Major divisions of philosophy
Logic
-critically evaluates arguments
-basic issues include:
- validity and soundness of deductive
arguments;
- strength of inductive arguments and
inferences to the best explanation
Philosophy of religion
-critically evaluates claims made in the
context of religion
-basic issues include:
- God's existence and attributes;
- immortality of the soul
Metaphysics
-examines the ultimate nature of things
-basic issues include:
- is everything ultimately physical?;
- the existence and nature of free will;
- the nature of the self;
- the nature of causation
Ethics
- evaluates human action as morally right
or wrong, and human character as morally
good or bad
-basic issues include:
- the determination of which actions are
morally right and which are morally
wrong;
- the source of the authority of moral
rules;
- the nature of motivation to do what is
morally right
Epistemology
-theory of knowledge
-basic issues include:
- what knowledge is;
- the sources of knowledge;
- what kinds of knowledge there are;
- the possibility of knowledge
Philosophy of mind
-examines nature of the mental
-basic issues include:
- relation between mind and body;
- the nature of thought and
consciousness
Background on ethics:
Ethics has to do with evaluating human action
as morally right or wrong, and human
character as morally good or bad. Ethical
theories do some or all of the following:
(a) propose a way to determine which
actions are morally right and which
actions are morally wrong, or which
people are morally good and which evil;
and
(b) make a claim about the source of the
authority of moral rules;
(c) explain the nature of motivation to do
what is morally right.
Definition of cultural relativism:
cultural relativism claims that moral rules
are customs specific to particular cultures,
and that consequently no moral rules are
universal.
Definition of universal moral rules:
a moral rule is universal if it applies to
everyone independently of culture.
Definition of universalism:
universalism claims that there are at least
some universal moral rules.
Definition of absolute moral rules:
a moral rule is absolute if: (a) it applies to
everyone independently of culture AND
(b) it applies in all circumstances.
Definition of cultural relativism:
cultural relativism claims that moral rules
are customs specific to particular cultures,
and that consequently no moral rules are
universal.
Cultural differences argument (Rachels, p.
618):
(P1) Different cultures have different
moral codes.
(C) Therefore, there is no objective "truth"
in morality. Right and wrong are only
matters of [cultural] opinion, and [cultural]
opinions vary from culture to culture.
Rachels's argument against cultural relativism
(p. 622):
(P1) If lying were morally allowable in
normal circumstances, then
communication would cease.
(P2) If communication were to cease, then
societies would cease to exist.
(SC) If lying were morally allowable in
normal circumstances, then societies
would cease to exist.
(C) Societies must have in common the
rule that lying is not morally allowable in
normal circumstances.
CULTURAL RELATIVIST'S account of moral rules:
cultural customs
universal rules
_________________________________________________________
funerary practices
no polygamy
no lying
no stealing
no killing
UNIVERSALIST'S account of moral rules:
cultural customs
universal rules
_________________________________________________________
funerary
no polygamy
no lying
practices
no stealing
no killing