What are learning
outcomes?
A guide to their use in
teaching and
assessment
2000
Notes for Staff Development
Faculty of Continuing Education
Notes for Staff Development
Faculty of Continuing Education
What are learning outcomes?
Section 1
What are learning outcomes?
Learning outcomes are the intended or unintended
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development of skills and/or personal attributes
acquisition of knowledge
deepening of understanding
that result from engaging in a learning event such as a course, a day school, or an
independent learning project.
Learning outcomes are statements of what it is that students will or should be
able to do as a result of engaging in a learning activity. They need to be able to be
assessed, and therefore there should not be too many. Some people believe that
each class in a course should have a set of learning outcomes. That is perfectly
possible. An example from an Introduction to Sociology course might be a class
that is looking at how people conform to social norms and share common belief
systems:
By the end of this class, participants will be able to
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use the concept of socialisation to explain how
children learn to
conform
recognise different agencies of socialisation
explain why some people do not conform to social norms
define the concept of ideology
identify the variety of ways in which ideologies become dominant
recognise the existence of strategies for resisting dominant
ideologies
construct a clear and cogent argument that explains the existence of
hegemony.
There are two problems with this. First, if you are to utilise learning outcomes at
this level, they will need not only to be assessable but also to be assessed. There
is no point in making claims as to what participants will be able to do, if they are
not to be tested. This means that a significant amount of time at the end of the
class, or through homework, will have to be given over to assessing these outcomes.
Second, this is only one week out of, say, 24. If you multiply the number of
learning outcomes by 24, then the course will have a huge number of learning
outcomes that will need to be assessed. Again, whilst this is possible, it may be
very daunting and take up a disproportionate amount of time. On the other hand it
is perfectly possible to produce a list of learning outcomes to be achieved by the
end of the course. So, for the example of Introduction to Sociology:
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What are learning outcomes?
By the end of the course, participants will be able to
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identify at least two different sociological perspectives
apply a sociological perspective to explain how social order is possible
explain why social deviance occurs
construct a sociological explanation that accounts for individual
differences
compare the relative significance of the family and education as
agencies of socialisation.
Learning outcomes may be used in any kind of learning event, including those
shorter than a course, including a day school or a half-day workshop. Here is an
example for a day school.
The meaning of food:
a social psychological perspective
Day school (7 hours)
Aim
To provide an introduction to the social psychology of food choice
Objectives
 Examine different levels of analysis in the study of food and eating
 Enhance understanding of different contributions to food preferences
 Consider links between social psychological concepts and food choice
 Consider individual differences in eating behaviour
Learning outcomes
By the end of this day school you will be able to:
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discriminate between different levels of analysis of food and eating from
biology to culture
describe and comment on the way individual, social and cultural factors
contribute to food choice
recognise links between social psychological concepts (such as the influence of
group membership and persuasion techniques) and food choice
identify the causes of individual differences in eating behaviour.
By emphasising what learners should be able to do by the end of the learning
activity, the consequences are more tangible and observable than those ideas
related to educational aims and objectives.
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What are learning outcomes?
An aim for any particular educational, training or other kinds of learning activities
will:
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specify the overall purpose
be expressed in general rather than specific terms
cover breadth and depth
cover the whole of the learning event or activity
be aspirational or what the learning event intends to achieve
There is not a consensus about what constitutes an aim, nor whether a learning
event or activity can have more than one aim. However, for the purpose of
standardisation, let us work with the assumption that any learning event or activity
should be characterised by a single aim that has the above characteristics.
On the other hand objectives may be multiple. If the aim provides the overall
strategy, purpose, mission or vision of a learning programme, event or activity, then
the objectives outline the ways in which that strategy will be delivered, the tasks
to be done, the activities to be engaged in if the aim is to be met.
Objectives
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specify action to be taken
represent achievable steeping stones to meeting the overall aim
are detailed
Every stated objective should be a contribution to the achievement of the aim.
Collectively, the set of objectives should be comprehensive and capable of
delivering the aim.
Examples
Applying these principles to this learning pack on aims, objectives and learning
outcomes, we might specify:
Aim
To enable participants to distinguish and write aims, objectives and learning
outcomes that will assist in teaching and assessment.
Objectives
Understand the importance of the distinction between aims, objectives and
learning outcomes
Recognise the difference between aims, objectives and learning outcomes
Write aims, objectives and learning outcomes
Ensure that learning outcomes can be assessed.
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What are learning outcomes?
Note
Again there is a difference of opinion on this, but typically an aim should being with
'To ....' and objectives begin with an active verb that will guide action such as
'Recognise'. 'Differentiate', 'Identify', 'Analyse', 'Describe', 'Demonstrate',
'Explain', 'Agree', 'Compare' and so on. Learning outcomes will be prefaced; 'By
the end of the course (day)(class)(workshop)(etc) participants will be able to ....'.
Let's apply that to something more concrete. Here is an example taken from a
Faculty of Continuing Education psychology course:
Psychology at Work
Aim
To examine the ways in which psychological theories and principles can be
applied to working in organisations and to the world of work generally.
Objectives
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Identify and critically discuss current issues in personnel selection
and assessment, motivation, job satisfaction, organisations, ergonomics,
training and development, health and safety.
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Support and develop study skills, including note taking and essay
writing
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Promote students' confidence in presenting their own ideas and in
critical thinking
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Provide equal opportunities to all students irrespective of race,
gender, class, sexual orientation, religion, disability, age or political
beliefs
What do you think of this aim and set of objectives?
Here are some observations:
Coherence of the aim and objectives
The aim is succinct and appropriately expressed; it conveys the purpose of the
course on offer. It does not specify the curriculum content, this is the function of
the objectives that set down the broad headings for the curriculum content. It is
important that the objectives are consistent with the aim, of course. The aim and
objectives are specified for pedagogical purposes, to help determine the course
content.
Marketing
Sometimes it is assumed that either separately or together aims and objectives
can be used to market a course or learning event. This is not its main purpose,
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What are learning outcomes?
although marketing information must be consistent with the specified aim,
objectives and learning outcomes.
Scope
If an aim cannot be expressed simply in terms of a single statement then this is an
indicator that the course or learning event may be being too ambitious, and could
benefit from being re-structured into more than one event. Getting the aim,
objectives and learning outcomes right are useful for ensuring that there is
enough time to meet the aim, deliver the objectives and achieve the outcomes. If
you have had that common experience of not having the time, or having to rush to
cover the pre-specified content, then you need to revisit and revise your aim and
objectives.
Key skills
The objectives in the example are not all about content. Some are to do with
personal attributes (building confidence) and what are currently known as key skills
(study skills and critical thinking, and we could add communication skills, such as
making a successful presentation, or IT skills, if relevant). This is important. The
aim does not necessarily indicate that as well as gaining knowledge and deepening
understanding about psychological theories and principles, participants will develop
skills such as critical thinking and note-taking. However, these must be reflected
in the learning outcomes; they must form part of the assessment of learning
outcomes if they are in the objectives.
Equal opportunities
The objectives also contain something else – the commitment to equal
opportunities. Whilst this is extremely important, and should be highly
commended, there needs to be a word of caution here. There is a difference
between saying that the learning event will be an equal opportunities experience, to
saying that it will focus on raising awareness of equal opportunities. All courses
and learning activities should provide equal opportunities, and whether they do or
not should be identified through course evaluation procedures, not assessment.
However, some courses and learning will include objectives that relate to raising
awareness of, and providing strategies for handling, equal opportunity issues. In
such cases, this must also be reflected in learning outcomes and in the assessment
strategy. We will see how that works shortly.
Evaluating aims and objectives
It is important for the specification of aims and objectives to be critically
scrutinised. This is the responsibility of the tutor writing them. They are the
foundation for the quality of the learning experience, upon which all else rests.
There is little point in investing time in specifying learning outcomes and
appropriate assessment criteria unless these are right in the first place. Having
said that, of course, it is an iterative process, and that the evaluation of aims and
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What are learning outcomes?
objectives rests in the ability to derive a set of comprehensive and measurable
learning outcomes that ensures that the learning event is feasible and realistic.
Let's have a practice at critical scrutiny. Here is another example taken from a
psychology syllabus.
Getting Closer – the Dynamics of Relationship
A one day course
Getting closer requires an understanding of one's own need for independence and
freedom. Otherwise the relationship breaks down into continual bickering over who
puts the rubbish out or pays the 'phone bill. But the underlying argument is the
same: it is always about who cares the most. The 'carer' is defined as the 'closeness
seeker' and therefore the other becomes the 'freedom seeker'.
From this point all communication (intimate, mundane, sexual) is biased to reinforce
this 'I versus We' conflict. Breaking this cycle of disillusionment and overcoming
emotional pain involves analysing childhood attachment patterns that set the dice
rolling in the first place, as well as social scripting that promotes 'masculinity' and
'femininity' and the history of disappointments and failures in past relationships.
This course is about how to maintain a positive stance towards the relationship
future by changing emotional attitudes. Healthier patterns of communication both
verbal and non-verbal are discussed. We shall also explore the concepts of speech
style and love style.
Although the course is designed for opposite sex couples, it is just as applicable to all
dyads, homosexual, parent/child, friendships, colleagues. All are welcome.
What is the aim of this one-day course?
Are the objectives clear?
What do you think the learning outcomes would be?
That example is so far from the ideal type that it should have been relatively easy
to criticise. Now have a go at this one.
Creative Imaging
Accredited course
Aims
The course aims:
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To introduce participants to the experience of visualisation in a variety of
contexts so they may increase their potential and their effectiveness in their
personal and working lives;
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To increase awareness of the differences between the right and the left
cerebral hemisphere and how they may be integrated for optimum effectiveness.
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What are learning outcomes?
Objectives
At the end of the course people will be able to use imaging to:
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relax deeply and relieve stress
explore problems and issues and help themselves to bring 'hunches' to
consciousness through the use of images as metaphors
explore possible futures to enable better decision making and choices in the
present
explore issues and conflicts concerning their concepts and feelings regarding:
time, money , relationships and health
explore their sub personalities through contacting the inner male and female
and the inner child
improve a skills and/or prepare for change
improve relationships
access their deeper wisdom and self knowledge.
Is the aim of the course clear and coherent?
Any comments on the objectives listed?
What are the learning outcomes?
This example is a little more challenging. You will observe that the course has two
aims. It was indicated earlier that ideally a course should only have one aim, and
if there is a need for two then perhaps the course is trying to cover too much
ground in the time available. What do you think? Could you find a way of merging
the course aims into a single aim?
The objectives are problematic because they are led by the phrase 'At the end of
the course people will be able to use imaging to: ....'. On the surface this might
look as though they are not objectives but learning outcomes. Can they be treated
as learning outcomes? Some of them would be very difficult to assess. In fact,
the way it is expressed suggests that there is only one learning outcome: by the
end of the course people will be able to use imaging in a variety of ways. The list
of things to be explored could well constitute the course content, and therefore
are probably intended to be learning objectives. So we would need to not only
revise the course aim, but also need to disentangle the objectives from the
learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes are indicators that learning has taken place that can be
attributed to the participation in the learning event or activities. In other words,
learning outcomes are a sign that the course we have provided has been successful
for those who participate. As such they are also useful evidence for accountability
– providing data on the quality of our teaching programmes.
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What are learning outcomes?
Section 2
Why learning outcomes?
Having introduced what learning outcomes are, and how they fit with course aims,
objectives and assessment strategies, we should spend a little time thinking about
why learning outcomes?
Learning outcomes
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inform participants what they can expect to get from registering on a
course, learning event or through engaging in a learning activity
ensure learning is more relevant to the needs of learners
confirm to learners that they have been successful as a result of being on a
course, learning event or through engaging in a learning activity
build learners' confidence
provide documentary evidence of their achievement
help to identify areas in need of further development
support a flexible, student-centred approach to learning, including project
work
enable the process assessment and accreditation of prior learning
identify intended as well as intended consequences of teaching and learning
assist tutors in designing their course and developing materials for
supporting and assessing learning
clarify expectations and demystify the learning process
ensure appropriate assessment strategies are used
help set assessment tasks (exam questions, essay titles, multiple choice
statements, etc)
help tutors to choose an appropriate teaching strategy as some learning
outcomes are more appropriately delivered through some teaching methods
or ways of learning than others
provide clear information as to the level of a course or learning event
give feedback to tutors on the effectiveness of their teaching
contribute to lifelong learning
blur the barriers between learning providers and the outside world (work,
home, communities)
give institutions and external funding bodies and sponsors evidence of
successful teaching and learning.
The key principles behind the learning outcomes approach:
Curriculum
The learning outcomes approach to curriculum bases programme and curriculum
design, content, delivery and assessment on an identification of knowledge,
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What are learning outcomes?
understanding, skills (and abilities), attitudes and values needed by both learners
and their societies:
Learning outcomes , based on an analysis of learner and societal needs, should
be the basis for curriculum and pedagogic strategies
Pedagogy
The learning outcomes approach to pedagogy emphasises clarity of instruction,
goals, explicit identification of knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities that
learners should acquire, and the use of ongoing, integrated, authentic assessment
strategies.
Learning outcomes should enable tutors and learners to have a clear
understanding of the goals of the curriculum
Learning outcomes
A learning outcome statement expresses the essential and enduring knowledge, the
depth of understanding, the range of abilities and skills, as well as the attitudes,
values and dispositions that constitute the integrated learning needed by a learner
to successfully complete a course or learning event.
Learning outcomes should clearly relate to the use learners will make of their
learning beyond the classroom or learning setting
Learning outcomes should express the essential and integrated abilities of
the successful learner rather than discrete elements of knowledge or skills
Learning outcomes should express not only the specific outcomes of a
learning, training or educational programme, but also the general or generic
outcomes. Programme level outcomes should always include relevant general
key skill outcomes such as critical thinking and effective communication
Learning outcomes should be developed and articulated at the institutional
level, as well as at programme level and course level, or even class or
workshop level.
Assessment
Learning outcomes are educational or instructional goals and should be measurable
and assessed, but outcomes should not be limited by the assessment process.
Learning outcomes should assessed in an 'authentic' manner that tests
learners' ability to self assess, integrate and apply to their learning
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What are learning outcomes?
Assessment should be seen as playing a crucial function in learning by
providing a means for learners to practice integrative application of their
learning and receive useful feedback
Implementation
Learning outcomes should be identified and implemented by tutors in consultation
with learners as well as programme managers, and other appropriate advisory
groups.
Learning outcomes should emerge from a negotiation between learners,
tutors and others, as appropriate
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What are learning outcomes?
Section 3
How do you write learning outcomes?
We have already looked at some examples of learning outcomes. They need to
specify things that learners will be able to do, know, believe, feel or understand at
the end of any learning activity. These are intended outcomes. They may also be
unplanned – what learners can do, know, believe, feel or understand following
engagement with a set of learning activities that were not planned as part of the
course or learning event. The specification of unplanned learning outcomes by
definition cannot be written in advance, but learners or their tutors will need to be
able to formulate a statement at the end of their learning programme that
captures this change that has taken place as a result of engaging with the learning.
Writing learning outcomes in advance can take a variety of forms and involve a
number of procedures. They might be written by the course tutor who is to deliver
and assess the learning; they might be written by a programme designer or course
manager who then appoints a tutor to deliver and assess them; or the writing may
be the result of a negotiation between the programme manager, the student and
the tutor.
Whichever strategy is adopted, the end product must be in the form of a simple,
coherent, clear and measurable statement. There may be one or many. But they
must derive from, and be consistent with, the aim and objectives. As indicated
earlier, this may in practice prove to be a consultative and iterative process.
Here is a suggested approach to the task:
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Think what you as a tutor might expect learners to be able to do and/or
know and/or understand as a result of participating in your course or
learning activity.
Check with other colleagues, including the programme manager, that this is
a realistic and feasible expectation
Where possible, test these out with actual or potential learners, those you
have identified as target groups of learners, and get their feedback
Consider what you will have covered in your course or learning activity.
What should those participating be able to do as a result of that
programme?
Now write those ideas out, using active verbs where possible. The verb
used will not only indicate the nature of the learning outcome, but the level
at which they are intended to demonstrate the achievement of the learning.
For example, the requirement to list the factors that contribute to
psychological well-being, is of a lower order, than the determination of the
relative significance of those factors. At the end of this section is a list of
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What are learning outcomes?
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typical active verbs, grouped by particular types of intended outcomes.
This is the basis of a vocabulary for writing learning outcomes.
Now write them out
Check them to ensure they are consistent with your aim and objectives, and
that they are likely to be measurable
Are there too few or too many? Will you need to spend a disproportionate
amount of time engaged in assessment? Can some of them be collapsed
together to make fewer, broader, less specific outcomes?
Examine the range – do they cover key skills as well as content, and at the
appropriate level?
Now check with colleagues and/or potential students that they clearly know
what would be expected of them if they were to do this programme. Then
find out if they think this is reasonable set of learning outcomes that would
satisfy students coming on the programme.
Re-adjust as necessary.
Remember to always begin your list with a phrase such as 'By the end of
this course students will be able to ..... '
Practice
Drawing on a previous example, consider what kind of learning outcomes can be
written. In the box below add in some learning outcomes that derive from the aim
and objectives.
Psychology at Work
Aim
To examine the ways in which psychological theories and principles can be
applied to working in organisations and to the world of work generally.
Objectives
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Identify and critically discuss current issues in personnel selection
and assessment, motivation, job satisfaction, organisations, ergonomics,
training and development, health and safety.
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Support and develop study skills, including note taking and essay
writing
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Promote students' confidence in presenting their own ideas and in
critical thinking
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Provide equal opportunities to all students irrespective of race,
gender, class, sexual orientation, religion, disability, age or political
beliefs
Learning outcomes
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What are learning outcomes?
How did you get on? Did you remember to begin with 'By the end of this course,
students will be able to ..... '
Here are some suggestions:
Learning outcomes
By the end of this course, you will be able to
Distinguish at least three psychological theories that you can apply to your
own work context
Critically analyse a successful personnel selection interview using
psychological theory to understand why it was a success
Use your knowledge of individual differences and cultural diversity to analyse
why some colleagues appear to be more motivated and committed than others
to their work
Argue the importance of initiatives such as Investors in People
Present your ideas and arguments in a clear, coherent and structured way
You may well have come up with a different set. That's fine, and alerts us to the
argument for ensuring that the tutor (and where possible in negotiation with the
actual students) should be responsible for writing the learning outcomes. In the
example above, the course tutor or students may not have wanted to talk about,
say, Investors in People as part of the learning. If it is specified as a learning
outcome they would have to; otherwise, the learning outcome may not be
assessable.
There is no magic formula for writing learning outcomes. Nor is it a difficult or
mysterious process. Some people may recall when writing aims and objectives was
a challenge, and now, after some practice, it is a routine activity they go through in
the production of their course outline or syllabus. With practice, this will be
equally true of writing learning outcomes. Have a go at writing your own. And if
you are not sure, show them to a colleague or your programme manager for
confirmation that they are appropriate.
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What are learning outcomes?
List of verbs for use in writing learning outcomes
For Knowledge
arrange
order
define
recognise
duplicate
label
recall
list
repeat
memorise
name
state
relate
reproduce
**
For Comprehension
classify
locate
describe
recognise
discuss
report
explain
restate
express
review
identify
select
indicate
translate
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For Application
apply
operate
choose
schedule dramatise
illustrate
use
practice demonstrate
sketch
employ
solve
interpret
write
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For Analysis
analyse
differentiate appraise discriminate
calculate
distinguish
categorise
examine
compare
experiment
contrast
question
criticise
test
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For Synthesis
arrange
formulate
assemble
manage
collect
organise
compose
plan
construct
prepare
create
propose
design
write
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For Evaluation
appraise
judge
argue
predict
assess
rate
attach
score
choose
select
compare
support
estimate
evaluate
**
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What are learning outcomes?
Section 4
How do you assess learning outcomes?
In many ways writing learning outcomes is the easy part of their use. Identifying
assessment criteria and designing assessment strategies based on learning
outcomes is more challenging.
It may not always be necessary to assess each and every learning outcome in every
kind of learning event. For example, in the case of a half – or full-day workshop, to
spend time engaged in assessment of learning may feel to be disproportionate to
the total amount of time available for learning. If the programme is not
accredited, then more informal checks on learning can be made, which may, for
example, use self-assessment. The concluding comments to the day might include
something like:
‘On your way home this evening reflect back on the learning outcomes that
were set for the day, and consider how far you think those outcomes have
been achieved’.
More formally, such statements could be tied in with the evaluation of the day. So
the participants might be asked either verbally on through a questionnaire:
‘The learning outcomes specified for today were a, b, c and d. How far have
each of these been achieved, do you think?’
In linking learning outcomes to assessment of learning, we need to suspend our
preconceptions about what are good assessment practices. Many automatically
turn to conventional assessment tools without really asking why, say, examinations
or essays. Their reliability and validity is, it is assumed, well tried and tested, and
there is little point in innovating new assessment techniques for the sake of it.
Taken to its extreme, it is possible to identify programmes of learning that are
driven by the assessment strategy. Unseen examination papers, for example, often
need to be produced and agreed with an external examiner months before a course
is due to finish. The tutor has to determine what the issues are still to be raised,
and quite often the curriculum content is thereafter decided in the knowledge of
what questions have been asked on the examination paper. There is always the
danger of the tail wagging the dog.
As Battersby (1997) comments:
If we really wish to achieve complex but worthy educational outcomes, we
should make sure that our assessment tools not only do not pervert the
process, but actually enhance it. Given that one of the main advantages of
moving to outcomes is to enable us to realise curriculum-wide goals and
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What are learning outcomes?
disciplinary integration, we must be sure that our assessment instruments
really measure whether we are attaining these goals.
The notion of 'authentic' assessment has already been mentioned. Battersby uses
the term to refer to the necessity of creating assessment tools that 'really test
whether students have developed the intended skills and understanding' which
should be integrated in the 'use of their knowledge outside of school'. Far from
stifling creativity, learning outcomes stimulate it, especially in designing and
innovating new ways of undertaking authentic assessment.
The determination of the assessment strategy is a derivative process. The flow of
decision-making flows from the agreed purpose or course aims. As already
implied, this is an iterative process, and does not mean that those aims may be
subject to change by considerations of the assessment strategy, but it they are
the starting point.
In formulating learning outcomes it has been argued that they must be measurable
and their assessment feasible. Moreover, and perhaps more obviously, they must
be coherent. There is no value in assessing knowledge, skills nor understanding
that are not identified through learning outcomes.
To go back to the unseen examination as an example. If one of the learning
outcomes stresses the ability to work to tight deadlines and under pressure, then
one way of testing that might be to use unseen timed examinations to measure
learners' ability to respond to pressure. However, we would need to bear in mind
that the ability to do examinations also tests other skills, knowledge and attributes
such as memory. Unless our learning outcomes also include the ability to store and
recall information from memory then there might be more appropriate ways of
testing the ability to work under pressure. It could be that learning outcomes are
amended to include this aspect to be learned, but it would need to be accompanied
with a change in the course content, to build time into the course for learners to
find out how to do examinations and to practice the skills needed.
To illustrate these points about assessment let us go back to our example.
Psychology at Work
Aim
To examine the ways in which psychological theories and principles can be applied to
working in organisations and to the world of work generally.
Objectives

Identify and critically discuss current issues in personnel selection and
assessment, motivation, job satisfaction, organisations, ergonomics, training and
development, health and safety.

Support and develop study skills, including note taking and essay writing
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What are learning outcomes?
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Promote students' confidence in presenting their own ideas and in critical
thinking
Provide equal opportunities to all students irrespective of race, gender, class,
sexual orientation, religion, disability, age or political beliefs
Learning outcomes
By the end of this course, you will be able to
Distinguish at least three psychological theories that you can apply to your own work
context
Critically analyse a successful personnel selection interview using psychological
theory to understand why it was a success
Use your knowledge of individual differences and cultural diversity to analyse why
some colleagues appear to be more motivated and committed than others to their
work
Argue the importance of initiatives such as Investors in People
Present your ideas and arguments in a clear, coherent and structured way
Write down the assessment strategy would you use and why? Bear in mind an
assessment strategy could be made up of one or more assessment tools, methods
or instruments such as essays, examinations, projects, presentations, multiple
choice tests, and so on. In real circumstances you might also need to consider
level and the currency of credits if the learning is accredited, since assessment is
sometimes part of the equation, not just number of learning hours.
Compare your ideas with this suggestion:
Workbased learning project:
a) In a workplace with which you are familiar, undertake an analysis of one of the
following
personnel selection interview
job satisfaction
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organisational leadership and management structures
office arrangements, layouts and communication channels
Investors in People
Health and safety policies and practices
b) Write a 3,000 word essay that
(i) sets the context of the workplace
(ii) defines the issues found in workplace as compared with those found in
the literature on the subject
(iii) shows a critical awareness of the impact of individual difference and
cultural diversity
c) Prepare and deliver a 10 minute presentation to the class that compares the
ways three different psychological perspectives would interpret your analysis and
findings.
Are any of the learning outcomes not being tested by this proposed assignment?
Would any of the course objectives be left undemonstrated or redundant?
Would the assessment be able to lead to a reliable and valid conclusion that the
course aim has (or has not, in some cases) been met?
Is the assignment likely to be realistic and feasible?
Do you have any concerns or objections? How would you improve the suggested
assignment to address your concerns?
This approach enhances the coherence and consistency between aim, objectives
and learning outcomes. However, it is not yet complete. We still need to specify
the criteria by which we are going to mark or grade the written assignment and the
presentation. And we have to ensure that the assessment is carried out at the
appropriate level. In part this is reflected by the choice of active verbs and use
of adverbs chosen to write the learning outcomes and the assessment tasks. In
the written part of the assignment, the first part invites description. The
assessment criteria can determine how that part of the assignment is marked or
graded. Presumably, given the word length, advice should be given on how much
space should be given over to this description of the context. Weaker students
will tend to spend longer on this than on the analysis. The analysis asks for a
comparison with the issues identified in the literature. Research skills (both in
the workplace and in the library) are being tested here, which do not appear in the
learning outcomes. Taking notes and writing an essay does. The emphasis on
comparison is an analytic skill – not as high in the taxonomy as synthesis or
evaluation skills, but beyond describing and classifying.
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If the course was operating at postgraduate level, the tasks would have to be
rewritten so that the learners could demonstrate synthetic skills as an outcome, or
even evaluative skills. The presentation for example could ask the learner to
evaluate, rather than compare the utility of three different psychological theories.
Note the use of the adverb 'critically'. This adds to level required. Those who
are not critical in their essay may still do enough to pass, but may not achieve the
higher grades of merit or distinction that are reserved for those that do show
evidence of critical awareness of individual differences and diversity.
This is an illustrative example, and does not claim to be the best nor only way of
assessing the learning outcomes. The choice of assessment strategies is typically
complex and constrained by institutional procedures and resources. Course
specific learning outcomes must, however, be the primary consideration.
Finally, this section has not said anything about different modes of assessment.
We know there are diagnostic, formative and summative functions of assessment.
These apply to assessment by learning outcomes as much as any other approach to
assessment. Just because the focus is on outcomes does not necessarily mean
that the assessment should be left to the end. In some cases that may be
appropriate, especially where learning needs to be integrated. However, as courses
build up, different learning outcomes would be achievable at different stages. An
earlier model suggested that some people might try to identify learning outcomes
for each and every class. In such circumstances, given the large number of
learning outcomes that may need to be assessed over the programme, some might
be identified as diagnostic, others formative and the rest as summative. A version
of learning outcomes is utilised in, for example, the acquisition of National
Vocational Qualifications. The category of 'not yet achieved' is favoured over the
more brutal and terminal 'failed'. This document has stressed that one of the
advantages of learning outcomes approach is its flexibility, and learning outcomes
can be assessed in different ways at different times, as specified in a clearly
thought out assessment strategy.
Assessment is typically carried our by tutors or other designated assessors. Some
more innovative approaches utilise peer assessment, and there is increasing use of
self assessment. For a range of reasons the Faculty of Continuing Education has
introduced a mode of self assessment. The first attempt was not entirely
successful, partly because it conflated assessment and evaluation (which are not
the same thing). It also struggled because in the need to be applicable to the
whole diverse provision it had to find the common denominator, which left the
assessment at a very general level, not doing justice to the specifics of any course
or learning event. Two alternative strategies emerged. The first was to abandon
any intention of standardising the self assessment, and allow each course to design
its own. This has problems both of standardisation and inequity.
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Course aims
Course
objectives
Curriculum
content
Learning
outcomes
Teachng
methods
Assessment
Strategy
Assessment
Criteria
Assessment
Tasks
Assessment
Methods
Tools
instruments
Awarding Bodies
Standards Agencies
Quality Assurance
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An alternative strategy is to standardise around the notion of learning outcomes.
Providing all courses and learning activities expressed in terms of learning
outcomes, the standardisation is in the question how far have the learning
outcomes (however many, and whatever they are) been achieved?
Whether or not we think this is all a good idea or not, the Quality Assurance
Agency is committed to a programme specification built around learning outcomes,
and will expect to see all our provision expressed in these terms. In most recent
draft documentation concerning the programme specification, the QAA (2000)
says:
Formal and effective procedures should exist in all institutions for:



the approval of new programmes of study;
the subsequent monitoring of their effectiveness in achieving stated aims
and the success of students in attaining the stated learning outcomes;
the review of the continuing validity of those aims and outcomes.
The QAA expects to see
Design criteria
The following points may be regarded as a starting point for reflection on
approaches to programme design. They are intended to assist institutions develop
their own guidance which will promote good practice in the design of programmes
to ensure that standards are set appropriately and intended learning outcomes
specified accordingly.
Level
Consideration should be given to the level of a programme and to the level of the
stated learning outcomes at any named stages in the programme. A level is an
indicator of the relative demand, complexity, depth of study and learner autonomy
involved in a programme. Various systems are currently in use to identify levels,
including descriptors indicating the intellectual and skill attainment expected of
students. The introduction of the national qualifications frameworks will assist
institutions to define the level of their programmes.
Progression
Consideration should be given to the way in which the curriculum promotes an
organised progression so that the demands on the learner in intellectual challenge,
skills, knowledge, and learning autonomy increase.
Balance
Consideration should be given to the balance within the programme of a number of
elements, typically academic and practical elements, a concern for personal
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development and academic outcomes and a determination of breadth and depth of
the subject material to be included in the programme.
Flexibility
The range of requirements of learners likely to enter the programme should be
considered.
Coherence
Consideration should be given to the overall coherence and intellectual integrity of
the programme. The programme should be designed in a way that will ensure the
student's experience has a logic and integrity that are clearly linked to the
purpose of the programme.
Integrity
The expectations given to student and others about the intended outcomes of the
programme should be honest and deliverable. Consideration should be given to the
feasibility of attainment of the outcomes.
Points of reference
Internal and external points of reference should be used to inform the design of
the programme. External reference points might be provided by a subject
benchmark statement, information about similar or parallel programmes elsewhere
or expectations of professional or statutory regulatory bodies, or employer
expectations (for example as set out in occupational standards). In a student
negotiated programme, an inherent part of the negotiation process will involve the
student and tutor in designing the programme, taking into consideration the
intended level of the award and jointly agreeing the relevant sources of reference.
In the quality assurance process, institutions should monitor the success of their
programmes:



to ensure that programmes remain current and valid in the light of developing
knowledge in the discipline, and practice in its application,
to evaluate the extent to which the intended outcomes are being attained by
students,
to evaluate the continuing effectiveness of the curriculum and of assessment in
relation to the intended outcomes.
This is the bottom line.
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References and further reading
J. Allan (1996), ‘Learning outcomes in higher education’ Studies in Higher
Education, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 93-108
Mark Battersby (1997), 'Outcomes -based education: a college faculty
perspective'. http://lists.ctt.bc.ca/lo/lqfeb97.html
Mark Battersby (1999), ‘So what’s a learning outcome anyway?’
http://www.ctt.bc.ca/lo/sowhatsa.html
N. Entwhistle (1992), The impact of teaching and learning outcomes in higher
education: a literature review. CVCP, Sheffield
Alan Jenkins and David Unwin (1996), 'How to write learning outcomes'
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/education/curricula/gisc/units/format/outcomes.html
H. G. McIntosh and D. L. Nuttall (1981) Curriculum evaluation and assessment in
educational institutions. Block 4 Measuring learning outcomes. Open University,
Milton Keynes
R. F. Melton (1997) Objectives, competences and learning outcome: developing
instructional materials in open and distance learning. Kogan Page, London
Evelyn Murray (1993) 'Assessing outcomes in the education of adults: a seminar
organised by the Working Men's College and WEA London District June 1993'.
Adults Learning, October, p.p49-50
Sue Otter (1992) Learning outcomes in higher education: a development project
report. UDACE/Employment Department, Leicester
Quality Assurance Agency (2000), Code of practice for the assurance of academic
quality and standards in higher education: Programme approval, monitoring and
review. Draft, 3 April. http://www/qaa.ac.uk/COPapproval/introduction.html
Unit for the Development of Adult Continuing Education (1989) Understanding
learning outcomes: a development paper. NIACE, Leicester
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