Department of Politics and International Studies
University of Hull
HOW TO WRITE THE PERFECT ESSAY
DR COLIN TYLER
CONTENTS
Summary
Introduction: (a) How long should it take to write an essay?
(b) What is an essay?
(c) Essay writing is both a craft and an art
(d) Marking criteria
(e) There are no right answers, only well argued ones
Stage 1:
How to pick and interpret your question
(a) Pick your question carefully
(b) Interpreting the question
Stage 2:
How to start your research
(a) Why do research at all?
(b) Be selective
(c) Research materials
Stage 3:
Note taking
Stage 4:
Construct your plan
Stage 5:
The body of the essay
(a) Draft a very brief introduction
(b) Start to write the body
(c) Quotations
(d) Now review what you have written
Stage 6:
Draft the conclusion
Stage 7:
Check your work
Stage 8:
Rewrite the introduction
Stage 9:
Bibliography
Stage 10:
Proof-read the essay
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
Appendix E:
Appendix F:
Marking criteria
Legibility, layout and word-processing
Apparatus of scholarship
Plagiarism
Seminar preparation and presentation
Essay feedback form
SUMMARY
Tell them what you’ll tell them (introduction),
tell them it (body), tell them what you’ve told them (conclusion)
Stage 1: Pick and interpret your question
(a) Pick your question very carefully:
(i) don’t just go for topics you know something about already.
(ii) pick a manageable topic.
(b) Interpret the question very carefully – irrelevant answers get no marks:
(i) be honest with yourself about what the question is asking.
(ii) think carefully about each phrase and each word.
(iii) make a written note of what the question is asking.
Stage 2: Start your research
(a) Put a lot of effort into your research, you must reach a reasoned and defensible position.
(b) Be selective: at Level 1 read between 4 & 7 substantial articles, book chapters, and so on.
(c) Research materials: use a range of sources, including the books, journals and the Internet
Stage 3: Take notes
(a) be precise, concise and accurate in your note taking.
(b) be selective – think about the question, don’t just write out everything you read.
Now stop reading. Leave it a day or so before you move on to stage 4.
Stage 4: Construct your plan
(a) Re-read the question
(b) Brainstorm
(c) Structure your ideas into a coherent plan for an answer to the question
(d) Check against your notes.
(e) ‘is this answer coherent and complete?’, ‘is there a better way to approach the question?’
(f) Be honest with yourself.
Once you have a detailed plan, put it to one side for an hour or so.
Stage 5: The body of the essay
(a) Draft a very brief introduction
(b) Start to write the body: be focused on the question and concise in your expression.
(c) Quotations: be very careful: plagiarism = zero mark, or expulsion from your degree
(d) Now review carefully what you have written
Stage 6: Draft the conclusion: should be a mirror of the introduction (Stage 8 below)
Put the essay to one side for twenty-four hours, and don’t think about it during that time.
Stage 7: Check your work
(a) Make sure that you say everything needed to make your argument
(b) Write in a style that is clear, precise lucid and engaging
(c) Cut out all the irrelevant material
(d) Cut out all the waffle
(e) Cut out all polemic and pretension
Stage 8: Rewrite the introduction
(a) Say why the question is important.
(b) List the different stages of your argument.
(c) Set out the conclusion you are going to reach
Stage 9: Write the bibliography – a poor bibliography will cost you marks.
Stage 10: Proof-read your essay – check for typos, poor expression, missing references.
2
HOW TO WRITE THE PERFECT ESSAY
Here are a few suggestions about how to write an essay. It can seem a relatively long
and demanding task. Don’t worry! - it will get better. If you have any problems,
then you can talk to your tutors, or to the University’s new Study Advice Centre
which is located in the Brynmor Jones Library (BJL) – just ask at the Enquiries Desk.
It is the individual student’s responsibility to know the University regulations on
layout, plagiarism, and so on. Do not rely on this document – the University
regulations, combined with the Department regulations, give the definitive position.
Introduction
(a) How long does it take to write an essay?
Meet all of your deadlines: tutors cannot give extensions on essays, although there
are procedures for the Department to consider very special cases. So make sure that
you hand all of your work in on time.
Plan your timetable carefully: allow absolutely no less than 7 full days to write each
1,500 word essay. Bearing in mind that you will have a number of pieces of work to
hand in each semester as well as a number of presentations to do, you should not bank
on having more than a fortnight for each essay.
(b) What is an essay?
An essay is a specific type of written, reasoned answer to a specific question which
aims to communicate that answer to intelligent readers who do not necessarily know
anything about the issues involved. All essays have three main sections (an
introduction, a body, and a conclusion), as well as a bibliography and a
comprehensive referencing system for its sources. For the moment, I want to
concentrate on the three main sections of every essay.
(1) Introduction: Approximately the first ten percent of your essay. It sets the scene
by making clear what you take the question to be asking and why is it important to
answer it; it tells the reader what your answer will be (your ‘thesis’); and
highlights the key claims that you will defend to justify that thesis.
(2) Body: This accounts for about the next eighty percent of the essay. The body is
where you develop your argument. It starts with the simplest matters (such as
definitions and the clarification of basic concepts), and builds in clear and yet
increasingly more complex stages until you arrive at your answer (thesis).
(3) Conclusion: The remainder of the essay. A ‘mirror image’ of the Introduction, in
that it too restates the question, reviews the key stages of your argument, and
shows that you have argued logically and convincingly for your thesis.
In short: tell them what you are going to tell them (introduction), tell them it
(body), and tell them what you told them (conclusion).
The most important thing to grasp about an essay is that it makes a logical case for
your answer to the question. Hence there are certain things that an essay is not:
3
(i)
(ii)
(c)
It is not merely the repetition of other people arguments or interpretations.
You must take a stand and develop your own position. While you must show
a good knowledge of the literature, other commentators should be argued for
and against, as appropriate.
It is not a polemic. You must make a logical, reasoned argument, and not
produce merely a knee-jerk or simplistic outburst. A logical argument can be
just as passionate as a polemic.
Essay writing is both a craft and an art
The next point to appreciate is that writing the perfect essay is in part a craft – it
requires you to develop certain skills, and to get into the habit of using them whenever
you write. To learn this craft, you must understand the purpose of all these recurring
facets (the three sections, bibliography and referencing), as well as master the
techniques for producing them in specific contexts.
Writing the perfect essay is in part an art as well. The best essays show flair, insight,
imagination and reasoned enthusiasm for the subject. They are creations, rather than
the result of simply applying certain techniques. Yet you must learn the techniques
before you can express your intellectual creativity in an essay.
That all sounds a bit pretentious. Yet there is an important element of truth in it. The
more flair and insight shown in your essay, the better your mark will tend to be. A
First must show an exceptional level of both, as well as executing the ‘craft’ elements
immaculately. Usually a 2i will execute the craft elements, although with less
evidence of an unusual level of insight.
Before developing this last point, one very common worry should be faced. Every
year a number of students go their tutors worried that they will never be able to show
flair or insight, because as soon as they think of a good idea they find out that
someone else has already had the same thought (and probably written a book on it!).
Don’t panic! Bear in mind the difference between an ‘original’ piece of work and an
‘independent’ one. Very few people (either commentators or students) write anything
truly ‘original’ (distinctive – an idea no one has ever had before). Yet it is enough to
have an ‘independent’ idea (an idea that you have thought up for yourself). It is
enough to have good ‘independent’ ideas which you string together to make a
convincing case. Where you find other people have had the same idea already,
acknowledge this in a footnote or endnote, pointing out that you thought of it
independently.
(d)
Marking criteria
A good place to start when thinking about how to approach your essay is with the
criteria against which your finished product will be marked. These are given at the
back of this booklet, in Appendix A.
As you can see from the appendix, the marker looks for a great many things: critical
awareness, sticking to the point, structuring your argument well, clear expression,
correct use of ‘the apparatus of scholarship’ (references, citations and bibliographies).
4
You should study these marking criteria very carefully. What they mean in practice
will become clear as you get more experience of writing essays at degree level. For
the moment, you must feel your way with the guidance of your tutors and your own
(developing) critical facilities.
(e) There are no right answers, only well argued ones
In spite of the fact that every essay has the basic features outlined above, there is no
magic formula for writing a perfect essay. The approach that you take in your
research (your research methodology), the resources you use, the way you structure
the essay, and so on, may all vary very considerably depending on how you interpret
the question and the case you want to make. In fact there are usually a number of
quite different ways in which you can approach any one question, all of which are
equally good.
The second point to think about is that there are no ‘objectively’ right answers. Does
this mean that anything goes? Not really, because some arguments are made in a
better way than others: they are clearer, show a deeper understanding of the issues
raised by the question and the problems that arise when trying to answer it, as well as
making a more convincing case.
The crucial thing is to show the reader that you have a good argument, which
means that you must show you have good reasons for arriving at your answer.
This is one reason why it is vital that you structure your essay well, and make each
stage of your argument clear to the reader as you go along (don’t just assume that they
know what the ‘missing’ stages of the argument are).
Even from these brief comments, you can see that you have a lot of freedom when
writing your essay. Nevertheless, freedom is not always a blessing. One danger is
that you go off at tangents, eventually leaving the question so far behind that you
reach the end of the essay and have not really developed an answer to the question
that was asked in the first place. This is one reason why you must plan your essay
before you start to write it.
Another danger of having such freedom when writing your essay is that you don’t
know what other people have said on what is initially such a vast subject. The library
contains a huge number of possible opinions on a great many possible questions. The
situation gets even more disorientating when you think about all the other resources
that are available, such as bookshops and of course the Internet. You should know
how to make efficient use all of these research tools by the time you complete
your degree.
5
STAGE 1:
HOW TO PICK AND INTERPRET YOUR QUESTION
(a)
Pick your question carefully
(i)
Do not just pick a particular question because you ‘already know a bit about
that’. The questions that at first seem to ask you about unfamiliar subjects
may turn out to be more interesting. Moreover, take this opportunity to
expand your knowledge. You may well gain a better background and higher
marks in other subjects as well!
Make sure that the topic is manageable. Do not pick a question that is very
wide-ranging. You can’t solve the world’s problems in one essay.
(ii)
Take the time to interpret the questions on offer before you make your final decision.
You may well save a lot of time in the long run, and will probably get a better mark.
(b)
Interpreting the question
In every batch of essays, there are a number where it is clear the student has spent a
long time thinking about what to write, has carried out a great deal of excellent
research, and has even produced some real insights, but still fails to get a good mark.
Often this is because they have not answered the question that has been asked.
Remember: The marker is not just assessing whether you have put in a lot of work,
or even whether you have written an intelligent essay. Certainly they are doing both
of these things, but foremost in their mind is, ‘does the essay answer the question?’
There are quite a few points to bear in mind here:
Don’ts:
 Do not try to twist the question into one that you wished you’d been asked, rather
than the one which you actually have been asked.
Dos:
 Do be honest with yourself – deep down, most people know when they are
twisting the question, or including digressions, or padding out the essay. The
marker will not fall for any of it.
 Do think very carefully about each phrase in the question.
 Do think very carefully about each of the key words. Think particularly carefully
about words and phrases such as:
‘Assess’: for example, ‘Assess the coherence of the UK’s defence policy
between 1979 and 1983.’ ‘Assess’ always means critically assess’.
You should set out and analyse the main features of the UK defence
policy clearly and without bias, then evaluate the key relationships
between them.
‘Discuss’: for example, ‘Discuss the role of pressure groups in the
constitutional reform of Scotland in the 1990s.’ ‘Discuss’ is a
dangerously vague word, in that you have to decide what the key
features are of the topic, then analyse them. Often it is included after
a quotation.
6
‘To what extent’: for example, ‘To what extent does Hobbes develop an
authoritarian theory of sovereignty?’ This phrase implies that there
are a number of competing factors involved, which you must weigh
carefully against one another.
‘Compare and contrast’: For example, ‘Compare and contrast the critiques of
the state developed by Hayek and Marx.’ Here you should present
the key features of one theory, then bring out the similarities of the
second, before then assessing their differences. The conclusion
weighs the relative importance of the similarities and differences,
which usually leads to a dull essay!
Think about the following essay question:
‘Is liberal democracy the best form of government?’
(i)
Get clear in your own mind what is meant by ‘liberal democracy’,
‘best’, and ‘government’.
(ii)
Take particular care with vague words like ‘best’. (The inclusion of the
word ‘best’ makes this a hard question to answer well.) In this context,
it could mean ‘most likely to produce a stable government’, or ‘most
likely to respect people’s rights’, or ‘most likely maximise personal
freedom’, or ‘most legitimate’. Remember: define/explain those
words which help you to make a clear and precise argument.
(iii) Then ask yourself what, e.g. ‘legitimate’ means, and so on
(iv)
Names like ‘liberal democracy’ can be explained by a list: e.g. in a
liberal democracy the rulers are elected by the people, on the basis of
‘one person, one vote’, for a limited period of time, after which there
must be another election; the state must respect the fundamental rights
of the individual (give examples of such rights), and so on.
(v)
You can say enough about some words with a short definition – but
make sure that you explain the definition if the question requires you to
do so.
(vi)
Other words are most clearly explained through examples – but make
sure that straightaway you make clear what general point comes out
of these examples.
(vii) Always ask yourself: ‘which particular techniques will give me the
clearest and deepest understanding of each particular key words?’
(viii) Look at Appendix F, which reproduces a blank essay feedback form:
what would you write about your own essay?
Finally: having taken such care, do not lose sight of the question when you start your
research. It is easy to be led astray when you start reading around the topic. Make a
written note of what you take the question to be asking and refer to it repeatedly
when writing your essay.
7
STAGE 2:
HOW TO START YOUR RESEARCH
(a)
Why do research at all?
Some people try to ‘wing it’ by reading through their lecture notes and handouts,
thinking about what was said in the seminars, and then just writing down their own
opinions. Such people rarely do well. This way of approaching an essay is little
better than writing down what ‘fat bloke down the pub’ thinks. You must read
around the subject, and think critically about what you have read.
‘Critical distance’ is vital. You must show the reader that you have taken a step back
from the commentators and critics, and judged them intelligently. Do you agree with
commentator X that Blair’s economic policy was the best we could have hoped for in
the circumstances? If you do (not), say why - show the reader that you have reasons
for (dis)agreeing with X.
You will not get a good mark if your essay is simply a précis what other people have
said, or if you do not give good reasons for supporting or disagreeing with a
particular position. You must present the reader with a carefully reasoned and
clear argument of your own.
So, confronting what previous commentators have written on a topic serves a number
of different functions:
(a) It forces you to consider other approaches to the question.
(b) It is a source of ideas about issues and arguments that you have missed.
(c) It enables you to clarify your position in both your own mind and that of
your readers by contrasting it with what other people have said.
In short, reading the literature forces you to refine and clarify your own ideas, as well
as the way you present those ideas.
(b)
Be selective
Wide reading is essential, but do not try to read everything you can find on the
subject. If you do:
(a) You will probably become confused:
(1) Different commentators will take very different approaches. Even
though this is the main reason for reading widely, you must keep your
reading within some limits. The more you read the more difficult it is
to see how the different approaches relate to one another. Stretch
yourself without giving yourself an impossible task.
(2) Different people define/use words differently. Again you need to
know of some such differences, but you must be sensible about how
many you try to marshal into an essay.
(b) You will spend too much time reading, and not enough time thinking
critically. For every essay, there are some students who come to the tutor
as the deadline is approaching, saying that they have been reading a lot,
but ‘just need a few more days to bring it all together.’ Such students
show poor time management, which outweighs their admirable erudition.
(Furthermore, it looks like they are afraid to take a stand on the issue.)
8
Remember: you get marks for making a reasoned independent argument –
not simply for regurgitating the opinions of people you have read.
For a 1,500 word essay at Level One, aim to read no less than 4 substantial pieces
(full length articles, book chapters, and so on), and probably no more than 7
substantial pieces. (The number of words changes with your level of study, as does
the number of substantial pieces you should read.)
(c)
Research materials
The following are the key places to look for research materials, in rough order of
importance for first-year undergraduates:
(i)
The module outline/reading list. All module reading lists make some
recommendations about what to read. This can come under many different
categories.
(a) Essential reading: For some modules, everyone is required to read exactly
the same book chapters or articles for each seminar. Of course you will
have done this reading before you choose your essay. Go back to this
reading when you start your research, and make careful notes once again –
you may see things in the reading that you missed the first time.
(b) Wider, or further, reading: The outline will give other readings for each
seminar. You should use this list as the starting point of your ‘fresh’
research. But think carefully about which of these readings is the most
useful – some of it will be more specialised than others, and so may not be
relevant to your particular essay question. Other further reading may be
directly on your essay topic. Given that probably you will not have a clear
idea about what you want to argue before you start your research, it is best
to begin with articles and chapters that take a wider focus, then hone it
down to more specialised reading as you become clear about the ‘shape’ of
your answer to the question.
(ii)
Pay attention to the library shelves near the recommended books. Can you see
anything else that looks relevant?
(iii) Bibliographies. Most books will include suggestions for further reading,
located either at the end of the whole book, or at the end of the particular
chapter. Make good use of these suggestions.
(iv)
References. When you find a good article or book, you can look at the
references they cite. Which ones look most relevant to your own topic?
(v)
Library catalogue. A keyword search on the library catalogue may well bring
up a number of books that are relevant to your essay.
 Be sensible but imaginative when choosing keywords. Look at the books
on your module outline and bibliographies for recurring keywords.
 Aim to be on the cutting edge of scholarship! As a very rough rule of
thumb, look first at the books that have been published most recently.
(vi)
‘Standard’ journals. Look at the key journals. Your seminar tutor will be
able to suggest ones that are especially relevant to your particular subject.
Important journals covering most of the discipline are Political Studies
(Periodicals floor, JA 1 P77), and Politics (Periodicals floor, JA 8 P74).
(vii) Standard reference works. Locate and use the standard reference works for
your subject, especially the relevant dictionaries and encyclopaedias.
9
(viii) Newspapers, magazines, and so on. The ‘quality press’ can be very useful, as
can magazines such as ‘The Economist’, ‘New Statesman’, ‘Spectator’, and
‘Prospect’.
(ix)
The Internet. Can be very useful, but it can be difficult to assess the quality
of the material. Module reading lists make increasing reference to websites as
your studies advance.
(x)
‘Athens’ catalogue. A catalogue of journal articles which is indispensable for
more advanced research. Available through the BJL.
 Go to the Enquiry Desk to register for Athens, and use the BIDS subcatalogue within Athens.
 Be aware that you will have to pay if you want works that our library does
not keep on site. Again, ask at the Enquiries Desk in the BJL for prices
and procedures for getting these ‘inter-library loans’.
(xi)
Your tutor. One of the skills of essay writing is being able to find sources for
yourself. Check all of the relevant sources thoroughly. Sometimes you will
hit a brick wall, and it is at that point that you should turn to your seminar
tutor for suggestions.
STAGE 3:
NOTE TAKING
NEVER write in library books. These are scarce resources and anyone found
defacing books in this way (even in pencil) can be disciplined by the University.
Only write in your own books.
(i)
Good note taking is a vital skill: think carefully about the question as you read
the book. Make a careful note of anything that may be of use to you.
(ii)
You should aim to produce notes which are precise, concise and accurate.
(a) Precise: (1) from the very beginning of the note making process make a
complete note of everything you will need if you have to find the
information again or need to reference the idea and including it in your
bibliography – that means the author’s full name, the full title of the book
(including any subtitle), the publisher’s name, the place of publication, the
date of publication, and the specific page number.
(2) vague notes lead to vague ideas, and then to a vague essay.
(b) Concise: the shorter your paraphrasing, the easier and quicker your notes
will be to read. You do not have to write down everything they say – the
important thing is that you can find the relevant passages again when you
come to write your essay.
(c) Accurate: (1) be sure that you are paraphrasing the author’s ideas
accurately.
(2) be sure that you are quoting the author’s exact words, including her
punctuation.
(iii) To reiterate: Be selective when making your notes – some people seem to
think that the more they write down, the more useful the resulting notes will be. This
is not the case.
Now stop reading. Leave it a day or so before you move on to stage 4.
10
STAGE 4:
CONSTRUCT YOUR PLAN
In many ways, constructing your detailed plan is the most important stage of writing
the whole essay – and the reader will never see it!
It is imperative that you concentrate solely on the question, and are completely honest
with yourself about what you have actually written on the page.
You should now have a great deal of material from several different sources. The
problem is how to organise it.
(i)
Look at the question once again: Remind yourself precisely what it is you
are being asked.
(ii)
Brain storming:
 Sit down with only a blank piece of paper and pen, and write out
everything you can remember from your notes that you think is relevant to
the answer.
 You may find it helpful to construct a ‘scatter diagram’.
 You need to let your mind sort the material it has absorbed while you were
taking notes, so don’t refer to your notes when brain storming. The
pieces from which the notes were made had their own purpose and so their
own structure, whereas your essay will have a different purpose, and so
you should use and rearrange (only some of) the ideas found in the notes,
and do so in a different order (one that is appropriate to the question).
(iii) From this brainstorming session, write down as headings the key points that
must be addressed when answering the question. These become the individual
stages of your overall argument (your ‘thesis’).
(iv)
Arrange these headings into the order that makes your case most effectively.
(v)
What particular elements are needed to establish these stages of argument?
Put these elements under your headings.
(vi)
Now look back at your notes, and look back the question. Then ask yourself:
(a) are any stages missing?
(b) are any elements missing?
(c) have I explained all of the concepts and presented each stage of my
argument in the correct order? In other words, could an intelligent reader
who knew nothing about the subject understand my answer as it is planned
here?
(d) Is my argument coherent?
(e) Does my argument examine the essential issues in sufficient depth?
(f) Have I included too many points? You do not have to include everything
you have learnt about the subject. Only include the ideas and arguments
that are needed to make your argument, but make sure that you have
included all of the necessary points.
This is one of the most important and difficult parts of the essay writing process.
Be brutally honest with yourself. Such detailed analysis and brutal selfcriticism may be difficult at first, but it will raise your final mark.
BY
THE END OF THIS PROCESS YOU SHOULD HAVE A VERY DETAILED PLAN
FOR THE BODY OF YOUR ESSAY.
Now put your plan to one side for an hour or so.
11
STAGE 5:
THE BODY OF THE ESSAY
NB: this is the longest single part of the essay writing process
– give yourself plenty of time, at least 4 or 5 days.
(a)
(i)
Draft a very brief introduction:
Re-read your plan – does it answer the question well? what improvements
could be made?
(ii)
On a fresh copy of your plan, relate the different elements of your argument to
the relevant parts of your notes.
(iii) Write one rough introductory paragraph, setting out:
(a) why the question is important
(b) the different stages of your argument (the broad outline of your argument)
(c) the conclusion you are going to reach.
Don’t worry too much about your style here. You are writing this version of
the introduction to bring things together in your own mind, immediately
before you start writing the body.
(b)
Start to write the body:
(iv)
Now start to write the body of your essay.
(v)
Be detailed, clear and concise.
(vi)
Some technical terms will be unavoidable, but do not use unnecessary jargon.
(vii) Similarly, don’t write in a pompous, polemical or ‘pretend academic’ style:
you’ll just sound arrogant.
(viii) Keep focused: always bear in mind how your plan relates to the essay
question, and don’t allow yourself to digress into areas that are ‘almost’
relevant, no matter how interesting you find these other areas.
(ix)
Remember that each paragraph should make only one point, and each point
should follow on from the previous paragraph, and should lead naturally into
the subsequent paragraph.
(x)
This can be a long and laborious process. Certainly if you have put enough
time and effort into constructing your plan (stage 4), then you will write this
first draft of the body of your essay relatively quickly. Nonetheless it is not
until you actually try to write the essay that you will be able to spot certain
gaps in your research and certain problems with your plan. YET: It is vital
that you plan effectively, otherwise you will find it nearly impossible to
construct a clear and effective argument with no digressions.
Now review what you have written:
(xi)
Re-read the question, then read the rough introduction and first draft of the
body, asking yourself:
(a) is the essay well structured?
(b) are any stages, or elements missing?
(c) have you answered all of the potential objections to your argument?
(d) do I make every stage of your argument clearly and in detail?
(e) do you make the structure stunningly obvious to your reader?
Realistically, you will find significant problems at this stage – you may not
be clear about central and peripheral terms, the argument may not flow
as it should, and it may contain gaps in the argument.
12
ONCE AGAIN – BE HONEST ABOUT THESE PROBLEMS, YOU
STILL HAVE TIME TO RECTIFY THEM. DON’T PANIC!
(xii) Make all of the necessary improvements, then review what you have written
again, and again …
N.B.:: It is vital to include all your references and citations as you write the body of
the essay. If you do this well now, you will save yourself a time-consuming
job when you come to complete your essay.
Quotations:
(xiii) Read Appendix B carefully. It tells you how to layout quotations.
(xiv) Remember: plagiarism can earn you a zero mark for your essay, and in
extreme cases can get you expelled from the University. See Appendix D
for more details.
(xv) Most essays benefit from the intelligent use of direct quotations from your
reading. That is fine: often you can only attack or defend a position if you
quote the person directly.
(xvi) But be careful. Do not use quotations in an attempt to avoid thinking issues
through.
(xvii) Ask yourself: ‘Can I précis (or paraphrase) this material, rather than quote it?’
If the answer is yes, then do. Paraphrasing intelligently is often more difficult
than it seems, and so can get you marks, especially if you use it as the basis of
your subsequent critical analysis.
(xviii) Remember: Quotations count towards your word-total, but you do not receive
any marks for them. You get marks only for the accuracy with which you
paraphrase of the author, and for the depth at which you analyse and critique
his position. Don’t just produce what is effectively a patchwork of quotations.
STAGE 6:
DRAFT THE CONCLUSION
(i)
(ii)
(xix)
With the essay still fresh in your mind, draft the conclusion.
The conclusion should be one paragraph long, and should be the ‘mirror’ of
the introduction: restate the question, then restate the main stages of your
argument, showing that you have fully justified your answer.
Put the essay to one side for twenty-four hours, and don’t think about it at all.
STAGE 7:
CHECK YOUR WORK
(i)
(ii)
Re-read the essay completely, critically and thoroughly at least twice
Ask yourself (and, once again, be honest with your answers):
(a)
Re-read the question carefully.
(b)
Does the introduction state the problem clearly, does it make clear
what my conclusion will be, does it make clear what will be the major
stages of my argument?
(c)
Does the structure of your argument reflect what I say in the
introduction?
(d)
Is my style of writing clear and precise, avoiding colloquialisms, vague
terminology and pretension?
13
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
Which issues, definitions, or concepts have I fudged? How can I fix
them?
Is every sentence necessary? If not, then eliminate the unnecessary
waffle.
Are there any digressions? If there are, cut them out.
Do the paragraphs make only one point? Do they make it clearly?
Do I make precisely the point I need to make at this stage in my
argument?
Does the conclusion bring my argument together effectively?
In particular, does the conclusion show that I have answered the
question?
Are all of the references and cites complete? Remember: plagiarism
can earn you a zero mark or get you expelled from your degree or
even from the university as a whole.
Is the layout correct? (see Appendix B)
IN ESSENCE:
(1) Make sure that you say everything needed to make your argument
(2) Write in a style that is clear, precise lucid and engaging
(3) Cut out all the irrelevant material
(4) Cut out all the waffle
(5) Cut out all polemic and pretension
STAGE 8:
REWRITE THE INTRODUCTION
(i)
(j)
(ii)
(iii)
Re-write the introduction
Make an impression: write in a punchy and clear style.
Make sure that you have attention-grabbing first line.
Remember that the introduction must show clearly:
(a) why the question is important
(b) the different stages of your argument (the broad outline of your argument)
(c) the conclusion you are going to reach.
STAGE 9:
BIBLIOGRAPHY
You will remember from the introduction to this guide that writing an essay is, in part,
a craft. Part of that craft is writing a good bibliography. See Appendix C for the full
rules on how to set out the bibliography. You will lose marks for including a bad
bibliography or not including a bibliography at all.
STAGE 10:
PROOF-READ THE ESSAY
Again, you can lose marks if you hand in an essay with bad typing, poor spelling, bad
grammar, or unclear or otherwise poor expression. Furthermore you must make sure
that you lay out the essay correctly and construct a full apparatus of scholarship. All
of this is detailed in Appendices B and C below.
Now submit 2 copies on time to the Departmental Office – and GOOD LUCK!
14
APPENDICES
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:
Appendix D:
Appendix E:
Appendix F:
Marking criteria
Legibility, layout and word-processing
Apparatus of scholarship
Plagiarism
Seminar preparation and presentation
Essay feedback form
15
APPENDIX A
MARKING CRITERIA
The following criteria are for guidance only, and do not preclude the need for
the application of sensible discretion by examiners. They are used in the context of
nationally developing norms for the standard of a degree (including the Table on
Threshold levels of Achievement in the Politics Benchmarking Statement and
Qualifications Framework) and discussion with external examiners.
First Class (70% and above)
An outstanding answer to the question:
• Clear, sharply focused and incisive argument displaying impressive skill in
elucidating concepts, conducting analysis and marshalling evidence.
• Shows wide knowledge of the topic, with signs of sophisticated understanding and
negligible errors and omissions.
• Displays originality in handling the problem.
• Excellent literary style and presentation, including economy of expression, good
grammar and punctuation, and legible text.
• Referencing up to current professional standards.
Upper Second Class (60%-69%)
A very good answer to the question:
• Clear, well-focused and logical argument displaying skill in elucidating concepts,
conducting analysis and marshalling evidence.
• Shows evidence of reading in breadth and depth, with signs of sound
understanding and minimal errors and omissions.
• Adopts a thoughtful, non-standard approach in handling the problem.
• Effective literary style and presentation, including adequate economy of
expression, good grammar and punctuation, and legible text.
• Referencing of a high standard.
Top Lower Second Class (55%-59%)
A good answer to the question:
• Reasonably clear, fairly well focused and generally coherent argument displaying
some skill in elucidating concepts, conducting analysis and marshalling evidence.
• Shows familiarity with the main sources, with signs of a satisfactory grasp of the
main points, few errors and omissions, and minimal padding.
• Adopts an acceptable but rather standard approach in handling the problem.
• Adequate literary style and presentation, including reasonable economy of
expression, generally acceptable grammar and punctuation, and legible, text.
• Referencing of an acceptable standard.
Bottom Lower Second Class (50%-54%)
A fair answer to the question:
• Somewhat vague, ill-focused and/or inconsistent argument nevertheless displaying
some skill in elucidating concepts, conducting analysis and marshalling evidence.
• Shows evidence of reading of the main sources, but some of the main points
poorly grasped, some significant errors and omissions, and/or some padding.
• Approach in handling the problem either quite routine or compromised by uneven
understanding.
16
•
•
Weak literary style and/or presentation, possibly including clumsy expression,
some unacceptable errors or grammar and punctuation, and/or illegible text.
Referencing of a questionable standard.
Third Class (40%-49%)
A poor answer to the question:
• Unclear, ill-focused and/or illogical argument nevertheless displaying some skill
in elucidating concepts, conducting analysis and marshalling evidence.
• Shows some evidence of reading or other learning but only limited understanding
of the issues raised, with some major errors and omissions, and/or significant
padding.
• Approach in handling the problem not completely unsound but superficial and
flawed by limited understanding.
• Poor literary style and/or presentation, probably including clumsy expression,
many unacceptable errors of grammar and punctuation, and/or illegible text.
• Referencing of a barely acceptable standard.
Compensatable Fail (35%-39%)
A minimal answer to the question:
• Unclear, unfocused and/or illogical argument displaying only minimal skill in
elucidating concepts, conducting analysis and marshalling evidence.
• Shows some evidence of reading or other learning but poor understanding of the
issues raised, with many errors and omissions, and/or significant padding.
• Approach in handling the problem largely unsound on account of carelessness or
lack of essential information.
• Poor literary style and/or presentation, probably including clumsy expression,
many unacceptable errors of grammar and punctuation, and/or illegible text.
• Referencing of an unacceptable standard.
17
APPENDIX B
LEGIBILITY, LAYOUT AND WORD-PROCESSING
(A)
Legibility:
Every piece of work that you submit for assessment (including examination scripts)
must be legible. Your tutors have the right to refuse to mark any piece of work that
cannot be read easily. Bear this in mind, especially if you hand-write your essay.
(B)
There are other formal requirements for the layout of your essay:
General:
(1)
All essays must make proper use of the apparatus of scholarship (detailed in
Appendix C below).
(2)
The main text of each piece of assessed work must be written completely in
English (foreign quotations can be included in footnotes or endnotes if
necessary, but the rest of the note should be in English).
(3)
Essays must be submitted on A4 sized white paper.
(4)
Every page of each assessment essay must have margins at the left, top and
bottom so that the marker to write comments. Each of these margins must be
at least 2.5cm (1 inch) wide.
(5)
All of the text and notes must be either written in black or blue ink, or laser
printed in black. The only exceptions are where using different colours is
absolutely unavoidable to ensure clarity in complex graphs, and so on.
(6)
Titles of books must be either underlined or italicised (and a full reference
given – see Appendix C).
(7)
Titles of articles or chapters in edited books must be given in single quotation
marks (and a full reference given – see Appendix C).
Quotations:
(8)
Quotations must be marked with single quotation marks: for example: ‘Mill
saw democratic participation as a process of education.’
(9)
Quotations within quotations must be marked with double quotation marks:
for example: ‘Mill saw democratic participation as “the chief instrument” for
“the public education of the citizens”.’
(10) Quotations of less than 40 words carry straight on in the text. For example:
(11)
In The Downing Street Years, Margaret Thatcher saw it as significant that,
‘[t]here are differing views even now of what the Westland affair was really
about.’ (Thatcher, 1993: 423) Yet certain views are more plausible than others.
Quotations of 40 words or more should be placed on a new line and indented
from the main text. For example:
In The Downing Street Years, Margaret Thatcher saw it as significant that,
‘[t]here are differing views even now of what the Westland affair
was really about. At various times Michael Heseltine claimed that
it was about Britain’s future as a technologically advanced country,
the role of government in industry, Britain’s relationship with
Europe and the United States and the properties of constitutional
government.’ (Thatcher, 1993: 423)
Yet certain views are more plausible than others.
18
(C)
Word-processed essays:
It is far better to word-process your essay, as this will:
(i)
make it easier for the marker to read your essay
(ii)
help you to edit the essay
(iii) make it far easier to reproduce the different drafts
(iv)
be excellent preparation for your dissertation if you write one
(dissertations must be word-processed)
(v)
be a vital transferable skill when you complete your degree.
Employers will expect if not require you to word-process reports, and
so on
The University’s Computer Centre provides word-processing courses for any student
who is interested, and there are programmes on the computer system itself if you
prefer to learn on your own. Take advantage of these opportunities for free IT
training.
In addition to the formal requirements for all assessed essays (above), word-processed
essays must have the following features.
(1) All text must be double-spaced, using a font no smaller than 12pt.
(2) Footnotes and endnotes should be single-spaced, using a font that is both no larger
than the text font and no smaller than 10pt.
(3) One easily legible font must be used throughout the essay: for example, Times
New Roman, Palatino or Ariel.
(4) Bold must be used only for the essay question/title.
19
APPENDIX C
APPARATUS OF SCHOLARSHIP References, Citations, and Bibliography
(A)
References and Citations:
FAILURE TO GIVE PROPER REFERENCES OR CITATIONS CAN
CONSTITUTE PLAGIARISM, AND COULD HAVE SEVERE ACADEMIC
CONSEQUENCES
You must give the full reference for any phrase or sentence that you copy from
another person.
You must give the full reference for any passage which you paraphrase (take from
another author, but re-express in your words).
These reference must be given in one of the approved forms: that is, using either
footnotes, or endnotes, or the Harvard method.
For footnotes and endnotes:
These must include the following information:
(i)
author(s);
(ii)
title, italics or underlined;
(iii) edition, if other than first;
(iv)
place of publication;
(v)
publisher;
(vi)
date of publication;
(vii) specific page(s).
For example, a footnote or endnote could read:1
Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world (London:
Allen Lane, 2000), p. 89.
For the Harvard Method:
The Harvard method uses brackets in the text, giving the surname of the author,
followed by the year of publication, and the relevant page number. For example,
‘In his twenties, the Scotsman slithered into a career crisis.’ (Porter, 2000: 89)
The relevant work is then cited in the bibliography as follows:
Roy Porter (2000) Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world
(London: Allen Lane)
Where you include more than one work written by a particular author in a particular
year in your bibliography, you must label the first piece with an ‘a’, the next a ‘b’, and
so on. For example, (Tyler, 2000a: 4) and (Tyler, 2000b: 120).
1
Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world (London: Allen Lane,
2000), p. 89.
20
You can use the following abbreviations with footnotes, endnotes and the Harvard
method:
ibid.
op. cit.
passim
used (followed by page numbers) when references to the same work
follow each other, without any intervening reference
used (after the author’s surname, and before the relevant page
numbers) for a second reference to a different work
use (after the relevant page numbers) to show that the issue keeps
coming up in these pages, although it is not their main focus.
(B)
Bibliography
Every assessed essay must have a bibliography – a clear, complete and
alphabetically arranged list of all works used in the essay. You should include any
work that you either quote, paraphrase, or merely use as background material.
Precisely how you list these works in the bibliography will depend upon whether you
use footnotes or endnotes on the one hand, or the Harvard method on the other. The
following bibliographies contain many types of work:
For either footnotes or endnotes:
Edward Caird, The Collected Works of Edward Caird, 12 vols., edited by C Tyler
(Bristol: Thoemmes, 1999)
Philip Cowley, My Part in the Abyssinian Campaign (London: Croom Helm, 1942)
Robert E Goodin and Philip Pettit, eds., Contemporary Political Philosophy: An
anthology (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997)
Simon Lee, ‘The Political Economy of the Canadian Beaver Trade, 1992-2000’,
Journal of American Research in Science and Economics, vol. 15, no. 3
(April 2001), 15-37
Justin Morris, ‘Playing Nicely: International Law and Gun, Bombs and Bullets’, in C
von Clausewitz, ed., The State of War (Berlin: Hempel, 1817), pp. 40-73
Roy Porter, Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world (London:
Allen Lane, 2000)
Colin Tyler, ‘My Nobel Prize for Literature’, The Times, 27 July 2000
---‘ “This Dangerous Drug of Violence”: Making sense of Bernard Bosanquet’s
theory of punishment’, Collingwood and British Idealism Studies, vol. 7
(2000), 116-40
Richard Woodward, ‘What Were They On?’, Magic Roundabout Studies, vol. 8
(2005), 119-10
---Bolting Along.
Horsing Around in the Derbyshire Undergrowth
(Nottingham: Robin Hood Press, 2005)
For the Harvard method:
Edward Caird (1999) The Collected Works of Edward Caird, 12 vols., edited by C
Tyler (Bristol: Thoemmes)
Philip Cowley (1942) My Part in the Abyssinian Campaign (London: Croom Helm)
Robert E Goodin and Philip Pettit, eds. (1997) Contemporary Political Philosophy:
An anthology (Oxford: Blackwell)
21
Simon Lee (2001) ‘The Political Economy of the Canadian Beaver Trade, 19921999’, Journal of American Research in Science and Economics, vol. 15, no.
3 (April), 15-37
Justin Morris (1817) ‘Playing Nicely: International Law and Gun, Bombs and
Bullets’, in C von Clausewitz, ed., The State of War (Berlin: Hempel), pp.
40-73
Roy Porter (2000) Enlightenment: Britain and the creation of the modern world
(London: Allen Lane)
Colin Tyler (2000a) ‘My Nobel Prize for Literature’, The Times, 27 July
---(2000b) ‘ “This Dangerous Drug of Violence”: Making sense of Bernard
Bosanquet’s theory of punishment’, Collingwood and British Idealism
Studies, vol. 7, 116-40
22
APPENDIX D
PLAGIARISM
It is your responsibility to make yourself aware of the University’s regulations,
particularly in regard to unfair practices such as plagiarism. For full details see:
http://www.hull.ac.uk/cms/regs/regulations.htm
Plagiarism consists of copying the words of any other person without use of quotation
marks and/or without including proper and explicit reference to, or citation of, the
original source.
Plagiarism is one of the most serious academic offences that any student can commit.
Any essay that is found to be plagiarised completely or in any part can be zero
marked, and, in extreme cases, the University can apply the severest academic
penalties to the student (including termination of study).
The University requires students to make the following declaration when submitting
any assessed piece of work:
‘I declare that the work I am submitting for assessment contains no section copied in whole or
in part from any other source unless it is explicitly identified by means of quotation marks. I
declare that I have also acknowledged such quotations by providing detailed references in an
approved format. I understand that either or both unidentified and unreferenced copying
constitutes plagiarism, which is one of a number of very serious offences under the
University's Code of Practice on the Use of Unfair Means (www.hull.ac.uk/cms).’
WHAT DOES PLAGIARISM LOOK LIKE?
The following are legitimate ways of referencing a quotation:
Using a footnote (or endnote):
(1)
Boucher has highlighted a significant shift in the contemporary analysis of the
world order: ‘Modern international relations theory has recently taken a
normative turn and begun seriously to explore the place of ethics in the
relations among states.’2
(2)
(3)
Using the Harvard method:
Boucher has highlighted a significant shift in the contemporary analysis of the
world order: ‘Modern international relations theory has recently taken a
normative turn and begun seriously to explore the place of ethics in the
relations among states.’ (Boucher, 2000: 217)
The following method of referencing is legitimate as well:
Boucher has highlighted a significant shift in the contemporary analysis of the
world order, claiming that nowadays ‘international relations theory’ concerns
itself with ‘the place of ethics in the relations among states’, and so has ‘taken
a normative turn’. (Boucher, 2000: 217)
David Boucher, ‘Hegel and Marx on International Relations’, in T Burns and I Fraser, eds., The
Hegel-Marx Connection (Basingstoke: MacMillan, 2000), p. 217.
2
23
The following are examples of plagiarism (the same applies for footnotes and
endnotes):
(4)
(5)
No quotation marks, and no reference to Boucher:
There has been a significant shift in the contemporary analysis of the world
order, as modern international relations theory has recently taken a normative
turn and begun seriously to explore the place of ethics in the relations among
states.
No quotation marks, although the source is noted. (In effect the author of
the essay is still claiming that all of the words are their own.)
Boucher has highlighted a significant shift in the contemporary analysis of the
world order, claiming that modern international relations theory has recently
taken a normative turn and begun seriously to explore the place of ethics in the
relations among states (Boucher, 2000: 217).
IF IN DOUBT, PUT THE PHRASE IN QUOTATION MARKS
24
APPENDIX E
SEMINAR PREPARATION AND PRESENTATION
SEMINARS ARE A VITAL PART OF ALL YOUR MODULES. They help you to explore
topics, and so they help to familiarise you with the background issues and the wider
implications of the various subjects raised in your modules.
They give you important transferable skills. No matter which job you do after
leaving university, you will be required to give presentations. The more you practice,
the better you will become at speaking to a group.
Attendance at every seminar in compulsory for each of your
modules. Absences are noted and the Department, the Faculty
and ultimately the University pursue non-attenders. You MUST
attend every class.
The most common way to run a seminar is to for someone to be pre-allocated to
present an answer to the seminar topic. The presentation is made orally, and in most
cases should last appropriately 10 minutes.
(I) PREPARATION
You must prepare thoroughly for every seminar, whether or not you are giving a
presentation.
(a)
If you are not presenting
Don’t think that you’ll be able to sit back or hide in the seminar. Everyone must read
around the subject as indicated on the module reading lists, and everyone must
contribute to the seminar discussion. Don’t think that no one will notice, and don’t let
yourself be parasitic on the hard work of your fellow students.
Many people find seminars intimidating. Try not to worry, most seminars are
friendly places, and people want to talk ideas through.
(i) Ask yourself – are their ideas really better than yours?
(ii) It is not fair to prepare for the seminar and then not to contribute. Other
people can learn from you.
(iii) Push yourself forward in seminars, even if you find it unusual and scary.
At the same time, don’t hog the seminar! You are supposed to be taking part in a
discussion, not just letting everyone appreciate your genius.
(i)
Don’t just talk over people
(ii)
Don’t think that you have to fill every silence
(iii) Give other people a chance to get a word in.
(iv)
Treat everyone’s opinions with respect.
25
The mechanics of the process:
(i)
Make notes on your reading – include the page numbers where the particular
ideas occur.
(ii)
Bring a copy of the reading and your notes to the seminar. You may well need
to refer to them.
(iii) If you are unsure about a particular point, make a special note of it. Don’t be
afraid to raise questions in the seminar, everyone finds certain parts of the
reading unclear, confused, confusing or perplexing. Seminars exist to
encourage people to talk to one another about their opinions and difficulties.
(b)
If you are presenting
You should prepare for your presentation as if you were starting to write a very short
essay:
(1) analyse the question
(2) carry out the relevant research
(3) produce a detailed plan.
It is best if you do not read out a prepared script. Speak from notes instead. The
presentation should be a lot more interesting to listen to. Using notes forces you to
think about the topic in depth.
As with writing an essay, don’t just repeat what other people have written – you
must make a reasoned case if you can. Of course your argument will tend to have less
depth than an essay, but you are still expected to either produce a reasonable defence
of your position, or to highlight the problems in deciding how to answer the question.
Raise areas you are uncertain about. It may be that the reading have done was
obscure at certain points. It is a skill to pick up on vagueness and evasion in others.
(1) Try to suggest what the author might mean.
(2) Direct seminars to consider areas that are unclear.
(II) GIVING A PRESENTATION
Remember: A presentation is a performance.
Try not to worry about speaking in public. Everyone gets nervous before a
presentation. If you prepare well, speak clearly and loudly, and don’t rush through
your notes, everything will be fine.
If you really are scared of giving your presentation, speak to your seminar tutor
beforehand. S/he is able to offer suggestions about how to beat nerves.
Try to make your presentation interesting, in terms of the ideas you aim to convey,
the overall argument you aim to establish, and the way in which you speak.
26
The next page indicates the sort of things you should consider about your
presentation:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Effectiveness of presentation
Materials (Visual aids, handouts, etc)
Content and organisation
Discussion
In particular:
Produce a handout: When you have written out the plan of your presentation, use it
as the basis of a one-side handout for the rest of the class.
(a) state the question
(b) state your conclusion
(c) list the key bullet points
(d) include any quotations that play a particularly important role in your
argument.
(e) Photocopy enough handouts for everyone in your group (and don’t forget
the tutor!).
Writing a handout might well help you to prepare for your essay.
And finally:
TRY TO ENJOY YOUR SEMINARS – THEY CAN BE VERY FUNNY!
27
APPENDIX F
28