitary Islands
Marine Park, Australia. PhD Thesis, Southern Cross University, NSW.
Clements F (2005) Spatial patterns in stingray predation and the impact of ray predation on macrofaunal assemblages in temperate tidal flats
at Currambene Creek, Jervis Bay, and Narrawallee Inlet. MSc minor Thesis at the Department of Marine Biology, James Cook University,
Queensland.
Osterloh I, Ley J and Lynch TP (2003) A comparison of fish diversity, based on catches by boat based recreational fishers within Jervis Bay
Marine Park with data collected 12 years prior. Australian Maritime College, 53 pp.
Menke P (2004) Monitoring changes in seagrass meadows of Jervis Bay Marine Park. Honours Thesis, University of Wollongong, NSW.
Speirs M (2002) A study of marine turtle populations at the Julian Rocks Aquatic Reserve, northern New South Wales. Honours Thesis,
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Southern Cross University, NSW.
Burleigh A (1999) Monitoring the fur seal colony at Jervis Bay. Honours Thesis, Sydney University, NSW.
Wilson JR (1998) Reproduction and larval ecology of broadcast spawning corals at the Solitary Islands, eastern Australia. PhD Thesis.
Southern Cross University, NSW.
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