THE QUESTION OF THE QUALITY IN THE RESEARCH IN DIDACTICS:
THE CASE OF THE RESEARCH IN DIDACTICS OF SCIENCES AND
TECHNIQUES IN FRANCE
Pr. Joël LEBEAUME
STEF ENS Cachan INRP Universud Paris
lebeaume@stef.ens-cachan.fr
with the collaboration of
Philippe VARRIN
Paper presented at the European Conference on Educational Research, University of
Ghent, 19-21 September 2007
1. INTRODUCTION
In the analyses preoccupied by "Enhance Based Research" five major critiques are mentioned:
1) the lack of discussions about the researches that shares the same preoccupation, 2) the
ideological foundations of these researches, 3) the lack of consistency in the research process
implemented, 4) the methodological choices that often privilege the qualitative analyses and
5) the diffusion very confidential of the results (Scientific and Educational Vigil, 2006). These
reports, these judgments or these recommendations develop a discours which purpose in order
to control the research in an international perspective and to tempt to bring some argued
answers for the education progress from validated facts that would drive for example to the
generalization of the "good practices." Thus, the quality is taken in a particular sense that
valorizes the satisfaction of the identified or definied service functions by the institutions or
the research agencies .
In France, some of the previous points are also noted in the report concerning the the exam of
the these dissertations and the works of research of the candidates to the functions of teacherresearchers (Council National of the Universities, section sciences of the education, 2006).
These remarks are especially linked with the very big diversity of the researches papers that
doesn't appear in a canonical format but that are not for the marks of unquality. Contrary to a
widespread idea, Reuter (2007), for example, considers that the researches are not ignored
within the community.
In this context, for the research in didactics of sciences and techniques, the presented analysis
wishes to examine one of the critiques more especially concerning the process of research.
2. DIDACTIC OF THE DISCIPLINES: FOUNDATIONS AND PROBLEMS
In France, the vast domain of research labelled by "didactics of the disciplines" is organized
according to the disciplines or school subjects (math didactics, didactic of French, didactic of
the languages, didactic of the history-geography- citizenship education) with different and
specific questions linked with their historic foundations and their social and educational
stakes and their scientific stakes. The history of the didactics (Sarremejane, 2003) reveals
these contrasts of their respective geneses and their specific theoretical positionings that
valorize for example for the didactics of the sciences, the anchorage on the historic and
genetic epistemology of the sciences. The founding relations between "school disciplines” and
problematic of researches imply the development of theoretical frames that take into account
the specificity of the disciplines or the contents and the stakes of their teaching-training.
These relations are for example at the origin of the strong discussion of the concepts of
"didactic transposition" and "social practices of reference".
The foundations of the didactics of the disciplines oppose the perspective of a general
didactics. This debated issue questions on one hand the identification of the possible
intersections of the didactic (Raisky and Clot, 1996), the inclusions of a compared didactics
(Haberdasher; Schubauer-Leoni & Sensevy, 2002) or on the other hand the epistemological
specificities of each didactics (IUFM of Aquitaine, 2005). However, the social stakes that
regain the domains of research sometimes have the tendency to weaken this epistemological
vigilance and to suggest or to borrow an available theoretical frame that has the tendency to
transform the school disciplines themselves. The attempt of a compared didactics (Mercier
and al., 2002) examines the didactics of the only point of view of the math didactics and its
theoretical justifications for example. However, this perspective that essentially privileges the
common and disregard the differences risk to ruin the originalities, for example of the
teaching of the languages, of the vocational skills or of the visual or musical arts (Milli, 2006)
whose contents are with difficulty assimilated to knowledge in text.
The research labelled "didactic of the sciences and techniques" are also susceptible of this
alignment that would limit their scientific contributions. On the contrary, the excessive
particularization could generate some micro-communities according to the narrow domains of
the research and therefore without real external discussion.
In this aim of identifiation of the tendencies in "didactics of the sciences and techniques", the
major preoccupation is located on the constructions of the problematic of the researches, their
theoritical positioning, the consistency of the research processes and the interactions to the
scale of these didactics, of the didactics of the disciplines, of the sciences of the education and
more generally of the human and social sciences. This exam only considers the scientific
aspects of the research. It doesn't concern the question of the diffusion of researches that
would suggest the exam of the offer and of the demand, especially the institutional demand.
3. THE ANALYSE OF THE REFERENCES OF THE PAPERS
In the presented perspective, the purpose is to put in evidence the tendencies of the researches
of the community of the didactics of the sciences and techniques. It’s important and necessary
to signal distribution unbalanced notably between the three domains of the physical and
chemical sciences, of the sciences of life and the universe and the technical geniuses or the
technology, in reason of the historic construction of these specialized fields.
The congres of the “association of the researchers of this domain” (Ardist) constitute
privileged moments to seize, certainly at one time, the new productions finished lately. In this
regard, the proceedings of these conferences constitute important documents because their
gather the selected texts by the scientific committee according, for each of them, to the review
of two experts who indicate the wished modifications and give their agreement for the
published version. However, these validated scientific papers are not homogeneous in reason
of the absence of limitation of the number of references and the absence of a normalized
format concerning the text organization although it is recommended the presentation of the
main usual parts (introduction, problematic and research question, methodology, results,
discussion and conclusion). In a similar way, the scientific meetings of the community of the
specialized researchers in the technology and the technological disciplines also constitute an
important source.
The presented survey thus focuses on the Ardist Conference (2005) and on the symposium of
didactics of the technology and the technological disciplines (2007). On the one hand, the
analysis of these papers focuses on the set of the references mentioned in a quantitative and
qualitative perspective. The digitalization of the bibliographies enables their sorting according
to the frequencies of the quotes and contributes to identify the convened references and to
characterize them. On the other hand, the analysis concerns the function of these references.
To this effect, about one text on three has been consulted, chosen according to 1) the
distinction between the authors (students researchers, statutory researchers, groups of
research), 2) between the domains (didactic of the chemical and physical sciences, of the
sciences of life and the earth, of the techniques, educational technologies), 3) between the
number of quoted references and 4) between the nature of the research presented (descriptive,
experimental, engineering). The analysis of the references then focuses on the location of their
place in the text while distinguishing 1) the parts that are the problematic, the methodology,
the results and their analysis, 2) the various modes of their solicitations by the authors. This
analysis is completed by the identification of the nature of these references (thesis, scientific
papers, pedagogical documents, schoolbooks). It is not therefore a measure but an exam of the
nature and the functions of the references.
4. TENDANCIES
4.1. Presentation of the corpus
The studied corpus is composed of 60 papers : 55 communications and 5 posters (Ardist
2005) and 22 papers (DT 2007). In the two cases, the research directors are represented very
weakly to the profit of the researchers and students researchers. The groups of researchers and
the collective researches are also very minority. They correspond to interdisciplinary research
on contract (Action concerted, technological research team) that concern conceptions of
computer environments, researches associating psychologists and didactics researchers, for
example. Their co-signed communications distinguish themselves of the other texts to several
authors (PhD students and directors). The following pictures only present the analysis of the
Ardist conference, the DT symposium being considered like a counterpoint of the analysis.
Students
researchers
Mr.
of Directors
conferences
research
Master,
students
29
14
N
communications
= 55
Posters
5
2
of Other
(teachers
trainers,
teachers
partners)
5
Teams
5
n=5
These papers raise according to the thematic of the research of the didactics of the different
scientific disciplines according to the following distribution.
SVT
Sphys Chi T
TIC
math
Éduc to
media
Total: 63 15
29
3
5
2
5
4
This distribution presents the domains of research connected to disciplinary contents. The
total (n = 63) is slightly superior to the number of texts because some papers approach several
teachings such as the teaching-learning of the angles by the approach of the intended shades
or the use of the technological tools in a disciplinary domain. The column “Education to” is
distinguished because of its undisciplinary approach although the more of them is often
connected in the SVT as the ecology, health, the sexual education.
4.2. Quantitative analysis of the references mentioned
For the Ardist Conference, the laying down flat and the numeric treatment indicate 815
references, either an average of about 14 by paper. If a communication is without reference
and if another indicates 31, the scattering is relatively big as the following histogram indicates
it. For the DT symposium, the average is lower because of the constraint of the acts (7,5) but
with a big scattering also.
8
Fréquence
7
nb de textes
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
nb références
The most important element of this analysis concerns the number of quotes. On the 815
totaled references, 709 are only mentioned one time (Ardist).
Nb
References
Nb of papers
5 times
1
5
4
6
24
3
5
15
2
31
62
1
709
N = 60
Nb references
5
24
15
62
709
N = 815
Among the 815 references mentioned in the pares, 43 references are mentioned thus in several
papers, either about 5%. The compared analysis for the DT symposium indicates the same
tendency although it appears the determining orientations of each of the laboratories
distinctly.
The references signalled 4 or 5 times appear as fundamental works (synthesis notes, general
manuals). Among these, are signalled a manual of didactics of the sciences, a work of
psychology (Thought and language, Vygotsky), a work of synthesis of didactics of the
physical sciences and psychology and more curiously two founding books of the mathematics
didactics (theory of the didactics situations, the didactic transposition). If these last references
indicate specific theoretical frame to the works of the domain of the math teaching also
presented in this symposium, it remains more astonishing than the title "the didactic
transposition to the test" is not mentioned also considering the discussion of the problematic
specific to the didactics of the sciences and techniques at the origin of this book.
From the more qualitative point of view, the authors mention acts of symposia, books,
chapters of books, papers of scientific journals, master dissertations, thesis dissertations or
empowerment to direct some research and finally different papers of various statutes. The
quantitative analysis of the references indicates:
1. that the three quarters of the references are papers in French language, the other
quarter being nearly fully papers in English language;
2. that some more one reference on three is a paper in scientific journal;
3. that a few less one reference out of three is a book;
4. that about one reference out of fifteen is a thesis dissertation or one memory of
empowerment;
5. that about one reference out of ten is a communication in acts of symposium;
6. that about one reference out of ten is a book chapter;
7. and that about one reference out of ten is a different statute paper (master
dissertation, journal of institutions of diffusion of the sciences and techniques). For
the DT symposium, this last point is the only nuance: one reference out of five is a
text that doesn't have the scientific publication statute, in reason probably of the
weak number of publications in this domain.
The finer analysis reveals that the references to the articles published in the scientific journals
distribute themselves fairly between journal in English language and in French language.
Without surprise, the journal specialized in Science Education or Technology Education and
in Didactics of the sciences are mentioned at the rate of about a third for the publications in
English and close to half for the French publications. The most important element is the very
weak reference to the more general journals of sciences of the education that only represent
about 5% of the mentioned French journals, less 1% of the set of the journals and a petty part
on the whole of the references. The same remark is worth for the references to the other
didactics.
4.3. Qualitative analysis of the references
The analysis of about a third of the papers chosen according to their diversity (statute of the
author, number of references, domain of research) and the more summary consultation of the
other, reveals some tendencies on the place and the role of these references. It is important to
underline that the papers of the master students are marked distinctly by the stake of
appropriation of the research field and therefore of general references such as the books of
didactics.
The references generally convened in the beginning of the papers
In the big majority of the papers, the references are localized in the beginning of each of the
texts corresponding to the presentation of the research and the problematic. The references are
very rarely situated in the methodology, the presentation of the results or their discussion. For
the methodology, it is then for example about general books or more specialized books on the
analysis of content or the interviews. It is very unusually research papers that describe and
argue the choices and the methodological adaptations for an identified research or that discuss
the limits of it. The techniques of compilation and analysis of data are specified but without
real distance of the methodological tools. When it is about references mentioned in the
terminal part of the text, it is generally about situating the validated results in relation to
others and therefore to specify the scientific contribution.
A localization of “research on”
In the very big majority of the cases, these references contribute to localize the presented
research in the domain. The authors proceed then by progressive reduction, anxious to
indicate their preoccupation on a particular aspect of a field identified. The texts are then very
general and the references delimit research.
"Indeed, the research concerning this teaching showed difficulties of conceptual
order (6 references) that can be linked with the didactic transposition (3
references) or again the influences socio-cultural factors (3 references)"
"Since the years 1970, the research on the conceptions (3 references)."
" to construct a scientific knowledge in socio-cognitive conflicts (1 reference)"
The references then are marks for the author and for the reader of the studied theme.
However, the relevance of these references is questionable in reason of the mixing of very
general papers, education books, teaching papers. This juxtaposition makes prevail the
assembly by association of authors and speeches very contrasted, without assuring a
consistency. The juxtaposition of a precise paper and a general pedagogy book has the
tendency to weaken the chosen orientation. In the same way, the association of a word, as in
the last example, to an author whose contribution is not central on the question, recovers more
from the anecdotal description than the scientific reference.
This worry of localization of the presented research sometimes aims to situate it in progress in
the temporal process of research. The author's references himself contributes to specify the
previous reference marks, the continuity of the committed research and his recent evolutions.
The references are also the returns allowing the reader interested to take this history in
progress and the fundamental points considered like acquirement by the author.
Of the convened authors more frequently than of the convened research
The references are also, as some critiques underline it, of reverences. The presented research
leans then against a recognized author who is susceptible to guarantee the theoretical
construction.
"It is while placing us in the theoretical setting of. (2 references) that we are interested in the
scientific trainings of it. in particular"
This sentence its textual environment seem to forbid all critical perspective and argumentative
on the relevance of this setting for the led research. This affirmed positioning then avoids all
controversy in the continuation of the paper that of the lightings could bring more contrasted.
If of this shape of writing can be consisted for students researchers who appropriate the
problematic of a laboratory or leaders precisely, it is with difficulty for statutory researchers
whose mission is to participate in the renewal of the problematic. The weak part of the texts
of research directors doesn't permit to compare these writings and to discern the possible
contrasts of it.
In other cases, the loan of theoretical frame, although argued not more, is clarified as a course
that presents the general orientations and the lexicon. The author informs the reader then on
the vocabulary and not on the scientific stakes of research. But this effort of recognition
cannot confound itself with a scientific development.
Sometimes and more distinctly in the papers of the students, the references appear in a sort of
labyrinth of words and authors. Some sentences draw a contour of research then by
association of words that send back less distinctly to the concepts when the references are of
very various statutes.
"So that there is problem it must have a question that has the sense there and
require an answer that is not known, otherwise there is only recall of knowledge
memorized (1 reference), the objective being the training of a scientific knowledge
in one reasonable time, it is in situation-problems (1 reference), founded on an
objective-obstacle (1 reference) that the pupil is going to be able to construct and
to structure the scientific knowledge (1 reference) ".
The reference to these pre-established frames and recognized by the community is then
susceptible to provide a space of research especially aiming to construct facts validated in a
domain particularly circumscribes. However, the absence of back at the end of paper on this
theoretical justification tends to valorise an applied scientific posture.
Balance of the “research on” or state of the question
Among the set of the texts of these proceedings, the construction of the problematic is
presented very weakly. Indeed, the papers privilege the balances of the researches at the states
of the art or to the review of question. So these two paragraphs distinguish themselves: for
one it’s a panorama of the research on the domain and the other refines the question of
research from the results of researches.
"If the themes of the refraction and the color led to historic analyses (3 ref), lil is
only explored partially by the didactics. Indeed, most research on situations of
refraction concern the formation of the pictures by a lentil (4 réf). The majority of
works on the color puts in play of the distributing opaque objects or the colorful
filters (3 réf). Only some research concern the prisms (2 réf) or are interested at
the origin of the colors produced by scattering (1 réf) or mention difficulties bound
to the concepts of monochromatic light (1 réf) or superposition of lights (1 réf). "
"Several works in didactics of the chemistry had for object the survey of the conceptions of
the pupils and students about the concepts of acid and basis. In the
empiric register, the works of X, OF IT, Z, one put in evidence that for many pupils
acids are characterized by their properties organoleptiques or by their strength
and their danger. W, N, noted that that the pupils have few ideas on the bases. This
observation is confirmed by G and by the survey of J that raises that the students
give several examples of acids easily but that 43% only arrive to give the name of
two bases. This bad perception of the basis concept is interpreted by the fact that
the pupils have few personal experiences of that that are a basis, term little
employee in the daily language. In the register of the models, the studies of R, K
and L, show that the pupils have some difficulties with the notion of PH. We make
the hypothesis that, because of the ubiquity of the concept of acid and the absence
of the one of basis in the current language, the effect of the teaching will make
itself feel more with regard to the notion of acid and that his/her/its effect on the
knowledge of these concepts will be of short length. "
5. WHICH SCIENTIFIC CONTRIBUTIONS?
The analysis of the communications published of the community of the researchers of the
sciences and the techniques and the most reduced community of the researchers of the
techniques to one of their recent scientific meetings indicates some prominent points
susceptible to be interpreted of the point of view of the quality of research.
The first distinctly identifiable point by the references is the great diversity of the problematic
of research in their typology (Astofi, 1993), in their theoretical justifications and in their
thematic. This diversity is fundamentally bound to the extent of the domains of the teaching
of the sciences and the techniques, the school levels and the weak number of researchers. The
intersections of the preoccupations about the questioning in terminal scientific, of the
knowledge implemented by the teachers, of the simulation in mechanics, of the trainings in
the classes of disturbed pupils are thus rare. The unity only is about the global thematic of the
research of the sciences and techniques and their generally chosen epistemological,
psychological and educational perspectives. The references are then very disconnected and
clean to each of the research. This severance cannot be interpreted like a mark of unquality.
The second point concerns the function of the references. The analysis tends to show that the
references assure various functions, notably of positioning and localization in a field with
sometimes a role of bets in conformity with the scientific writings. Numerous publications in
the English language journals obey this requirement indeed or to this custom that consists
mainly in sending back the reader to other publications without specifying the strictly
scientific function of it. The conventions of shape of the text are then susceptible to substitute
itself for the strictly scientific stakes of theoretical confrontation, of discussion of the facts
constructed and validated or of controversy. The absence of critique within this "normal
science" in the sense of Kuhn, risk then to legitimize to encourage the use of the support to
the paradigmatic positions or even but also to lock the researchers in routines. This sort of
prudence can contribute to the local isolation of small groups and therefore to the constitution
of relatively mute communities or subjects to all variations bound to the multiple influences.
The social working of research is then susceptible to substitute itself for the scientific working
whose quality can then be contested.
The third point is about the report of the very weak explicit relations of the researchers
community of the sciences and techniques to the other didactics and to the sciences of the
education. This point is important because the didactics researchers doesn't address whereas
to their small community. But the previous analysis has the tendency to indicate that it is
about a constellation without strong interactions. The relatively isolated researches then are at
a time or even susceptible of multiple critiques because of their closing of their detachment of
the major preoccupations of the persons responsible of the education.
These three major points are the sources of the external judgments of the quality of the
research in didactics of the sciences and techniques. They put in question the criteria of
judgment of the research in educational science and call to a vigilance of the community
submitted to control the unit among the diversity of the scientific productions. The judgment
of the research of the external point of view of their quality can substitute itself however for
their judgment of the internal point of view.
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