Outline:
Recurrent Greek themes
Rise of the Roman Empire
Rise of Christianity
Antiquity (Greece and Rome)
Major period historians talk about; Greek Classical, Roman Empire
Greece - socrates, plato, aristotle
These 3 generations of intellictuals lay foundation of knowledge
(democracy, knowledge, art) all these topics feed off of each other eg) socrates believes system of democracy not working, who has the right?
Plato: those who have knowledge should have political say
Aristotle: knowledge acquirement: School of Athens 1 st
in western civ.
Western Civilization keeps coming back to these philosophers
Knowledge and understanding are reflected in art: emotions, anatomy, human experience/ existence
Reflected in culture: comedy and tragedy drama
Science reflected: Theatre, acoustics
Greece tried to become the best civilization
Greece the "superhighway" of antiquity
Greek colonies spread through Meditteranean
As Greek civilization wanes, the Rise of Rome occurs
Rome began as a city state, then expanded in power, strength, and wealth
Romans asked surrounding city states to join citizenship
Through military strategy and politics, Rome takes over Italy 264 BCE
Rome runs into Carthage
Rome used Mediterranean to expand and create provinces
Roman army extemely disciplined, professional, and fit
264 - 133 BCE Rome destroys Carthage and expands to Greece and Turkey
So successful in Meditterranean basin
31 BCE (before common era) - 200 CE (common area)
Rome at height
Anyone not latin/ Italian "barbarians" who were ruled by administrators
How did they control this vast empire?
War booty and tribute payments = internal peace and fuel for the empire
Roman administrator would rule over a province

if you pay tax and don't challenge our rule, you will have peace
Rome as an empire is wealthy (meaning publically wealthy as a whole) but individuals were very very poor. socialist minimalist state kept masses happy
People are in awe of the power of their empire because of such collossal structures such as colesseum (people got free tickets = inspire Roman citizens through spectacles).
Triumphal arches built as reminders of exploits of war = power of military
Pressures on Empire 200 CE - 400 CE
Political weakness
180 CE - the last great Roman Emperor, Marcus Aurellius dies
Social and economic challenges
(Famine/ crop failure; mass disease/ plague) as a result of famine and plague, labor loss = increase tax = more poverty instability within masses example: Roman Aquaducts
Famine occurs when water from countryside is used to wash the
Roman streets clean. No water for crops
Military Challenges also hurt by famine and plague most militants are land-owners who are called back to farms military loses its discipline and elite heirarchy
Expansion of Empire slowed snowball effect: no longer any constant war booty barbarians outside of empire see its weakness at slow expansion barbarians attack
Few unifying factors eg) what do Britain and Spain have to gain from the Empire?
If the military is no longer strong, what threat are they?
Rise of Christianity
Paganism was the religion of the elites:
Emperor was a god
Tolerant of other religions if the gods were happy (ie. Rome was strong)
Tribute must be paid to the Emperor
Christianity rose of Judaism, therefore was tolerated and protected by Roman law
Christianity really gets attention in Roman Empire 200 CE
Why is Christianity so attractive to people living in Rome?
Christianity appealing to lower orders
-all can participate - don't need money
-sense of fair play and fidelity - don't have to be elite

-rich give to Christian Church in Roman Empire, give to pagan gods (emperor) the church gives back to the weak, sick, and poor
-equalizing factor between different classes
When the socialist-minimalist state cannot provide, Christianity becomes prevalent
Persecution of Christians
-Strict morality sets Christians apart
(do not worship any other god; don't worship emperor)
-Misunderstood traditions resulted in accusations of atheism, cannibalism, incest, black magic, and insubordination
(communion body and blood = "cannibals"; all brothers and sisters = "incest" and the Sunday worship is a "love feast" between brothers and sisters)
Persecution of Christians
-Strict morality sets Christians apart
(do not worship any other god; don't worship emperor)
-Misunderstood traditions resulted in accusations of atheism, cannibalism, incest, black magic, and insubordination
(communion body and blood = "cannibals"; all brothers and sisters = "incest" and the Sunday worship is a "love feast" between brothers and sisters)
-Refusal to worship Roman gods made them scapegoats with 3 rd
century pressures on Empire
The Great Persecution
-Decius (294-251) requires everyone to have a certificate that proves they have been sacrificing/tribute to the gods
Without these certificates penalty of death at Colesseum gored by bulls, fed to lions
-Diocletian (284-305)
-martydom: Christians begin to see this persecution as a true test of their faith half a million people were killed and buried in catacombes, Christians not deterred
People were inspired by the bravery of Christians who stood proudly until death
-creates a mass sympathy and conversion to Christianity
-St. Perpetua had a baby but could not produce certificate, she was to be gored to death by a bull, crowd was moved by this woman who stood so proudly even after giving birth to a child
"The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church"
Passion and commitment of martyrs inspired
Christianity became a tool of Roman Emperors to unify the Empire
Eventually Roman Catholicism became the only accepted religion in
Europe
Religious leaders became equal in power to kings

Legalization of Christianity
305 - end of persecution with death of Diocletian
Constantine:
Constantine issued Edict of Toleration in 311 unifying force for the Empire state support and patronage
Constantine slowly brings Christianity into empire alongside paganish
Eg) Sunday is holy day for paganism, also day of Christian worship
Constantine converted to Roman Catholicism on his deathbed
Nobility slowly accepts Christianity, realizing that the money is there
Unifying force:
Why is religion of Christianity unifying?
-Strict adherence and conformity required from all = equality, discipline, accepting authority of religious and secular power
-Effective church hierarchy made sure worship and religious life was standardized with as many consistent factors, gives people common ground
-Services were in one language (Latin) throughout Empire; the wealthy have a common language to share, as in those in power were educated in Latin
-Christianity spread very slowly, beginning with nobility in administrative cities
-challenges to Roman Empire continued
- 330 Constantine moved capital of Roman Empire eastward for defensive reasons to the current city of Istanbul, called Constantinople. Constaninople gives a buffer region between the Empire capital and Germanic tribes
This showed just how bad the situation really was
-many followed, mostly nobility, and the city flourished
378
-West crumbling: Germanic tribes began settling in western empire
-West is Roman Empire based in Rome; East is based in Constaninople, division east and west Emperors created official beginning of Byzantine Empire
-Byzantine followed distinct path: survived and flourished until 1453 (sacking of
Constaninople by the Ottomans)
-splintering of Greek and Latin Christendom
Byzantine Empire is very strong
They take all the learning from Greek and Roman antiquity
Hagia Sophia - Christian church built from all the knowledge aquired
Whereas Romans rebuild in a different direction, forgetting antiquity

394 Theodosius
Christian law code
This changes the Roman law to base system on Christian morality
Shows how Christianity is being spread throughout Empire
410 Rome is attacked by visigoths sacked many many times from 410 until 476
476 First "barbarian" or Germanic Roman Emperor
Marks beginning of Middle Ages/ Dark Ages/ Medieval Era
The Fall of Rome starts in ~200 CE until final collapse in 476 CE
Germanic Tribes
Saxons, Angles, Vandals, Franks, Lombards, Huns
- came from Scandza
- primarily pastoral (not originally even military)
- nomadic for herds and looking for new tribal lands
- fabric of society was interpersonal ties of loyalty (eg) family, providers
- moral and legal system a case-to-case basis; depends on circumstance
- system localized and decentralized, allowing for ability to deal with here- and-now issues
- isolated Europe (trade slowed, travel was dangerous, urban system collapsed, communication cut-off)
This goes into the period called the "Dark Ages" of Medieval Europe
The Sacking of Rome
Elite retreated to country estates
Political power vacuum
Wealth dried up, trade was limited
Rome became the soft underbelly of the empire
Some blamed Christians
Augustine (bishop in Austria): "while empires crumble: religion alone endures" said cities only existed to bring more people into the eternal City of God do not worry about Empire disintegrating, what matters is faith
Germanic leaders are inspired by what Augustine argues
Clovis (d.511) first Germanic Christian leader, in charge of the Franks converts to Christianity and starts campaign to Christianize Franks united Frankish kingdom
Bishops baptize and corronate Clovis = political and religious figure
*developing the feudal system by embodying head of state and church together*
Adoption of local traditions

Plain chant - one unity carries through music, latin and Roman Catholic
Byzantine chant - eastern tone
How do you explain to the masses something that is entirely foreign?
Celtic christianity goes off in its own direction temporarily
Irish cross: woven out of wheat
Celtic cross: circle could be merging of sun; or just support structure for cross arms
Pope Gregory 590
Rome still under attack, still unsettled place to live, Pope Gregory bishop
Organizes defenses
Obtains food for Rome
Cares for sick
Spiritual and Military leader
Through him that other bishops see how church should be run, how to step up into leadership
Bishops across Europe gained power
Sets stage for Popes
Papal Primacy
The justification of why the Pope is the head of the church and the head of Rome
Rome was the center of western Christendom
Christendom took place of Roman Empire in the daily lives of people
Structural heirarchy developed
God has allowed rule
CLICKER REVIEW QUESTIONS
Constantine
Legalized Christianity - edict of toleration
State support of Christianity; Roman Catholic church would grow to be a major secular power
Moved the capital of empire east to Constaninople
Transition from Ancient to Medieval world
Marked by the fall of the Roman Empire
*From the 3 rd
to the 5 th
centuries*
378 Roman Empire split in two; Rome sacked in 410; official barbarian/
Germanic ruler in 476
Historical significance of Germanic Tribes
Attacks catalysts for fall of Roman Empire

Conquests resulted in the decay of systems of trade and urban centers in
Europe
Their rural, decentralized and localized life meant that Europe became isolated from the rest of the world
Social and political system became the basis for feudalism
9 th
and 10 th
Centuries: outline
800-900s rise of the Islamic Empire
Charlemange threats to Europe rise of feudalism
Rise of the Islamic Empire
Birth of Mohammed c.570
Last prophet:
Muslim beliefs were based in Old Testament; belief in prophets,
Angel Gabriel visited Mohammed to take this message to the masses
Religious and Military leader
Teachings struck a chord with Bedouin society (nomadic society)
Bedouins largely shepherds, following grazing animals, tribal system
War-based society
Western middle-east largely Bedouins
Mohammed's message gained popularity amongst poor
Morality, egalitarianism, piety
Elites realize Mohammed's power amongst the poor
Expansion of Empire starting in Medina and Mecca of Arabia
Expand into Persian Empire and across northern Africa
Unity brought to the leaders and masses
Islamic Empire bumps up against Byzantine Empire
Meditterranean basin: war over water
Constantinople "saved" only by "Greek fire" or fireball on the water
Constantinople defended by walls and sea
Prosperity
Islamic Empire became guardian of learning, art, and culture
Unity: one faith, one language, and leaders are unified
Education flourishes
Sophisticated culture emerges
Repeating patterns reflected from religious beliefs in Allah show in architecture
Meditterranean Expansion
After expansion through northern Africa:
710-718 southern Spain conquered up until Pyranese mountains

732 Charles Martel "saved" western Christendom
Tours and Poitiers were simple defeats of Muslim raiding parties
Islamic Empire largely forgot the old Roman Empire because more pressing concerns with the Persian Empire
Islamic Empire refocused expansion east
Charles Martel founds the next major European Empire
Carolingian Empire
Clovis was the last major Frankish leader, who brought Christianity to rural
Clovis built a Frankish kingdom
Germanic tradition prevents development of great empires because inheritance
Charles Martel of this bloodline
Capable military leader
It is difficult to unify and stablize; takes 3 generations; Pippin III,
Charlemagne
Charlemagne reunified much of the old Roman Empire
Northern Europe gained importance
Charlemagne significant enough that major foreign leaders recognize him;
Byzantine and Islamic Empires acknowledge Charlemagne
Holy Roman Emperor
800 Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor
Charlemagne's legitimacy based upon religion
Complex relationship with the Pope, who crowns him, Charlemagne uses this as a unifying tactic to also gain legitimacy
Charlemagne does not want Rome to fall, so volunteers to help Pope (the secular and military leader of Rome) when under attack
Pope and Charlemagne are meant to be equal but neither have ultimate authority
Charlemagne brings back minimal education
Lords in the localities must be able to read
Elite are literate for communication; but not taught critical thinking
843 Treaty of Verdun
After Charlemagne's death, Kingdom is split between three sons
Division leave empire vulnerable to outside attack
(Danes/Vikings/Slaves/ Islamic Empire)
Europe Weak
9 th
and 10 th
Century Threats
Vikings (Denmark, Iceland, and Scandanavian areas)
Attack from coast and upriver

Shallow boats good for raiding
Magyars (Hungary)
Attack Eastern front of European Empire
Islamic Empire
Attack from south
FEUDALISM
How does Europe defend itself?
Feudalism (evolution of the Germanic system)
Largely created in France
Change inheritance patterns so that titles are inherited to one son
Lord-vassal relationship based on the ties of loyalty
System of dependence
All people in society are reliant on each other for survival
From nutrition to military defense; everyone has a role
Lord in power provides protection and justice
Vassals are beneath Lord and pay him hommage and pledge loyalty
King brings order to society; stockhouses of food for times of famine; political and military leader; provide military protection
Nobility provide King portion of crops; give soldiers; enables King to do his job
In localities, nobility become the "Lords" and have vassals in role of peasantry
Realm of this locality will be protected and run by lord
Peasantry give 1/3 crops to nobles; 1/3 crops to church
Military, political and economic social system
-vassals got fiefs for homage/fealty nobility gain fielty of land for loyalty to the king
-primogeniture
Feudalism made it possible to rule larger territories
Structure allows for large ruling kingdom
Inheritance keeps territories and rule under unified banner
Three Orders of Society
(1) Those who fight bring order and stability to realm knights, nobility, wealthy, soldiers pay homage; always preparing for battle, attending tournaments and training
(2) Those who pray spiritual care-taking of the European population in charge of the long-term souls of the people (including soldiers who kill) feudal system emphasizes life after death; this life is to be a good Christian and do your job as a part of society

Christendom: synthesis of religion, culture, society, governmnet
Secular Clergy
Popes, Bishops, religious mentors
Regular Clergy
St. Benedict's Rule required prayer, work, and study religious scholars in monasteries for seclusion monks free up the soldiers from their penance
(3) Those who work
90-95% of the population work the lands
Give 1/3 of food to church and a 1/3 to nobility
1076-1122: Investiture Controversy
Struggle between secular and religious leaders
Pope Gregory VII and Emperor Henry IV get into a disagreement
Emperor wants to be able to appoint bishops and abbots
Wants to say who is praying on behalf of the military
Results in distinction of power
Manorial System
Small villages
How 90% of people lived
Shared resources
Minimal standard of living
Own small personal plot of land
Shared common pastures
Subsistence living - in years of famine, drought, raiding = starvation
All power emanated from the lord's house
Lord usually in a castle or fortress on a hill
Lord brings justice as well as support in locality
Feudal
Government - decentralized vs State centralized
Administration - vassals professional common law (central) Legal system - local
Borders - undefined
Property rights - military defined legal

Role of Church - competing w/monarch subservient to monarch
Power of Monarch - first among equals head of the state
(first of all Lords)
Clicker Questions
What is the historical significance of Charlemagne's Rule?
- First Holy Roman Emperor o Refers to Divine Right of Kings o Pope crowned him of empire o Reclaiming the glories of Rome
- Defender of Christianity o Rescues Pope from attack but still relies on Pope for legitimacy
- Carolingian Renaissance o Beginning of literacy - return of education
- Brought Northern Europe on to international stage o Byzantine and Islamic Empires
What external threats existed to European peace?
Vikings, magyars

Feudalism
A social political economic and military system
System of dependence
A way to bring security to europe
Characterized by lord-vassal relationship
Characterized by three orders of society
Which institution was the ultimate authority in medieval Europe?
Both the church and the state
Struggle between the two
Weaknesses of feudal construct and the First Crusade
Feudal Weaknesses system very messy
Feudalism is an idealized concept, not the reality of life in medieval Europe
Many people in Europe missing from the system
Many gradations of class
-separation between orders
-within orders, many different levels (foot soldiers to commanders)
-classes not as clear-cut bonds beyond one lord to one vassal
-people as lord-vassal roles not as clearly defined
-eg) King of England technically supposed to pay homage to French
King

what to do with younger sons?
-oldest son inherits title and land of father
-younger sons did not inherit anything - displaced in own class
-place son in military
-place son in church
-problems begin when there is less military threat and less need for soldiers sons begin warring - what to do with them? - send them on crusade church became worldy with power
-monks supposed to be constantly uncomfortable to be always close to God
-idealistically
-supposed to pray on behalf of all society and all members
-monks receive land, food, riches, wealth because people give monks gifts in exchange for praying on behalf of deceased loved ones
Missing from the system
Merchants, tradesmen
Townspeople, craftsmen, tailors etc.
Women - nuns are not a part of church society
Women don't exist in secular clergy
Women cannot inherit - never a part of political process
Not a legal entity, cannot speak for self, represented by man in life
Workers make 1/10 of that a man makes
Vagrants: without a place to call home
Professional soldiers
Injured soldiers
Extreme poor
Sick and ill
Day laborers
Strangers
Those unable to fight, pray or work
Religious minority
Spain: muslim population
Jewish population
The Jews
Forced into urban ghettos
Expelled from England 1290; France 1394; Spain 1492
In France, King was in debt and owed the most money to Jewish population
Spain: Columbus supposed to set sail out of Spain, but cannot leave ports because at this time Muslims and Jews are being expelled/ blocking ports
Blamed for the Black Death
Appeared as villains in folklore and ballads
Little Sir Hue disappeared from a corner and fell down a well
Decided that he had been seduced by Jewish man's daughter
Ritually sacrificed Little Sir Hue and this Jewish family dropped body in well
Usuers: lend money and collect interest
Scapegoated for anything that goes wrong in a country, town or village

Crusades
The Crusades are somewhat a result of feudalism
Outside threats dissipating and as borders take shape, issues evolve within
-outsiders fear of any strangers
-competing lords all lords trying to get higher
-"Peace of God" concept developed by Pope the second and third sons who no longer have anyone to fight: cannot kill fellow Christians these soldiers want to war but have no where to go
-challenge to the reputation of papacy hatred of church: corruption within the church leaders power hungry colliding with the heads of state extreme wealth being funneled into the power of the church
1095 Emperor Commenus (Byzantine Emperor) is afraid for his Empire does not feel as though they cannot push back the Muslim Turkish pleads with Pope Urban II can Christian brothers save Byzantines from the
Turks?
Emperor Commenus "Christians are being oppressed by the Muslims"
We must go free our Christian brothers from the Holy Lands
Holy places (especially Jerusalem) defiled
Great Church of Constantine turned into a mosque
Harassment of Christian pilgrims
For all these reasons, we are justified in going to war
"deus lo volt" - God wills it
Islamic Empire is flourishing, successful Christians will gain: riches
Indulgences
Emperor Commenus says if you die on the crusade doing God's will, you bypass purgatory and go straight to heaven
Criminals felt it a good option to join the crusades
How did the Crusades benefit the Pope?
Pope Urban II felt that by the "Peace of God" we can let our soldiers leave Christians alone and go fight non-Christians
Refocusses away from problems of Church, as it unites all Christians

Reality:
Christians in Muslim lands are allowed to live unaffected as long as not missionaries
Although, Christians not allowed to rebuild churches = difficult to worship
First Crusade
"Being too poor is not an excuse to disregard the Crusades"
Peter the Hermit
Starts the people's crusade
Raises an army of poor people who are in subsistent living
These people are a year earlier than the nobility
Gathers thousands of people as they march across continent
Not trained soldiers or diplomats
Uneducated peasants
Belgrade massacre
Peasants say we are here in the Byzantine Empire just as you asked
Byzantines shut doors on these dirty people
Peter the Hermit's troops sack Belgrade
Byzantine Emperor then ushers the people's army through the Empire
The people's army continues on
First wave of unprofessionals fed to the disciplined Turkish army
Peter the Hermit and the people's army are massacred
First professional army successful
Take Antioch
Take Jerusalem
Christians are ready to set up in the Holy Land
Byzantine Empire says no you did your job now go home
Turn on each other
Christian fiefdoms set up along Meditteranean
Clicker Question
What is the historical significance of feudalism?
-was the ideal social, political, economic, and military structure of Europe for nearly a millennium - many left out of system
-Entrenched the powerful roman catholic church (struggled for authority with decentralized
-created socio-economic hierarcy which left 90% of the population with a subsistence living and a fear of change - don't want to upset social order - if there is a rebellion and crops are burned then they will starve; cannot imagine leaving farm because don't know if will make living in the cities

-many problems with system which led to the Crusades, Hundreds Years War and Avignon Pope/Great Schism
The Crusading Legacy
The Crusades took on a life of their own
Pope endorses for his own reasons
- Byzantine areas pillaged o crusaders had never seen such wealth and riches o Maurading armies (eg. People's Crusades) can get out of control
- Jewish attacks in Germany o Jews face much hostility by crusaders o Ghettos and identifyable clothing o Pope sends a decree against chaos in Europe o Pope cannot get control of people
- Possible children's crusade o Also not what the Pope intended
- Albigensian Crusade (Cathars) o Since lived high in mountains were cut off from Roman Catholic o Believed in two Gods - blasphomy declared o Crusade sent by Pope to slaughter these Cathars
- Crusades to holy land continued for centuries o Christian Kings sent many crusades for riches and glory
Historical Significance
Crusades become catalyst for major changes
- Sets stage for millennium of hostility and suspicion between Christianity and Islam
- Interest beyond Europe's borders
crusaders return with riches not known in Europe
intellectual interest in what is beyond Europe's borders
11 th
and 12 th
century spread of cities
- increased trade (for luxury goods) o creation of the Mongolian Empire enabled further interaction o 13 th
C. Mongols opened up "Silk Road"
Mongols more concerned about having Empire for economic reasons; trade and safe passage through conquered lands o need for urban centers to distribute goods
Europe did not have well developed cities; now need markets
Cities begin to develop again in Europe
Urban Life
Fairs and marketers' guilds are the center of urban life
Wealthy elites ran urban centers
Craftsmen create a guild together from similar interests; represent on city council
Each guild takes care of their own
(eg) system of charity; leathermaker's family taken care of by guild

Merchants trade
Changes/ shift away from system of feudalism
Equine military need and urban population required surplus food
Agriculture change from 2 to 3 field system
From half fallow field and half used
To 1/3 fields laying fallow; 1/3 wheat; 1/3 nitrogen-rich crops
Unfree peasants and serfs could begin to buy their freedom
The third order "those who work" are making more money
No longer subsistence living; begin to have surplus crops
Historical Significance: The Crusades also spark:
A renewed interest in pilgrimages
- holy pilgrimages
- get out of purgatory quickly by:
having someone else pray for your soul after passing
bank of merit built up by:
charity
visiting holy sites = pilgrimages
- towns serviced the pilgrims o cities sprung up on major pilgrimage routes o large Romanesque churches being built at this time to service pilgrims o markets come up with souvenirs for pilgrims
New monastic tradition
- Mendicants (begging order) such as Franciscans and Dominicans
- Living in the image of Christ
- Response to Cluny Reform and Benedictine order
- Respond to corruption and urban population o Give up materialism o Cannot accumulate wealth o Beg for food and in return minister to the needs of city
Monasteries important for scholars
- Universities begin to develop in Europe in 13 th
C. in cities
- Cities facilitate creativity
- Knowledge of Antiquity unlocked o Knowledge of Antiquity, which is held by Byzantine and Islamic
Empires, being returned to Europe through urban centers
- Urban monks responded to questions of Aritstole's views of the world being eternal and mechanistic
Scholasticism
- Thomas Aquinas and Christian Aristotlelianism o Merging of Christianity and Aristotle's teachings o Rational truth and knowledge vs. Revealed truth o Revealed truth from God always wins out when knowledge conflicts

Divinity is the main object of discussion
Divinity, law, and history were the main forms of Masters degrees
The Crusades

Led to a millennium of hostility
Led to development of international trade
Led to development of cities/ the urban system
Led to development of universities
Led to European interest and involvement with events beyond their borders
Led to renewed interest in pilgrimage
Led to spread of Bubonic Plague
Crises of the 14 th
Century (1300s)
- led to demise of feudalism/ end of medieval era
- plague
- hundred Years War
- Babylonian Captivity and the Great Schism
- reflected in concerrent intellectual movement-Renaisssance watch for:
- destruction of old socio-economic order (feudalism)
- Roman Catholic power and monopoly being challenged
- centralization of states (move away from feudalism)
THE PLAGUE
Bubonic plague/ black death 1348-1351
30-40% of Europe's population died (1/3 of population)
Three types of plague
- Bubonic: most common egg-sized swellings at site of flea bite burn boils called Bubos which hemmorraged under skin fleas carried by rats
4-5 days of survival after bite
- Pneumonic lung infection characterized by vomitting blood, coughing, sneezing
3 days to live
- Septicemia body implodes from disease dead within the day
Terrible, painful, foul-smelling way to die
The Church

People think either God or the church has let them down
Some think it is judgement day
Cannot escape the plague- even monasteries are hurt by plague
Travellers and traders bring plague to the monasteries
Nobility fled to their country estates at an attempt for seclusion
Different Responses
-Eat, drink, and be merry for tomorrow you may die
-Live you final days righteously- pray for your salvation and that of others
-Blaming the elite for fleeing and not providing leadership
-Abandon family members who fall ill
-Flagellantic punishment to repent for sins of humanity
-Scapegoat non-Christians/ sacrifice the Jewish community
Jewish communities were segregated and owned cats - lesser plague disease
The Flagellants
Pious Christians who attempt to take punishment for the sins of humanity
Beat themselves to repent
Effects of the plague
- demographics do not recover for centuries
- better conditions for the poor get rid of 1/3 of the pop. Pressure more land available
- peasant uprisings
Ordinance of Labourers (stating poor must retain feudal ties) led to:
1358 Jacquerie Revolt
1381 English Peasant's Revolt
- Feudal system challenged with fewer laborers, poor could make more money people can demand better wages and working conditions
- questioning the church asking why God has killed so many people clearly, corruption has caused the church to fall and not fulfill duty clerics are dying same rate so they do not have special placement
- shift to vernacular language of the people (shift away from latin) do not have enough learned people to become priests people can begin to understand and question the message of religion
- spread of universities so much learning is being protected since knowledge of antiquity returned since crusades, knowledge has spread
- cities prospered people can return to city life
- new perspectives on death bishops had preached heaven is wonderful, Earth is temporary

since plague was a horrible way to die, people began to fear death
Norman Conquest 1066
-Duke of Normandy invades England vs. Viking King in Denmark vs. the Anglo-
Saxon
King in England
-King absent to run French lands until 1199
-English King of France holds much land in France due to intermarriage
1199 English King loses much French land and must return to England
King relies on Lords/nobility to run England
Habeas Corpus
Important legal development which emerged from the Norman conquest of England
You cannot be arrested without first being charged
1199 English King John is not welcomed home to England
Nobility is used to having power
Lords want the King to acknowledge political rights of the Lords
1215 Magna Carta
Late Medieval France
987 election of Hugh Capet (first feudal king)
Vikings, Magyars, and Muslims attacking

need for feudalism
Capetian line fairly successful; although issues with Duke of Normandy
1328 Capetian line dies out
Due to Sallic law, a far-related male relative is chosen French King over King of
England is Edward III who is a close direct descendant but line relation through mother
Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
-English King refuses to swear homage to French King
-Scottish and Flemish complications
-Scotland supports the French
IClicker what was the historical significance of the plague?
-demographics do no recover for centuries which leads to improved conditions for the poor; foundations of feudal loyalty breakdown
-challenged feudal socio-economic order
-cities prospered and universities spread
-questioning of Roman Catholic Church

Decentralized-centralized states, medieval states, Babylonian captivity Great
Schism
Hundred Years War (1337-1453)
-English King refuses to swear homage to French King
English King is a more direct successor, but it is through mother which is not recognized by French system
English King owns land in France
English King a king in his own right
England is the biggest exporter of wool; major trading partner; big economy
-Scottish and Flemish complications
-Scotland supports the French
-1337 French invasion of Gascony
Four Stages
1. English dominance (1337-1360)
English navy strong (battle of Sluys) plague - France hit by plague first longbows (battle of Crecy)
English recently conquered Welsh, adopted weaponry, advantage
Treaty acknowledges lands owned by English - French bitter
2. French dominance (1360-1396)
1381 Peasant Revolt in England (after ordinance of labor)
English civil war
Spanish alliance to aid French
3. English dominance (1396-1420)
French civil war
King Charles VI a weak king; nobility fight over crown
French lose Battle of Agincourt
1420 Treaty of Troyes - French Charles VI's son to be married to English daughter who will rule; however the male dies and treaty was ignored
4. Henry V and Charles VI died, Charles VII asserted his claim
Joan of Arc: Burgundians capture Joan of Arc and burnt her at the stake
Burgundians: French allies of the English King
France wins the Hundred Years War
Hundred Years War Significance
-nobles gave up power for stability previously, nobility had much power in feudalism, monarch is head of lords who relies heavily on noble vassals breakdown of decentralized ways
-catalyst for strong, unified, centralizing government (The Good Parliament)

-breakdown of political aspects of feudalism *
-sense of identity connected to one's country
Feudal vs.
Government - decentralized
Administration - vassals
Legal system - local
Borders - undefined
Property rights - military
Role of Church - competing w/monarch
Power of Monarch - first among equals
State defined legal centralized professional common law (central) head of the state subservient to monarch
Outline of Europe through 14 th
and 15 th
Centuries
Spain
- slow consolidation of kingdom through marriage of Isabella (Castile) and
Ferdinanad (Aragon)
- Reconquista (1492) - reconquering of Spain
- Daughter wed Habsburg heir
Russian areas
- Mongols of the Golden Horde
- Ivan the Great (1462-1505)
Pushes out Mongols
Began uniting Russia, still decentralized and very much feudal religious influence from Byzantine Empire - Greek Orthodox Church
Italian States
- very fragmented
Northern Italy under control of Habsburgs from Holy Roman Emperor line
Papal States around Rome
French and Holy Roman Emperors fight over south; Spain gains control
- City states
Holy Roman Empire
- mainly Germanic
- decentralized
- attempt to centralize in 1356 failed further weakening of Emperor
Goldenn Bull (1356 created 7 electors/representatives of the Emperor)
Takes away Emperor's power even further because must answer to 7 others
- Habsburg royal family
Islamic Empire
- Seljuk Turkish Empire was disintegrated after Mongol attacks
- 1300 rise of Ottoman Empire
- 1453 fall of Constantinople

- Ottoman Empire defeats the Byzantine Empire and takes over lands
- Ottoman Empire rules from 1300 - 1918
Which political and judicial systems characterized the medieval era?
Decentralized
Feudal
All very fragmented
The crisis of the 14 th
century begin to pull apart the feudal system
Babylonian Captivity (1309-1377)
Religious shift
-13 th
C. failed attempts to fix corruption
-King Philip IV and Pope Boniface VIII power struggle who is more powerful in the localities?
French King Philip tries to tax clergy
Unam Sanctum (1302) Pope's response saying that the Pope is head of absolutely all eclesiastical matters and personnel
-French King arrests the Pope
-Nobles intercede to save Pope's life
-starts off Babylonian Captivity
-Pope dies a year later in captivity
-French King interferes to elect a Pope sympathetic to French
-Pope Clement V sets up office in France
Pope establishes Avignon Papacy hugely unpopular: puppet of French King political secular leader in charge of French
English and Holy Roman Empire particularly peeved
Scottish pleased/ French happy
Papal primacy's legitimacy based in Rome, not France
-Major Doctrinal Issue
-symbol of corruption of Roman Catholic Church
Great Schism (1378-1417)
-1377 Papal Palace moved back to Rome, which is in chaos no strong political leader in Rome since 1309 no upkeep on buildings
-Pope cuts excess bureaucratic positions; weed out corrupt people unpopular with religious leaders - dies
-1378 new Pope continues changes - unpopular - French say illegitimate Pope
-1378 second Pope elected by French religious leaders (moved to Avignon)
-1409 third Pope elected to take away power from other two none give up power; end up with three Popes undermines Papal primacy
-Holy Roman Emperor intervened in 1417 orders a new council of ALL leaders in Europe

dispose of all three previous Popes widespread support of a newly elected Pope
By the end of the medieval era, who wins out?
State wins struggle
ICLICKER
The Babylonian captivity was when the Pope moved his home to Avignon
The Great Schism was when there were multiple Popes claiming legitimacy in
Europe
Significance of Avignon Pope and Great Schism
-addeed to crises during "Age of Anxiety"
-additional loss of confidence in the Church
Apparently Church is more concerned with Earthly gain than religion
(already corruption, the plague, Pope doesn't lead as well anymore)
-state won in struggle for power
England is still continuing to attack during the Hundred Years War
-challenged feudalism through the role of the Church
-spiritual monopoly of Roman Catholic Church coming to an end emergence of heretical groups and eventually the Reformation
Renaissance and the beginning of the Scientific Revolution
Significance of Avignon Pope and Great Schism
-addeed to crises during "Age of Anxiety"
-additional loss of confidence in the Church
Apparently Church is more concerned with Earthly gain than religion
(already corruption, the plague, Pope doesn't lead as well anymore)
-state won in struggle for power
England is still continuing to attack during the Hundred Years War
-challenged feudalism through the role of the Church
-spiritual monopoly of Roman Catholic Church coming to an end emergence of heretical groups and eventually the Reformation critics of church want to develop change within church
(dominicans, fransciscans, mendicants) now people outside of church want to interpret bible in different way
John Wyclif (1370s)
Another parrallel movement with Hus at opposite side of Europe in Bohemia was burned at the stake by Church moved beyond reform within the Church:
-church abuses
(priests have concubines, sell off indulgences and land for gain)
-denied need for intermediary

need to develop personal relationship with God; don't need priest engage in personal understanding of religion, read bible on own priest had their role because of Papal primacy
-emphasized popular piety
-women preachers anybody can stand and lead *extremely heretical in Catholic Church
ICLICKER
The crises of the 14 th
Century:
-led to the creation of the new ideas known as the Renaissance, Scientific
Revolution, and Reformation
-triggered the shift from the medieval to the early modern world challenging of feudalism
-brought about the demise of the political, social, economic, and religious systems of the medieval period
-would lead to new ideas characterized by centralized government, an end to
Catholic monopoly and the end of feudalism
ICLICKER
The following European states were centralizing in the 15 th
Century:
- Spain, England, and France
The following European states were still decentralized in the 15 th
Century:
- Holy Roman Empire and Italy
ICLICKER
What characteristics of the early modern state made it distinct from medieval state?
-centralized government and judicial system
-led by king and nobles
Renaissance :
Way is made for an intellectual development to occur
Italy led the move out of the medieval era
Slow movement from mid-1300s after plague on
Italy
-crossroads of Europe
-beginning of 14 th
C. and later 15 th
C. Rome is center of European Christendom
-trade = populated and wealthy urban centers money to support the arts and education
-independent government not bound by feudalism
-churches, hospitals, and charities locally created
-aristocracy abided by legal and social practices
-education to train accounting, arithmetic composition of business letters highly educated population can be critical of church begin to learn teachings of antiquity
14 th
Century crises fuelled change
-plague first hits Italy
-Rome sent into chaos by Babylonian captivity and Great Schism

Italy is prime location for an intellectual rebirth
Renaissance
"Rebirth" of art, learning, religion, politics, understanding
-break restraints of medieval society
-break against views of feudalism and Roman Catholic Church trying new things, changing, challenging traditional views
Petrarch (1304-1374) context of Age of Anxiety the "Dark Ages" since the fall of Rome, Europe has fallen into "a dark age"
Petrarch is credited with starting ideas of Renaissance his experience is with the crises of 14 th
Century says we can get back the old glory if we pursue the teachings of antiquity, we can build a great modern learned society
-refashion themselves after those in antiquity
-scholasticism to humanism
-from "two forms of knowledge -- reason vs revealled"
-respond to new ideas
-art of persuasion include: rhetoric, literature, ethics, language, and history
-focus on human ability, distance divine intervention
-wanted to change society
Humanism: must understand what you are being told, the context from which that knowledge came, be ethical and truthful in your pursuit of knowledge, read as many ideas out there as possible to have a grounded understanding

then you can put forth an argument, which creates a dialogue between people who are both learned
How much can people really break away?
Beginning of Renaissance still very based in Christian hierarchy
We can see this growth in the arts perspective about Christian figures
Art
-influenced by classical learning subjects (Virgin Mary, Jesus) and techniques (human emotion, colours)
-reflected contemporary influences combined Christianity with civic pride eg. Statue of David
David represents Florence as a city state taking on the huge world
-Pope Julius II a major benefactor of the arts began rebuilding St. Peter's in Rome
St. Peter's Bascillica is an enormous cathedral with intricate art in structure
Politics
-Humanism: leaders are to be virtuous,

exude classical and Christian virtues in order to be loved must have great faith must be prudent and wise in their judgements show restraint, modesty, and practicality in their living
This will bring followers
-Machiavelli
Renaissance political writer influential; but is kicked out of Florence
Cannot apply classical learning full scale
Context required strong leader and challenged humanism
-Renaissance courts used learning and art to display power encourage art that shows wealth and order in cities and countryside
Science
 cont later
ICLICKER
Which of the following are characteristics of humanism?
-argue God gave humans reason, so it is our duty to use it
-believed in arts of persuasion to advance understanding
-inspired developments in art, science, and politics
-focus on achieving human potential
-debunked scholasticism
ICLICKER
What was the historical significance of the Renaissance?
-Humanism was an intellectual shift away from feudalism which led to a shift out of the medieval era
-a catalyst for the Scientific Revolution
-a catalyst for the Age of Exploration
-a catalyst for the Reformation
The Early Scientific Revolution
Science
-influence of Plato and Aristotle
-humanist inquiry resulted in scientific research reason over revelation questioning of God and Church is not going to stop pursuit of reason
-developments in understanding human anatomy and astronomy
-required a shift in physics and metaphysics physics: shift in scientific ability more precise intruments, more accurate experiments metaphysics: intellectual shift its okay to question old forms of authority we were given our reasoning by God
Astronomy (Early Scientific Revolution)

-Copernicus (1473-1543)
-revise calendar with agricultural cycle
-heliocentric ideas
Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
-precise measurements of planetary motion and celestial movement
-no axis
Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
-laws for planetary orbits elliptical and varying rates
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
-use of telescope to look at stars
-heavenly bodies are not perfect this refutes the idea that the heavens are perfect - religious view debunks old belief celestial matter not God's perfect creation use these imperfections (craters on moon) to prove rotation of planets imperfections give a marker to follow as body moves
-planets rotate on an axis
-uniform motion was as natural as inertia the planets spin on an axis and constantly turns
God is the creator who gave the ability to move
Church threatened by idea that heavenly bodies moved independently
-little place for humans and God, challenge to church authority people are not the center of God's universe
Earth is not the center of God's universe
Galileo challenges the way that the church interprets the heavens
Church orders Galileo to recant
Galileo was put on trial and faced execution for heresy = house arrest for rest of life
ICLICKER: Where did the Renaissance begin?
Italian city states (in particular: Florence)
Italy: -central trade location
-wealth - ability to venture and focus on new ideas
-many people outside of feudal authority; urban areas
-independent governments outside of feudal system
-highly educated population
-Petrarch lived in Italy and lived through age of anxiety so questioned life
= Petrarch father of humanism
The Renaissance Spreads North
Not until the 15 th
Century
Gutenberg invented the printing press in the 1450s
Printing Press:

-Creates a standard of learning
-becomes cheaper
= widely distributed, easily accessible, identical copies of texts print shops spread humanism and religious reform eg. a poor child who had basic literary could go to the printing shop to learn
Religious Reform
-Religion in Italian Renaissance important, but public life was at the heart instead
-in north, moral and religious reform were central
-Christian humanists emerged from the north
-Erasmus of Rotterdam encouraged reform from within the church
Age of Exploration
-trade routes closed with decay of Mongol Empire
14 th
Century: Asia Minor/ Middle East conversion to Islam
Barrier created between Europe and Asia
Muslim traders make prices high and dangerous for Christian traders
Crusades still occuring
-need for new trade routes
-high demand for goods from Asia
-sense of adventure
Renaissance gives impression that there is much to learn outside of Europe
Marco Polo and stories from afar
-oceanic travel
-Mediterranean sailors developed technology to make risky ocean travel possible by 1490s
-new sails pick up speed, better navigation than oar galleys, fewer sailors required hull has more free room - better for trade cargo room
-charting stars more accurately for navigation
Portugese Voyages of Discovery
-try to bypass Muslim traders in Africa (Ghana in particular)
-funded by Prince Henry "the Navigator" son of Portugal King
-to gain a foothold in western Africa, they settle to Canary Islands, Cape Verde, the
Azores and the Madeira islands off the coast
-lordships granted to keep islands colonized
-sugar crops beginning of slave labour on plantations by Portugese
Portugese trade for slaves in Africa in order to settle plantations on islands
-eventually traveled around Africa
Portugese navigate complicated winds and coastlines around the continent
-took control of trade ports in Asia
-increased pressure to find and create Christians after the Constantinople fall 1453
Looking for "gold and Christians"
Byzantine Empire gone; European Christians hoping that there are others

Failing this, hoping to gain recognition from God for converting others
Portugal head of European expansion with Spain close on their heels
-1494 Treaty of Tordesillas
Any Portugal could claim any land west of Azores for x miles
(Brazil within Portugal's bounds, rest of Americas Spanish)
Spanish Voyages of discovery led to expedition of Christopher Columbus in
1492
C. Columbus leaves from Portugal
-Jews being kicked out of Spain
-Isabella and Ferdinand royalty of Spain
Columbus discovers Americas
-native people seen as commodities
-no opposition from natives
Columbus lands in Bahamas
-first trip, had left a number of Spanish to the island
-Spanish brought disease that decimated natives
-Spanish killing each other as well as warring with the native population
Estimate 1million to 30 thousand - native population fell drastically
Island could not support everyone
1501 - Amerigo Vespucci concludes that the Americas are not Asia at all map is drawn
Two Major American Empires
Aztec and Inca
Aztec Empire
-Capital city of Tenochtitlan
200,000 people estimated 1 million within the whole valley on market days the city would house 500 000
-relied on heavy taxes to support royal courts
-tribute payments required from the conquered peoples food taxes, slave sacrifices
1519 Hernan Cortes
Cortez - Spanish explorer based in Cuba heard of wealth of Aztecs
Granted a lease by Spanish monarch
Spanish crown revokes this because of Cortez' reputation of raiding
-With 500 men and 16 horses Cortez burns ships upon arrival to prevent men fleeing

-Used the disarray of disease and the discontent of the conquered tribes to fuel attack on the Aztec Empire
-Cortes' insubordination inspired other explorers to find Eldorado the mythical city of gold
Francisco Pizarro used similar methods to destroy the Incas in 1533
Destroys capital city and then rebuilds it as Lima
New Spain
-emigration meant Spanish crown had to control explorers and stabilize the economy
-realize that if the area is settled, there is more wealth to begot
-gaining new lands will raise Spain's prestige and power
-"vice kings" in Spanish colonies: powerful viceroys takes a long time about 2 years for a message to go back and forth to King
-colonize >> encomeindas parcels of land run by a landlord or encomeindor (similar to feudalism) encomeindor converts subjects to Christianity and takes care of them in reality: treated natives as savages and slaves
-missionaries for Native rights
Natives were seen as potential converts
However, missionaries contributed to cruelty against non-Christians
-Las Casas
-harsh treatment and disease destroy indigenious population
ICLICKER REVIEW QUESTIONS
Why was Galileo tried for heresy by the Catholic Inquisition?
-He proved the heliocentric theory challenges the church's view that Earth is center of universe, reduces the role of humans in God's eyes
-He argued that the heavenly bodies were imperfect and that uniform motion was as natural as inertia challenges that God is perfect and everything God creates is perfect challenges that if physics follows natural laws, God's role is diminished
-Scientific philosophies clash with the interpretations of the Catholic Church
Significance of Early Scientific Revolution

-Led to the development of new navigation technology to enable the Age of
Exploration
-Physcological developments: humans capable of great deal
-Paved the way for the Enlightenment
-Although grounded in religious belief, it created additional challenges to the authority of the Roman Catholic Church
-Slow proof of heliocentric model proved the viability of human reason and scientific method
-Cornerstone for intellectual tradition
Significance of the Age of Exploration
-Established an economic/agricultural system in the colonies which relied on slavery
-created Spanish "Golden Age" of wealth and power
-created a model for exploitation of indigenous peoples and lands by European powers
-made global politics part of European politics, economic, foreign/domestic policy when Rome fell, Europe was isolated; now Europe looks out internationally colonialization stimulates the economy as well as causing power struggle in
European foreing policy
RELIGIOUS REFORM
The focus of the Renaissance shifted from civic pride in Italy to religious reform and
Christian humanism in northern Europe.
Pope Julius II rebuilt St. Peters Church in Rome - renaissance leader
Decides to sell indulgences to pay for the building of this church
Tetzel -indulgence peddler: sold purgatory passes
-was in Martin Luther's area in 1517 and Luther thought little of him
-Martin Luther recognized the money-grabbing endeavour of the church
Martin Luther
-was a monk and professor living in the Holy Roman Empire (German)
-well aware of the abuses of the church
-aware of Arasmas, aware of the attempts of reform
-1517 Luther posted 95 Theses to church door in Wittenberg
95 points of reform Luther wants to see wanted to restore church to early state
-complaints were about church abuses: sale of indulgences (especially by Tetzel) greedy and unchaste priests
-greed: priests take tithes from their people even in times of famine
-Luther thought priests should exude purity and be good example

-priests are not supposed to marry so they can completely devote themselves to God and not distracted by carnal pleasures simony
-the sale of church offices
-bishops, treasures, positions can be sold to wealthy; especially the second and third sons to give them a livelihood
-money goes back into the church to fund more building pluralism
-allowing someone to hold more than one position
-one priest could have many parishes and therefore get more money
-do not minister to needs of everybody as effectively nepotism
-giving of church offices to relatives
-especially problematic when giving to priests' illegitimate sons
Painting supporting Martin Luther depicting a church procession large bishop - greedy and fat hog at his feet - everyone wants wealth of a pig priest with his mistress concubine dressed extravagently by fancy clothes the priest paid for two monks are vomitting from alcohol abuse impure and abusing their wealth slaves carrying a high office official or Pope greed of clerics so fat they cannot walk women - nuns are at the back of the procession nuns are carrying food especially sausages - suggesting nuns are not chaste
Luther has lived at a prime reform time
Luther preached in Holy Roman Empire for reform
All attempts previously had failed
Roman Catholic Church being criticised after plague, etc.
Luther's " priesthood of all believers "
-every single person can be their own priest
-Luther questioned the role of the church in individual salvation
-People can be in charge of their own salvation and people do not need an intermediary between themselves and God
-Individuals can know and love God personally and take responsibility for their lives and actions
-Earned salvation through "justification by faith alone,"
Faith justifies an individual's salvation
-People do not need a treasury of merit from penance, indulgences, or good works for the church (crusades, pilgrimages, or charity to go to heaven)
-It should not be the wealthy who have the easiest time at achieving salvation
-Bible was authority sola scriptura - only scripture - Bible is the only reference a person needs
Luther translates the bible into venacular German *printing press important

-People do not need to listen to cleric heirarchy as authority
-challenged transubstantiation
Catholic Church believe the bread and wine literally become body and blood of Christ due to blessing by priest before communion
Luther believes that is in a person's faith that transforms the bread and wine into the body and blood = priest does not create that miracle
Reconquista occuring in Spain with Isabella
Marry their daughter to the Hapsburgs
1519 Holy Roman Emperor Charles V becomes ruler of Spain as well
Austria, Hungary, Burgundy, Germany, Southern Italy, Spain
1520 Martin Luther ordered to recant views
Luther viewed as a rebelious monk and becomes a heretic
Pope calls on Holy Roman Emperor
Charles V invited Luther to the church tribunal to express ideas in Worms
1521 Diet of Worms
Martin Luther was deemed guilty
"Here I Stand" response to Charles V and the Diet of Worms (1521) stood up and claimed that he will never back down, his cause too important
Imperial ban and excommunication
Fredrich the Wise - Saxon - kidnaps Luther to protect him
Luther not executed under the protection of his secular leader
Charles V cannot afford internal war with his electorate
Holy Roman Empire at war over Northern Italy against France
Charles V also at war with Ottoman Empire
Printing Press
Martin Luther's ideas have been widely spread
No longer possible to crush Luther
Not like Lolards and the other reformers that were crushed
Reformation continues
-reformation snowballed
-theological disagreement
-1523 Ulrich Zwingli
Luther and Zwingli debate on transubstantiation disagreed about transubstantiation
Zwingli believes that bread and wine are spirit of Christ
-split in the Protestant church reformation
German Peasant Revolt

-inspired by Luther liberating to be your own priest not bound to pay tithes to Roman Catholic Church take ideas a step further to also challenge the nobility
-Swabian Peasant revolted 1524-1525 peasants set fire to countryside massacred any and all nobility chaos ensued as peasants challenged all authority
-Luther harshly rebuked them
-Luther's ideas attacked the structure of the church, not meant to challenge the social order
-To Luther, peasants were not capable of becoming their own priests because they were uneducated and still needed the churches
ICLICKER
What is the historical significance of Martin Luther?
-ignited the Reformation and permanently created plurality of Christian religions in Europe
-ideas challenged the role of the Roman Catholic Church in individual salvation which also weakened their political power
-reformation sparked over a century of religious wars (would shape e.m. politics)
-would be a catalyst for overseas missionaries
Overview:
1. Reformation cont
-John Calvin
-Radical Reformation (Anabaptists)
-English Reformation (Anglican/ Church of England)
-Catholic Reformation (previously called the Counter-Reformation)
2. Wars of Religion (c. 1530-1648)
-background context
-16 C example of Holy Roman Empire
CHRISTIANS
Protestants:
Lutheran, Calvinist (Presbyterian, Dutch Reform), Zwingli, Anglican
Anabaptists:
Mennonite, Hutterite
Roman Catholic
Greek Orthodox
John Calvin
1536 arrives in Geneva

Begins preaching a new idea of salvation
-predestination: God choses "the elect"
-there is nothing that you can do to earn salvation unless God already determined you are a part of the select few; you cannot know if you are this poses some problems if you are going to heaven, you probably are Godly and never sin, but if you are one of God's chosen then it is the way you handle your sins that verifies
Theocracy
-church leaders run the government
-religion to be above the state
-unsuccessful
Iconoclasm
-to have statues or imagery of God and the Virgin Mary is wrong
-to oppose idols
-Calvins smashed all of the wealth and pictures and were austere living
-plain, austere, never distracted by beauty
Modern-day Calvinism:
Dutch Reform, Protestant, Lutheran, Presberterian
Anabaptists / Radical Reformation
Anabaptists are not protestants
-means re-baptizers rejection of infant baptism conscious choice to be baptized
-believed that leaders of Europe had sold out to worldly goals and were corrupted by nationalism, personal wealth, pushing for things like war
-advocated a rash counter-culture
-church and state separate
-biblical commands taken literally
-pacifists - thou shalt not kill: refuse to participate war
-refused civil oaths and public offices - will not declare themselves to secular
-anabaptists are universally depised by Protestants
Anabaptists were sought out and executed as heretics
Moravia: in Bohemia - anabaptists were the first radicals
Jacob Hutter:
First Anabaptist group
Modern day Hutterites
Organized anabaptists in communities in rural Moravia
Was executed as a heretic
Jan of Leiden seized Munster
Leiden expelled the prince-bishop
Jan of Leiden was an anabaptist, secular and religious leader
Impose extreme laws

Leiden calls himself the extreme lord of the world - becomes dictator
Prince-Bishop crushed the anabaptist movement in Munster
Leiden and two followers put in cages on church wall
Menno Simons
Inspired by Leiden's ideas, but acknowledge failure of imposing religion
Zealous, godly, and passionate ideas of religion
Turned inward and separated themselves from secular
Became the Mennonites
The English Reformation
King Henry VIII - a Tudor d. 1547
"Defender of the Faith" crushes Martin Luther's ideas and was strong Roman Catholic supporter things go wrong when King Henry needs divorce
King Henry VIII needs an heir wife Catherine of Aragon is now in 40s and only has one daughter Mary mistress Anne Boleyn becomes pregnant needed to marry Anne Boleyn to have baby become legitimate
Henry petitions Pope to have marriage to Catherine annuled
Catherine's parents are Spanish Royalty
Catherine's uncle is the Holy Roman Emperor
Holy Roman Emperor wants to protect Catherine and influences
Pope
1534 Act of Supremacy
King Henry VIII becomes the Head of the Church of England
Gives him ability to divorce Catherine
Henry marries Anne Boleyn who gives birth to Elizabeth
Henry marries Jane Seymour = son Edward
Edward VI raised Protestant
- continues his father's church to the Protestant side
- dies young
Daughter Mary raised Catholic
- marries Philip II of Spain
- tries to bring England back to Roman Catholicism
- known as Bloody Mary: killed ~300 protestants (unfair billing but she was on the losing side of England's religion)
Daughter Elizabeth
- Elizabethan Settlement was a religious compromise
- Anglican
The Roman Catholic Reformation

-internal reform key
-Society of Jesus (Jesuits) founded by Ignatius Loyola
- education of Catholics
- priesthood still intermediary; but individuals must understand
- Protestant conversion back to Catholicism
- Involved in missionary activity throughout world
- Spanish support - major colonial power enables missionary work
-Council of Trent (1545 -1563)
- invited Lutheran and Calvinist leaders as well; Catholic focus
- abuses not tolerated
- reinforced Catholic doctrine
•
good works and bank of merit crucial for salvation
•
reject marriage of clergy do not tolerate abuses of simony, concubines, etc
•
reject Protestant stance on indulgences
•
reinforce the Latin version of the Bible
•
confirm Papal Primacy
St Peter gave keys of Rome to the Pope
Reconciliation no longer possible
Context for Conflict
Better control - central government
Problems:
-population recovery from pre-plague levels
-little ice-age: harvest failure due to climate
100-150 years where Europe's temperature drops
-price increases more people, less food, commodity prices inflated
-famine and disease weakened population lowering standard of living huge instability in Europe impacts everyone's daily life
Scapegoating:
-spiritual pollution defies the order of God, bringing instability to community
Spanish Inquisition: to root out heretics by torture witch-hunts: to blame misfortune
Wars of Religion:
-economic, social, political clashes in name of religion local and European scale
Holy Roman Empire

-approx 300 towns and principalities see themselves as independent under the
HRE
-1519 Charles V Habsburg inherited huge areas of Europe
-threats from the French Valois and Ottoman-Turkish Empire distracts Charles V from religious issues
Religion left to develop on its own
-1530 Augsburg Confession
-protestant princes come up with a compromise that they want all princes in the Holy Roman Empire to accept
-princes determine what their religion of their region will be
-Roman Catholic princes do not accept this; they want everyone Catholic
-Civil war ensues
-1547 hostilities end
-1555 Peace of Augsburg
"All Lutheran and Roman Catholic leaders can choose the religion of their territory."
Calvinists not part of this treaty
Compromise preserved the autonomy of the German princes
-Charles abdicates and splits holdings
Creates Western Empire son Philip II: Spain, Italy, Netherlands, New World holdings
Eastern Empire to brother Ferdinand: Germany Austria, Czech Republic,
Hungary, and holdings in the Balkans
Spainish King Phillip II
Defender of Roman Catholic Church
-Spanish Inquisition
-Jesuits
Marries Queen Mary of England
Revolt in the Netherlands which was a political and religious holding
Key territory
Sent in Duke of Alba
Many in Netherlands are Calvanist or Anabaptist
Local princes create civil war to gain power
Financial support of England led to 1579 Union of Utrecht
Creates modern day Netherlands independent
Outline
Wars of Religion
-Spain cont
-Low Countries
-England
-France
-Thirty Years War
Seventeenth-Century Politics
ICLICKER

1. Which event bridged the medieval and early modern eras??
-Plague is in the medieval period
-There are several years of transition
End of the plague/End of 14 th
Century
Renaissance from 14 th
to 16 th
Centuries
-Reformation is in the early modern era
2. When did the Early Modern Era begin?
1350s is beginning to be medieval towards
1400-1517
1450s printing press
3. Which of the following early modern characteristics were distinct from the medieval era?
Centralized state
Religious plurality
Intellectual tradition that works to question and understand (in the vernacular)
Shift in ideas of people in politics
European involvement beyond its borders
Increasing wealth and urban power
REFORMATION AND THE WARS OF
RELIGION
SPAIN
Spanish King Phillip II
Charles' son who inherited the Western Empire
Defender of Roman Catholic Church
-Spanish Inquisition
-Jesuits
Marries Queen Mary of England
Revolt in the Netherlands which was a political and religious holding
Key territory
Sent in Duke of Alba
Many in Netherlands are Calvanist or Anabaptist
Local princes create civil war to gain power
Many princes hold land in France
Financial support of England led to 1579 Union of Utrecht
Creates modern day Netherlands independent
-Revolt in Netherlands was political and religious- key territory
-Sent in the Duke of Alba - people respond poorly

-Large protestant conversion
-Financial support
1579 Union of Utrecht defines Belgium and other borders
Spain's power dwindled
Spend a lot of money in Netherlands and in English reformation
FRANCE
Up until 1555 being squished by Hapburgs
After 1555 France turns in with religious struggle
Wars of Religion internal during the 16 th
century
Greatest population is Roman Catholic
10% of population converts to Calvinists = Huguenots took hold in the south
Paris has very few Protestants (in relative terms)
France has influential noble supporters of Huguenots, which plays a huge role in politics in the mid to late 16 th
century
Kings were distracted
Religion not a huge issue with the young kings who have external distractions
Mother Catherine Demetiche:
She controls the kingdom under each of her young sons who rule
Mother marries her Catholic daughter to a Protestant noble Henry IV
Catholics in Paris do not accept the Protestant visitors for the wedding
Even King Charles IX is getting anxious of Protestants in Paris
As a pre-emptive measure, orders the assasination of the few major
Protestant leaders who are in Paris (for the marital celebrations)
All Protestants are targetted, not just those the King charged
Instead, chaos ensues
St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre (1572)
In three days, 3000 Protestants are killed in Paris
Word of this spreads through the countryside and all Protestants are killed
Civil war until Henry IV
Henry IV inherits French throne (through his marriage) and converts from
Protestant to Roman Catholic
First, passes Edict of Nantes (1598)
Religious toleration of Protestants
Protestants granted rights

ENGLAND
No civil war
Elizabethan settlement
Elizabeth was a Protestant, but settled the English religious issue by creating the
Church of England as a compromise
Puritan dissent
Reformation not enough
Roman Catholics not satisfied by Elizabethan settlement
Elizabeth is excommunicated by the Pope
Ireland is predominantly Roman Catholic, supports the rebellion against
Elizabeth
Problems in Ireland as England trying to colonize
Elizabeth dies the Virgin Queen without any heirs
Nearest relation is the Protestant Mary Queen of Scots
Elizabeth Supported Dutch
Mary Queen of Scots was involved in many Roman Catholic plots to overthrow
Elizabeth because Mary wanted the English throne
Mary Queen of Scots in with the Spanish King Phillip (who was married to Bloody
Mary — Elizabeth's sister)
Spanish shipping
Elizabeth creates a legal pirate system to attack Spanish ships
"Economic embargos"
Spain attacks England
Netherlands are important to Phillip as he wants to attack England
Elizabeth is involved in supporting revolts in Netherlands
1588 Spanish Armada
Spain attacks from a Dutch port
England sails out to meet them
Dutch hear of England and cut anchors to sail out quickly
Storm blows in, Spanish ships cannot anchor, crash against Brit shores
England defeats Spain by "Protestant Winds"
Painting:
Wars of Religion are politically motivated

Cow = Netherlands
Elizabeth feeding the Dutch revolution of the Netherlands
Phillip trying to control the Dutch
Powerful of the Dutch Princes is milking the cow for all its worth: to hopefully become king one day
France is holding onto the tail, hang on, follow revolts around, don't interfere, hopefully the great powers of Spain and England will defeat each other
Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
-1555 - 1618 peace within the Holy Roman Empire, but with growing tension
1555 Charles abdicates, splits empire, peace of augsburg lets princes choose their own religion (either Lutheran or Roman Catholic) brings religious stability
Growing tensions due to growing number of Calvinists who are not recognized
Princes who do convert their religion causes issues because everyone within their region must convert to the Prince's religion
Causes chaos for the people living within the localities
People could leave to be able to practice their religion elsewhere, but did not get land and forfeit their wealth
King of Bohemia reneged on promises
1618
Bohemia is a religiously open area
King is elected in by promises of supporting Protestants
But King is a Hapsburg and he turns on his promise by trying to convert back to
Roman Catholicism
Royal Palace in Prague is stormed (While King Mattais is not there, all staff and nobility are put on trial and thrown out the palace windows)
Defenestration of Prague
Frederick is the elector of the Palatinate
Frederick is a Calvinist Protestant sympathetic to the Protestant movement
Hapsburg disagree with this
Civil War erupts between the Holy Roman Emperor and his Elector Frederick
Snowballs

European wide involvement as external influences get pulled into this civil war
Royal relatives pulls in England and Spain
Sweden is Lutheran and wanting to expand
France looking to expand
Devastation results
Armies (pillage plunder and rape as they move through territories) move across Europe and damage localities as raze crops and kill those of different religions
Think: later England is in a good point to expand because Britain has not been devastated by the war,
More deaths result from technology
Volley fire
Guns more reliable
Peace Treaty to end the Thirty Years War
1648 Treaty of Westphalia
Recognizes Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinists
Protects property of people with different religious beliefs than leader
Netherlands recognized as an independent state
Spain loses most of European lands
(Spanish power deminishes:
Treasure ships from New World slowing down
Periods of economic inflation
Loss of influence and land in Europe)
Prussia - one of the large territorial leaders who comes out of the Thirty Years War
Significance of the Thiry Years War
-massive death and destruction
(additional instability: plague revisiting Europe)
-recognition of religious plurarlity in HRE
-shifting balance of power in HRE
- Emperors lost power(does not make sense to have Holy Roman Emperor in a land of plural religions)
- growth of Brandenburg-Prussia in the north
-Habsburg Austrian Empire in south increases power

-Netherlands independent
- Spain lost most of European lands
-French power grew in political influence
-End of Wars of Religion
ICLICKER
- mass death and destruction would shape developing economies of East and
West
- Religious plurality in the HRE o Holy Roman Emperor loses power
- Increase power of France, Branden-burg-Prussia, Austria o Western economy in better condition
- Decrease power of Spain (through Dutch independence; economic decline)
S
EVENTEENTH
- C
ENTURY
P
OLITICS
Eastern Europe
-lands have been largely ravaged by Thirty Years War
-fairly free from western influence
-consolidation of power
West
-while the lands were affected by the Thirty Years War, these countries become powers and gain influence
-England left as an untouched power
-colonial clashes between France, England, and the Netherlands
Austria and Brendenburg-Prussia
-development of raw materials to rebuild economies forests, agricultural grains, urban development supplying colonial trade
-huge demands for wood and grain by colonizing western powers
-nobility become very wealthy from these rural industries
Nobility key to developments
-become harsh rural leaders to maximize productivity
-peasants become endebted to the nobles and became tied to land = serf
-armies kept by nobles gives them influence to Emperor
-froze out cities from politics conservative, old-world leadership
-King leader, nobility support him, King only has to answer to God, therefore absolutism advocated, nobility happy with their absolute leaders in the East
-froze out cities, exploited serfs, maintained armies, absolutism

RUSSIA

t.b.continued

.
ICKLICKER
What were the characteristics of Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia
- Rural Power base o Raw material economy based on crops and timber (western navy) o Cities are frozen out of the political process because power in rural
S
EVENTEENTH
- C
ENTURY
P
OLITICS
Eastern European powers include Brandenburg-Prussia, Austria, Russia
(emerging)
RUSSIA centuries of chaos caused by noble-tsar struggles
Ivan vs. nobility power struggle
Polish ambitions and Cossack rebellions - encouraged nobles to give power to
Poland was powerful at this time and trying to expand into Russia
Cossacks were uprising against Russian power
Romanovs
All come together under Peter the Great
Nobles of the localities had to give up some authority in order to unify and centralize the country
Russia becomes a major power in the East
Peter I "Peter the Great"
- west was a model o ambitious, charismatic, good leader o convinces nobility that Europe is growing and becoming powerful; need to stop letting internal strife lead to a lack of recognition on the international stage
- advance technology o impressed with European culture, knowledge, and economy o wants to bring this to Russia o creates munitions plans, military, navy
- economic development
- cultural revolution o wants to reshape nobility in Russia o nobles no longer supposed to wear tradition clothes and beards
- reorganizing government o builds on model of King Louis XIV o absolute rule o builds glorious city of St. Petersburg on a marshland and a builds a royal palace in western style to show the wealth and power of Russia

o reshapes noble classes into a hierarchy; achieve higher status according to how well you accept Peter's rule and changes o brings in bureaucrats for day-to-day government duties: chosen by
Peter if they have aptitude and dedication; not inherited offices
develop military and navy o expand North and west
St. Petersburg is a port into the Baltic Sea
From St. Petersburg expand into Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania o Peter entered the military as a footsoldier and worked his way up the ranks to learn militarism
Absolutism and Constitutionalism
Absolutism - describes the extraordinary concentration of power in royal hands
France
Under feudalism, the King responded to the nobles and asked their permission for such things as building an army (b/c that is noble authority)
Divine Right of Kingship - belief that rulers were divinely ordained by God o Reformation important to ideological change o Kings have personal relationship with God under Protestantism
Constitutionalism - King's rights are limited to a common body of government; guarantees rights of nobility
Stuart family
Scotland is Protestant > Calvinist > Presbertyrian
James was raised as a Puritan in Scotland
Presbertyrians want the Church of England to change to
Episcaspy: Religious hierarchy wher James is head of the Church of
England
Elizabeth Virgin Queen dies and the throne is left to the son of Mary Queen of Scots:
James I's (1603-1625) policies magnify challenges left by Elizabeth
- Debt: financing wars in Spain and Netherlands and attempts to colonize
Ireland
- Religious policy: Elizabethan settlement of Anglican Church o Roman Catholics want taken back to original church o Puritans want more reform because still looks Catholic
Political/Economic
- Divine Rights and circumvented Parliament
- Indirect taxation and patronage
Religious

refused to institute reforms acceptable to Puritans (Plymouth in the New
World)
Catholics hoping for a religious compromise because they are not allowed to worship openly, must attend Church of England, o Gunpowder plot is hatched by Roman Catholics to blow up parliament
Parliament is getting stronger
King Henry up until Elizabeth use Parliament
James doesn't want to always ask Parliament for permission
Taxation on imports and ale (not popular)
Patronage: giving government offices to bureaucrats who support him to undercut
Parliamentary political power
Parliament did not let James get too carried away because James acknowledged the legal restrictions on his power
James I's son is Charles I who believes in absolutism
Charles I (1625-1649)
Exasperated the issues left him
- still left with James I's debt
- tries ways to gain money o billetting out troops at the expense of host family o forces loans from the nobility o pervaence: goes around country and stays with nobility to cut his own household costs; mooching the old traditional duties o saves money by not maintaining house and army o ticks off the Scots with episcaspy
Scottish civil war to deal with
Short and Long Parliaments of 1640
- Short Parliament is called for Charles to ask permission to raise taxes to fund
Scottish civil war; Parliament will not grant until Charles listens; Charles dissolves
- Long Parliament: Charles needs later that year to call Parliament for help; listens to what they have to say and institutes change out of need; agrees
Paliament must be called every three years
= Parliament a permanent branch of government
Civil War
- Religious controversy of civil war o Oliver Cromwell
Puritan leader of the "roundheads" leads civil war against Charles I
- 1649 Parliament voted to execute Charles o Charles tried with treason against Parliament
(Notice that treason used to be against the king)

Cromwell takes over and runs a military dictatorship o Many people are horrified by this regicide o Scots flip: yes they wanted Charles put in place but didn't want regicide; Scots then turn on Cromwell and civil war against him
Cromwell's military dictatorship (1649-1660) o Debt and religious intolerance
1660 Charles II was invited home o same issues as his father and grandfather o also believes in Divine Right of Kings and dislikes Parliament
James II o Same as brother Charles II o Married to a Protestant woman; daughter marries Catholic o Remarries French Catholic Princess
Has a boy
Catholic heir to the English throne o Catholic sympathies were the final straw o Sparks glorious revolution
Glorious Revolution of 1688
- Parliament invites Mary Stuart and William of Orange to rule jointly
- James flees Britain
- Parliament installs the new King and Queen
- Bloodless revolution
Bill of Rights and the Toleration Act
- First act of Mary and William to sign for Parliament
- Bill of Rights a political act o Rights against imprisonment (Habeus Corpus) o Limits the power of the Monarchy o No Catholic can succeed the throne of England
- Toleration Act a religious act o Any form of Protestant religion to be allowed
Deals with Puritan Calvinists
Makes it illegal for Catholics to worship/hold gov offices
John Locke
Political theory stated that the relationship between the King and the people was a bilateral contract which if broken by the king, required people to act
(ie) if the king isn't fulfilling responsibilites, people should rebel
ICLICKER
Which King was beheaded in England in 1649? Charles I
- power struggle between parliament/nobility and monarchy
- Charles I sees himself as an absolute ruler

What form of government did England adopt in the seventeenth century?
There are a number of years (11 years of Cromwell) of Republic
Constitutional Monarchy
What is the significance of the Glorious Revolution?
- political theorist John Locke argued it was now the people's responsibility to revolt against a poor leader (basis for liberalism and French Revolution)
- England's Kings governed with Parliament's consent
- Established England as a constitutional monarchy
- would bring about domestic security in England's to allow them to focus on expansion
The Seventeenth Century Cont..
-Absolutism (cont) France
-Dutch Golden Age
-Paper Expectations
-Midterms
-war (1610-1649) left huge debt
Thirty Years War
Trade wars with England and the Dutch: colonial power struggle
Raises taxes to deal with debt
-taxation, famine, disease
-Peasant Revolt (1648) Fronde in response to poverty and needing bread
Young Prince Louis (10yrs) must flee Paris because of the revolt
This scares him and decides he will never have to flee from his people
-Colbert (advisor) reorganized government for efficiency and centralized control
(intendant, patronage)
-Census: identifies young men of military age will occur regularly to determine crop productivity when crops year good, peasants can bear higher taxes when crop yield poor, low tax to prevent peasant revolt
King stops letting nobles collect taxes
Intendants are merciless tax collector; efficient nobility and peasants hate
Patronage: people who are appointed to government office because they are efficient at their job

Louis XIV
King Louis 14 th
builds on policies of Colbert to gain absolute power
-absolutism and divine right of kingship became hallmark of his power
-answerable to no one but God while it was fine in England with Protestant leadership, France is largely
Roman Catholic; however, the Roman Catholic Church is no longer as influential; shows that the power struggle is now over
-power over religion
- revoked the Edict of Nantes
- Calvinists in Southern France can no longer worship openly
- Catholicism is the religion of the state
-circumvented Estates-General
- does not need to consult the representatives of the people
- Louis will not call government
- Louis does not need to call them about taxation because he is efficient and effective at tax collection so don't need to raise them; no economic reason to call on body
-focussed energy and loyalties on the crown through patronage and court life
- Versailles lavish huge palace that can house ten thousand people outside of the city of Paris (safety issue: recall mobs of the Fronde) if nobility wish to see the King, they must visit Versailles everybody wants to live at Versailles and get access to the King
- gets nobility involved without giving them power
- if you have access to the King, you have political voice and economic opportunities (beaurocratic position, shipping to new world, etc)
- nobles move from localities towards Versailles
- nobles traded political and military power for economic and social clout
- in order to be involved, you need to be at Versailles
- nobles compete to get access to King
- most coveted position was emptying the King's chamber pot because it guaranteed access to the King's rooms daily
- all royalty in Europe coveted Louis
- however, in the end it is not a successful way to rule
- to give positions in military and keep leaders busy, would wage war
- modelled himself as a great warrior of antiquity with divine power

- half a century of wars resulted in limited gains and over burden of taxation for the
French people
- had lost many colonial possessions
- these problems haunted France after Louis' death in 1715
- led to the French Revolution
The Dutch Golden Age
- replaced Spain and Portugal in trade
- struggling with England and France to be colonial power
Why can the Dutch hold power?
- unique positioning to promote trade
- many cities/dense urban centers/ urban system to transport, craftsmen to fashion raw materials, skilled population
- maritime country, proximity to the Baltic Sea (trade route: wood, timber, grain from Scandinavia and Brandenburg-Prussia)
- can feed an urban population; can build navy; skilled seamen population
- technology and institutional advances were edge in international shipping
- ships that are lighter and faster, bigger hulls for trade
- banks created
First Bank in Amsterdam - investment in public and private companies more money to go around if a venture were to fail, there would still be an ability to continue trade government is there to pick up after crises government can build more ports and docks and finance ship building etc government also able to make lots of money eg) Dutch East India Company was partially funded by the government, banks, and private investors
- new consumption patterns devloping craftsmen and merchants get rich people can spend money on hosting parties, buying art,
- class shift no longer nobles vs. peasants but a rising urban class which is the antecedant of the middle class after the industrial revolution

- extreme wealth eg) great Tulip Crises there was a huge fad of the tulip: shows the cutting edge of fashion
Eventually colonial loss
- lost ground due to British and French competition and internal weaknesses
- political system not central, Dutch princes ruled jointly
ICLICKER
Which countries were major developing powers in 17 th
Century Eastern
Europe?
Austria, Russia, Brandenburg-Prussia
Which countries were major developing powers in 17 th
Century Western
Europe?
England, France, Netherlands
What was the significance of Louis XIV's reign?
-Creted hallmark for absolutism in Europe which would become basis for opposition in Enlightenment thought and eventually liberalism
-Left France with a legacy of debt and overtaxation (key in igniting French
Revolution)
-Ended religious plurality in France
-By-passed political process of Estates-General
UROPEAN
XPANSIONISM :
The New World
-1650s glut in spices led to development of addictive cash crops
(ie. sugar and tobacco)
Colonial powers were not making enough money by pepper, other spices
Therefore, need to establish plantations
-Indigenous population not suitable for slavery in terms of labour, indigenous not good slaves the population had been decimated due to disease surviving indigenous are being pushed away and flee west however, already had plantation models from Africa

Transatlantic Economy
-Mercantilism
-country's wealth/power = capital and bullion wealth of country dependent on ability to trade bullion is an item (eg. gold and silver) that has certain value; not coin
-zero-sum there is a finite amount of capital in the world all countries are competing not enough for all to go around if ensure the most trade more money more power do this through colonialism for the benefit of the country
-in theory, Atlantic Triangle increased efficiency
-efficient shipping techniques
-a ship is always full; going between three different points:
(1) Africa to pick up slaves
Drop off slaves in New World
(2) Pick up raw materials and goods (sugar, cotton, tobacco)
Take goods to home country
(3) Trade raw materials for finished goods at home country
Take finished goods to Africa to trade for slaves
-increased reliance on naval power
-to defend triangle of trade
-colonial monopolies
-protect economic interest
-navigation acts and tarriffs
-ensure that every colony is only trading with the home country
*All for the benefit of the home country
Britain in North America
-John Cabot came to Newfoundland in 1497
-was not an exploratory mission, but a venture for fish
-English emigration of unemployed and Puritans
-Jamestown Virginia, 1607
-Virginia Company
-private venture: investors had rights
-only if you put money into the company did you have political voice
-servants or workers not "citizens"
-crown founded plantations to save colony, led to increased demand for slave labour
-Britains only survive because of indigenous peoples
-Crown developed plantations to help colonize

-James I is the first critic of tobacco; but goes ahead due to economic reason
-First Nations populations were marginalized
Politics of Empire
-religious colonies developed north,
-North not wealthy so not much crown involvement, still important
(leading to American Rev)
-often in direct conflict with French and Dutch colonies
-as Dutch golden age falls, Dutch leave North America
-explorer Jacques Cartier led to thinly populated developments of French citizens
-much different that English colonies
-little personal incentive for French to colonize, still an important part of Empire
-French peasants do not want to go
-English felt religious persecution and wanted to colonize New World
-French nobles have no economic incentive to trade/no private ventures
-France grants people rights to trade; but most profits come back to King
-will make it harder for French to hold land in future
-France will lose new world holdings over a series of wars
-France does not have as well developed colonies; more difficult to defend
Seven Years War (1756-1763)
-England and Prussia vs. France and Austria
-Britain wants to one-up France; they are limited to expand in New World because of French holdings
-Britain and Prussia are very successful; Prussia expands in Europe
-Treaty of Paris
-Britain able to take over French North American colonies and India
CIENTIFIC
EVOLUTION :
The Philosophers
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
-political philoshoper from England under Queen Elizabeth
-use science to understand politics and the way that society works
-empirical method
-patient, systematic observation and experimentation
-"rule in religion and nature, as well as civil administration"
-same time as Henry: expand powerbase/mercantilism
-supports navigation systems: to better naval trade
-compiles information on Virginia

first dictionary of indigenous language if you know the people, you can know how to trade with them
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
-Discourse on Method
-"I think, therefore I am" base knowledge on fact; ability to think proves us as human; allows us to expand our knowledge you can think your way to understanding the world developing from humanism and antiquity
-Cartesian Dualism sums up role of religion allows that God is the creator and maker; but takes God out of the actor
God does not control nature nor the way that people act
Issac Newton (1642-1724)
-gravity
-orderly earth and heavens laws of motion human beings are apart of that nature way to understand society
-were made this way by a spiritual force up to humans to understand the spiritual force driving nature
-epitaph reads:
"Nature and Nature's Laws lay hid in Night. God said, 'Let Newton be,' and all was Light."
Through Newton's ideas we come to understand human nature
Where does all of this leave God?
Even hardcore scientists believe in God
However, scientists believe in a need to understand God
Creationist views
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
Lives through Charles II, civil war, Cromwell
-Leviathan
-ideal state had strong sovereign to control inevitable clash of people's desires
-people are individuals, all pursuing selfish best interests which may not be best for society as a whole; therefore need central power
-people are equal
-views people as mechanistically as he views nature

-state was a machine:
-run by laws
-machine kept in good order by skilled technician (ruler)
-leader embodies the state: body of the state is the people
Influence of the Scientific Revolution
-Newton's laws understanding was possible
-religion and politics were closely tied to science science helps us understand people
- scientific philosophers are everywhere that is major learning scientists in universities, academics (professional organizations of scientists), royal courts, salons, and publications (in peer-reviewed journals)
-developed into Enlightenment and the Age of Reason
Age of Reason
-Enlightenment was an intellectual and social movement (began in France)
-looking for human connection to nature
-universal laws of nature made it easier to question hierarchy, inequality and traditional forms of authority
-in particular, the old political systems; even though feudalism is gone, the ideas of King and hierarchy are still there
-science shows that matter is equal, then people are viewed as equal; since there is order in the universe there is order in nature, order in society
-distancing of science from philosophy
-debate the nature of political philosophy
-subjects of monarchs were becoming the citizens of nations
Philosophes
-develop ideas that will allow for political change
-people must think of themselves as thinkers and critics (not sinners) no longer need to only concern yourself with ultimate salvation
ICLICKER
What was the significance of the Transatlantic Economy?
- allowed governments to pursue mercantilism
- led to the build up of huge navies, resulted in European politics being played out in colonies
- fed the growth of colonies and the slave trade
- allowed for massive wealth to flow into Europe and build a middle class

What was the result of the Seven Years War?
- Britain gain North America and India
The intellectual movement of subjects of monarchs becoming citizens of nations was called The Enlightenment (Age of Reason).
Distinction between philosophy and science
What century was the Enlightenment?
18 th
Century / 1700s
Enlightenment/ Age of Reason
Philosophes
-develop ideas that will allow for political change
-people must think of themselves as thinkers and critics (not sinners)
-no longer need to only concern yourself with ultimate salvation
-empirical knowledge and intelligibility of the world
-to overthrow traditional "oppressive forces" said old laws and institutions favoured elite lack of education and ignorance had been imposed on the people by the church, has made it impossible to challenge old bonds of authority need to come up with new laws need to promote education among the masses happens in Protestant countries and urban centers
-centered on middle class/order
-reason denied aristocratic privilege
-Enlightenment will lead to happiness
-want order, education, tolerance, and justice for all; not just the nobility
-advocate that everyone (including wealthy) should pay taxes
-salons - elite patronage philosophes are patronized by the elite salon culture becomes popular wealthy entertained the philosophes in their parlors to converse can see the beginning of women into intellectual culture women were the ones who "ran" the conversation if men became too defensive about debates, women diffused situation
-elite families also patronized the sciences parents educated children
-coffee houses developed meeting place of intellectuals common place for students
-Diderot, Encyclopedie
The first encyclopedia contains all current knowledge and understanding

All learning from Scientific Revolution
Knowledge accessible to everybody; education is expandind
Was editted by Diderot
Voltaire
-believed in laws of nature and human ability through education science can teach us about human condition/behaviour in order to tap into the huge human potential, must be educated
-humans must struggle to overturn centuries of habits and politics
-England is the ultimate example of success
England in the 1760s:
- Parliament has taken power
- Glorious Revolution
- Controls Monarchy if in best interests of the people
- Gained many colonies
- Emerging as THE global power
- Prosperity and stability
- England only has to be involved in wars it wants to be in
Englightenment Thinkers
When speak religion - variation (Catholics, deism, atheists)
Politics
-Montesquieu
-believed laws were not meant to be arbitrary
-agreed with Locke's tabula rasa people are born as blank slate and become who are raised to be it is easy to educate people because they are blank slates
-education led to more liberal laws the more people are educated, the less you will need laws it is ignornace that causes rulebreaking
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract
-believed men consented to be governed
-government acted by will of the people
-always need laws and need to put faith in the government
-citizenship had many demands requires rationalle, reason, ability to converse in stable and civil manner
-not possible for women to participate

women are highly emotional and are unable to be rational
-women to nurture the emotional life of men
Economics
-Adam Smith
-believed in laissez-faire hands-off; no government involvement, invisible hand guides
-"it is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest" — A.Smith
-others wanted reform for collective peasant communes idea of organizing economic units and allowing them to be self-sufficient
Women and the Enlightenment
-Mary Wollstonecraft
Vindication of the Rights of Women
-without responsibility of citizenship, education and economic independence, women were not worthy of their domestic duties
-once you are educated, you should have a say in politics
-women need to be able to act as an economic person, to have a job, to participate in local economy, so that they can raise good citizens
American Revolution
-Britain wins colonies after Seven Years War with France
-British increased taxes of colonists after 1763 pay off debts from war
-Sugar Act and the Stamp Tax not well received
North Americans not allowed to buy sugar from the Spanish close to home
British raise the cost of sugar
Stamp Tax on any legal document and newspaper
-Mercantilist policy: all the tax money is being funneled back into England
-ideas of citizenship, routine independence in politics from Britain, loose economic ties and Locke's bilateral contract all led to rebellion
-1774 and 1775 Continental Congresses resulted in consensus of independent colonies
-being taxed without representation
-are citizens but do not have a voice in parliament
-colonies ask Britain for right to rule selves
-July 4 th
1776 the Declaration of Independence signed, to be recognized in 1783

-creation of army and navy and French involvement led to civil war forced recognition of independence
Other Revolutions
-Atlantic community of Enlightened thinkers
-rhetoric of citizenship
-Irish and Dutch (originally British colonists) revolts quelled by giving concessions to urban and middling classes middle order/colonists pushing for recognition of rights
The British colonists are not recognized
Given some representation in Parliament
Crises in France 1780s
Leading to the French Revolution
-Louis XIV (14 th
) left huge amount of debt that was continued to Louis XVI (16 th
)
France cannot gain a lot of money in 18 th
century to pay off debts from
Versailles and war
-old and new debts increased old tensions in France under Louis XVI (16 th
) ie. intendents
-Louis XVI in 1774 weak leadership
Marie Antoinnette is Austrian Hapsburg: traditional enemy of France
-1788 crop failure famine will be characteristic for a long time
-Calling of Estates-General
Enlightened principles drove new reforms
ICLICKER
Which of the following was not a catalyst for the American Revolution?
-puritan ambitions of developing a religious state
Catalysts for the American Revolution:
-An Atlantic community of Enlightened thinkers
-Growing Rhetoric of citizenship
-Stamp and Sugar Taxes
-Routine political and economic independence from Britiain
Who were the philosophes?
-thinkers and critics, not sinners

-largely from the middle class
-intellectuals who wanted to use reason and scientific knowledge to create citizens
-Enlightenment advocated of subjects of monarchs becoming citizens of states
-wanted to overthrow (not just question) old forces of hierarchy
What was the significance of the Enlightenment?
-division of science and philosophy
-creation of rhetoric surrounding citizens of nations
-provided an intellectual model for the Am Rev and Fr Rev
*middle classes demanding a political voice
-sketched out the principles upon which liberalism was built
*liberalism becomes foundation of democracy
The French Revolution
Crises in France 1780s
Leading to the Fr Rev:
-Louis XIV (14 th
) left huge amount of debt that was continued to Louis XVI (16 th
)
France cannot gain a lot of money in 18 th
century to pay off debts from
Versailles and war
-old and new debts increased old tensions in France under Louis XVI (16 th
) ie. intendents
16 th
Century
-Louis XVI in 1774 weak leadership
Marie Antoinnette is Austrian Hapsburg: traditional enemy of France
-1788 crop failure famine will be characteristic for a long time
-Enlightened principles drove new reforms
Louis' Solution
-Calling of Estates-General
Estates-General:
Very feudal-looking old political body
- First Estate: clergy
- Second Estate: nobles
- Third Estate: commoners
-Where do the middle and professional classes fall? Third Estate.
-Each Estate has equal say, so the Third Estate is usually outvoted.
-Third Estate argues that it should have twice as many vote to give it even footing with the other two estates.
-Many supported the Third Estate - it was the nation

Louis does not realize that the first and second estate have members who will side with the Third Estate. Some nobles and clergy are enlightened thinkers as well: principles of Christianity and see results of middling classes in colonies (Ireland,
American Revolution etc.)

The Third Estate Wakens
-representative were educated and wanted a voice.
-May 1789 crwon didn't define program
-cahiers de doleances
-wanted a constitution
National Assembly (1789-1791)
-June 17, 1789 voted for a National Assembly by the Estates-General
-traditionally would have been outvoted by nobles and clerics but a national assembly was passed
-locked out by Louis on June 20 organized themselves in an indoor tennis court
-Tennis Court Oath swear that they will not disband until there is a constitution
-Slowly joined by first and second estates
-Paris was volatile approximately 60,000 people are unemployed
-Louis brought in military fearing for his safety, military will protect Louis
Louis has lost political control
Population of Paris feels under threat because of military presence
Louis dismisses a reformist minister
Paris explodes
-demonstrations, looting
-storming of the Bastille July 14 the old prison where those who challenged or objected to King were thrown more symbolic of tearing down old French monarch
-bread riots in countryside
-think back to 1788 crop failure - effects continuing
-people of countryside are starving and still being squeezed by intendants for taxes
-some quite bloody as farmers kill nobility
-Aug 4: some nobles and clerics renounced feudal dues, rights, and tithes

-puts French people on the same legal footing as nobility
-Aug 27: Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
-Louis is given his powers by people
(can suspend legislation for two sittings of legislature)
(can veto something for up to three years)
(will still become law if it is still present after three sittings or at four years)
(therefore if it is important, it will go through)
-far from absolutist rule
-shows a legal end to feudal order
-no longer church tithe
-ability to compel peasant labour is illegal
-end of old priviledged powers
Bread Riot March on Versailles
-Louis calls military again
-Grain shortage motivates the women of Paris to march to Versailles
-Popular militia becomes named the "national guard" new rhetoric: shift to guarding the people AGAINST the King
-Force King to open up the royal reserves of grain
-Louis forced to Paris by the women and National Guard
1790 focus:
How to organize constitutional monarchy and economy?
Significant Focus
-Civil Constitution of the Clergy (controversial)
-end of tithe, lost lands, became government employees
-turned hereditary local offices into elected offices
-people have a voice in the governing of their locality
-constitution did not guarantee freedom of the press or assembly, or universal suffrage: power still in elite hands
(power still in elite hands, but definition of elite expanded: all wealthy people)
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy:
-Government takes over wealthy lands of monasteries/nuneries as a way to finance the governments
-Make the Clergy a department of government
-Cleric therefore become government employees who must swear a secular oath (to something other than God is controversial)
-if swear oath, no longer apart of Roman Catholic Church by Pope
-if don't swear oath, then lose job

-Countryside is minimally educated where church is still the most important part of their lives; they are not enlightened and still rely on their clerics for relationship to
God; if clerics are not recognized by Pope, the people feel lost
Challenges to Constitutional Monarchy
-Louis XVI not a fan of constitutional monarchy; forced to be it; does not support system
-aristocrats (ie. emigres) would like to see old traditional rights brought back flee France for Austria and Prussia
Austria and Prussia are still following absolutist rule want to attack France and force it back some stay in France to counter-revolution
-women did not gain any political voice are not granted a place anywhere in the constitution
-Parisian workers labourers, shopkeepers, workers of Paris do not have the wealth to vote or to run for political office although are exposed to ideas of enlightenment (cafes)
-pious peasants removed from Paris and ideas of enlightenment are not happy because Church that they know has been destroyed
-old regime in Europe what is stopping the revolution from spilling over into Austria and Prussia?
Result:
Due to opposition the constitutional monarchy collapses within one year
1791 Louis tries to flee
Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
-National Assembly had completed its objectives
-Jacobins wanted republic, Girondists were leaders
-Declaration of Pilnitz signed by Austria and Prussia in particular the emigres personal security of French King must be maintained or Austria/Prussia will invade
Legislative Assembly sees this as an opportunity to rally the people behind a cause
War declared on Austria and Prussia
France is in deep trouble
The military is weakened
Famine

Divided
Lost core of officers through the emigres
Enlightenment also infiltrated the military
France losing war
Legislative Assembly blames Louis
Louis attacked with blame for military losses, food shortages, and debt
Disenfranchised were radicalized
(those without a vote became radicals) heavy burdens on the people of France and France is not winning
Louis was forced to wear a "liberty cap" to support a republic
ICLICKER
In what order did the French governing body evolve?
Estates General, National Assembly(1789), Legislative Assembly (1791)
What was the Tennis Court Oath?
A declaration by the National Assembly not to disband until a constitution was written
The Constitutional Stage of the French Revolution was led by?
The Parisian professional, middle order
Mary Wollstenecraft: wrote on bringing constitution to women
Rise of the Paris Commune, 1792
- 48 administrative wards in Paris
- Paris has huge population of which 1/10 th
is unemployed
- Paris Commune: municiple office; not to be confused with federal o Run by sans-culottes
Leaders of Paris are rising middling order
Referred to as sans-culottes because wear "without knee" pants - represent the workering order
Symbols - pikes as weapons, and long pants o Had strong political voice
Newspapers are based in Paris
Direct access to the federal government o Demand a radicalization of the revolution
These people would have very much been apart of the national
French Revolution

Want a republic
Erase social stratification: leveling out of social and economic order especially cheaper grain for food
Want universal manhood suffrage
New government structure that will rewrite a fully democratic constitution
Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
Tricolours
So, Louis is arrested at this time and a republic is put into place
National Convention
-replaced the Legislative Assembly
-France became a republic
-war began to turn around - important symbolism the war against Prussia is turning
France wins a major battle on the first day the National Convention meets
Citizens' army defeat and Absolutist's army
This now has a concept that the revolution should be take internationally on behalf of the people of Europe
King Louis
-conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of the state
-Louis tried for treason
-however, there is a split in the National Convention of whether or not to execute the old monarch
-Louis was executed in January 1793
Split in the National Convention
-fear the Girondists were incapable of leading France
-still facing war (externally) and famine (internally)
Internal division
-conservative order (emigres and aristocrats)
-women still unhappy
-famine
Marrat: Parisian worker wanting a full republic
Knifed in the tub by a young aristocratic woman
Exemplifies the great divisions in the revolutionairies
The Terror (1793-1794)
The National Convention:
-disbanded women's political organizations to get control of the angry women who were radical revolutionairies
-executed Olympe de Gouges

wrote Declaration of Rights of Women wanted universal suffrage
-Steps taken to try and safe-guard the Revolution
-Law of Maximum a sealing on the price of stable goods maximum amount that can be charged on grain hoping to take away bread riot aspect old nobility don't like this because they have faced so much crop failure still a shortage of food (small food stores)
Created the Committee of Public Safety is an executvie branch of government whose goal is state safety
-Robespierre shared power with Paris commune realizes strength of revolutionary ideas in Paris
-eradicate all enemies of the state
-Law of Suspects anyone under suspicion of undermining revolution can be executed contradictory point revolution is supposed to rescue civil liberties, not take them
-every political perspective and social status fell victim to the guillotine
-Girondists purged
Direction in which the Terror goes Radical
-ends slavery
-metric system
-divorce and education reform
-mobilized army
-republic of virtue
The National Convention creates
Civil liberties
Wants egalitarianism
Metric system (base ten) to replace the imperial system
Even though women don't have a political voice, it is easier for women to get divorced in conditions of adultery and abuse: more benefit to women
All people have access to elementary level education as children
Conscription
Large revolutionary army
Republic of virtue is a cultural revolution
Christianity is outlawed
Occult of the Supreme Being is the new religion
Recognition of a higher power, but outlaw all Catholic holidays
Pious peasants really don't like this
State-sanctioned holidays to replace them

People to wear the same colours - equality
Guillotine
Tool of Enlightenment
Supposed to be the most humane of all death sentences
Equalizing that everyone dies the same quick death
Women
Still a sense that women are irrational beings that will not make good decisions for the state
Thermidorian Reaction
-military victory
-pushed back Austia and Prussia — no longer fear of invasion
-Terror no longer necessary — the revolution will not fall
-Robespierre executed July 1794
-Robespierre pushed it too far by saying anyone in National Convention could be against the revolution
-conservative backlash
-wealthy middling orders took control of government middling order in terms of class and politics acknowledgement that conservative and extremists cannot work
Thermidorian Reaction
National Convention disbanded
Directory formed (1794-1799)
-5 person executive runs all other bodies of the Directory
-vote: property and military service
-cannot let universal suffrage of man
-only those who have earned their citizenship through military service or who own property and therefore have minimal education have political voice
-outlaw the Paris Commune
-leaders of the Terror executed
-Roman Catholic Church is returned
-marked return of piety
-reimpose laws the existed prior to the Terror
-revolution modified with conservative principles
-rise of Wealthy middle class
Still problems
-unregulated economy: food shortage 1794-95
-political factions
-popular opposition
-war

-need a strong military leader to safeguard the government
Napoleon Bonaparte
-riot in Paris by conservative supports
-Directory asks army to deal with riots
-instability required Napoleon and army to become involved in government
-charismatic leader and great commander
-Napoleon embraces the idea of revolution (to support military conquests)
Napoleonic Era
(1799-1804, and 1804-1815)
-Napoleon is invited to power of the first five Directory
-1799 Napoleon is the first among equals
-Napoleon allows political compromises
-emigres allowed to return to lands, but don't think of revolt
-death to all opponents of Napoleon
-compromise entrenched some revolutionary gains but appeased opponents"
Concordat 1801
-Religious settlement
Mix of reactionary gains and also against them
-Support of Clergy of state-but cannot return under Church heirarchy
-Church lands were guaranteed to current owners
-Freedom of Worship to Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish
Religion can be allowed if it is peaceful and as long as it won't become an overriding political factor; must be kept under control
Napoleonic Code 1804
-Legal compromise
-Equality before the law for all men
-Taxation of all social classes
Napoleon deals with major social, political, and economic problems
-with France now stable
-1804 crowned Emperor
Napoleon takes European conquest outside of French borders
-1805 Battle of Trafalgar naval battle against England
English Nelson defeats French navy
Enlgand now has sole suppremacy of seas
Significant to industrial revolution..
Napoleon's conquest must be over land
-Continental System required war in Europe
-Napoleon bases an economic idea in military plan

-France calls the shots for politics and trade in Continental Europe (exclude Brit)
-1812 English resistance joined by Russian and Spanish opposition fuelled by revolutionary ideas
Spain bolstered by English
Russia uses scorched-earth policy: Napoleon's armies get ahead of supplies
-1815 final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo
1815 Turn of Politics
Note: As Napoleon moves through Europe, dismantles the Holy Roman Empire
Important Countries:
Austria
Prussia
Poland
Russia
Confederation of the Rhine (German)
ICLICKER REVIEW
Which governing body was ran by the sans-culottes?
Paris Commune
Under which governing body did France become a republic?
National Convention
Why was Napoleon allowed to become Emperor after so many had fought and died for the principles of the Revolution?
-could bring compromise btwn pol factions strong military and politcal leader
-brought stability to France after a decade of turmoil
-accepted and safeguarded some Revolutionary principles
Developed feeling of Nationalism
-brought security to France after years of external threats
The End of the Napoleonic Era
-Revolutionary and nationalistic ideas spread ideas backfired on Napoleon
-cost of war
France has been in debt for a very long time
Builds enemies against Napoleon

-two fronts and tactical errors stuck in Russia in winter of 1812, which used the scorched earth policy huge devastation of the French army in Spain, Britain was helping fund the Spanish
-1814 Napoleon forced to abdicate and move to Elba
-Louis XVIII
Louis' brother, led the emigres, spent whole revolution in Austria
Out of touch, not familiar with revolutionary ideas
Soldiers returning from war are not given pensions
-Napoleon escapes Elba, returns to Paris, and regains military control
-100 days of Napoleon's Rule
-Battle of Waterloo: defeated mainly by Britian, Russia, Prussia, Austria
-Exiled to St Helena
-Napoleon still considered a part of Revolution because he accepted and spread those idea
-The French Revolution: 1789-1815
Affects of Revolution on Europe
-Absolute monarchy was discredited
-constitutional monarchies become favoured
-the "right" of people to be involved in political process and enjoy due process of law
-debates: who and degree of government representation this is going to shape political ideologies
-centralized system education - all citizens should have access to basic education (takes long time for this to be implemented) infrastructure - before, it was up to nobility to create transportation single law code - to be applied equally and evenly to all people
-sparked overseas revolts abolition of slavery in France causes other colonies to revolt based on this
Napoleon freed all colonies and gave them self governing ability
Spain tried to reinstitute control but colonies revolted against foreign control
-establish British naval preeminence expanded empire and promoted industrialization
-Metternich and Congress of Vienna (1815)
-Congress of Vienna (1815) to decide what to do with Europe, with a balance of power
Metternich is the leader of the Congress (also Austria leader)
Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia
20 year peace treaty
Border boundaries are established around France's borders

Endorse rules by Monarchs (want return to pre-revolutionary Europe)
Ideologies were inextricably intertwined with the historical events of the 19 th
Century
The "--isms"
French Revolution sparked debates about people's role in society
Affect every aspect of life in the 19 th
Century
Affected economy, colonialism, art, politics, society, religion, and identity
Ideologies were inextricably intertwined with the historical events of the 19 th
C
Romanticism and Nationalism
Conservatism and Liberalism
Imperialism and Industrialism
Romanticism
-very much a reaction to the rationality of the enlightenment and to the Fr Rev
-dramatic and emotional movement of the arts move away from rational, boring rationality to creativity
Napoleon used romantic movement to inspire nationalism/support classical music, paintings, embracing power of nature asthetic arrangement, not natural
(not logical or trying to understand like th enlightenment would)
-feeds into the presentation of Nationalism
Nationalism
-people derive identity from the nation and owe the nation their primary loyalty
-think: pre-revolution loyalty lay in the lords, nobility, and up to the King
French shift from supporting the king dom to the republic for the sake of the people
-could include: common language, religion, political authority, traditions, and shared historical experiences etc.
-nations were made of the people
Who are the French people? Change to interest in commoners
Scholars record the culture of the people
Folklore and fairytales are recorded
-became new faith, promise of order and stability
-instead of relying on religion, one can also be supported and protected by nation
-often used to seek unity or national independence
Ottoman Empire
-challenged by Nationalist movements within
-think of the Balkan powder keg
-Serbia (1830)
-looked to past
-Russia helped gain independence

Russia sees itself as father of Greek Orthodox and Slavic
Nations
Sets Russia's policy helping national independence from Ottoman-
Turkish and Austrian Empires
-Greece (1830)
-looked to glory of antiquity
-bloody revolution supported by western Europe
-Syria lost out
Western Powers want some nations to gain independence, but not too many because if Ottoman-Turkish Empire is pushed too far back, it will create area for
Russia and Austria to gain too much power. Theme: balance of power.
Conservatism
-old leaders at odds with new dynamism inspired by French Revolution
-want pre-revolutionary politics
-restore pre-revolutionary society
-Edmund Burke abstract concepts of human rights were dangerous
-undermine social order and chaos will occur
-reasoning: extreme French Rev in the Terror government to be anchored in tradition
-order of society had been permanent before revolutionary ideas
-even if it wasn't perfect, its longevity proved it was the best system
-Congress of Vienna epitomy of conservatism in the Congress of Vienna (1815)
*final: Metternich*
-Austria
Metternich's secret police
Sought out liberalists
Believes in conservative order within Austria and outside of borders
-Spain reinstitutes monarchy and colonial control want how Spain was prior to Napoleon
-Britain: already has a const. monarchy, why are they conservative?
-most common people still disenfranchised those in politcal office in Britain had wealth
-Corn Laws movement for wealthy to take control of society taxes imposed on grain imports

wealthy want these taxes on imports so that can set price for own grain at home and hence force commoners to buy own grain
-returning soldiers find no political voice even under Napoleon's Directory, soldiers were allowed a pol voice much unemployment
-series of demonstantions and revolts
-1819 Peterloo Massacre in St. Peter's field in Manchester a peaceful demonstration wants univeral suffrage
King's forces charge the stage to get charismatic speaker off
Afraid of people becoming inspired
Forces accidentally kill 11 and trammple 400
-Six Acts to maintain the conservative order outlaw freedom of assembly and impose censorship on the population
ICLICKER
Congress of Vienna
-Meeting of four major European powers of the time
-conservatism
What was the significance of the Congress of Vienna?
-rejected principles of the French Revolution
-led to clash between conservatism and liberalism
-endorsed rule by legitimate monarchs
-supported a balance of power to bring stability to Europe
-led to Crimean War
-led to realpolitik
- the way in which foreign relations are established in Europe
The following are examples of conservatism:
-Metternich secret police, foreign policy
-Congress of Vienna
-Britains Corn Laws - taking control of political and economic arena
-Peterloo Massacre - important for advancement of Liberalism
Liberalism
-descendant of Enlightenment critique of absolutism
-best safe-guard of individual freedom was reduction of government power
-government purpose to ensure citizens' happiness
-wanted constitutional limits,

guanteed central legal system want rule of law
-end of state regulation of economy invisible hand takes care of society
Smith and Malthus
-enfranchisement an issue
Bentham and Stewart Mill who should have the vote?
Educated classes, all men, all men and women, wealthy and military?
-bourgeoisie biggest supporters the middling class owning a means of production
(factories, shops, purchasing land but did not inherit it -- not traditional wealthy class)
Britain - Great Reform Bill 1832
Although Constitutional Monarchy; middling class does not have voice
Still conservative and controlled
The Great Reform Bill is a response to the Peterloo Massacre
There is a liberal push from the masses
The Great Reform Bill
-enfranchisement to men of the middling class
-reorganized voting system
(with industrialization comes urbanization -doesn't work to represent a rural district the same as urban district)
- Chartism
-named after the people's charter
-towards expanding change
-want secret ballot; universal suffrage; establish salaries for members of parliament; abolish property requirements
-3.3 million people in Britain signed the people's charter: petition
-sets political agenda for next 50 years in Britain
-slowly adopt all of the above
- Corn laws repealed (1846)
Russia - emancipated serfs in 1861 under Alexander II
1848
1848 - very big year for liberalism taking hold amongst masses
-50 separate revolts
-1845-1846 agricultural disasters and industrial downturn led to mass unemployment
-people become radicalized - push for liberalism

-government could not deal with urban problems of overcrowding, disease, and unsanitary conditions
-liberalism and nationalism were focus of hope
France
The first revolution started in France and then spread through Europe
What happens after the Congress of Vienna?
Louis XVIII brought back into monarchy
-after had been overthrown by Napoleon
Louis XVIII now had good intensions for democracy
However, this is counterred by the return of the old orders in France
-1815 victorious allies restored Bourbons (Louis XVIII) to power
-struggles between liberalism and conservatism
-complicated by economic downturns, resulted in various riots
Louis XVIII dies with instability left
-1827 harvest failure riots throughout France
-1830 the revolution continues
-liberty leads the revolution through the streets of Paris
-1830 Louis Philippe leads a new government
-also has good intentions for liberalism
-establishes himself as "King of the French"
-extends vote, allows freedom of press
-struggle: how far should liberalism go? Many political ideologies
-people are becoming more radical so Louis Philippe is challenged
-Louis Philippe then had to become more conservative to preserve his own rule
-1847 political meetings outlawed people instead had banquets; instead they toasted their political ideas a planned series of banquets for George Washington's birthday
Europe idolized George Washington
-1847 cancelled banquet Feb resulted in protests
-army called in; panicked and fired into crowd
-civilians put up barricades to defend their neighbourhoods from army
-Louis Philippe fled
-diverse group set up government and implemented reforms
-workshops - employ about half of male population
-end political death penalty
-work legislation
-no imprisonment for debt; just held financially responsible
-universal manhood suffrage

-women left out
See government step up and become responsible for the people
Socialist programs for the people
Working conditions - laws put in place on max hours can work in a day
Conservatives elected due to rural suspicion of Paris and taxes
Liberalism would come with increased taxes for social programs
Conservative government axes the workshops
Riots in Paris
Another dictatorship established: Louis Napoleon
*Notice the back and forth
No change in the political order in France
Warfare between classes - emerges through middling order (bourgeoise) and the working class (proletariat)
Europe in 1848
Austria
- called for dismissal of Metternich
Royal Palace in Vienna surrounded by students
People don't mind monarchy, but hate Metternich
-imperial court surrounded
-agreed to constitution and abolished serfdom
Austro-Hungarian Empire: Hungary has better political voice
Italy and Germany - rebelled, prelude to unity
1870-1871 see unification of Italy and Germany
Post 1848 Europe
-Brits show flexible government can make change peaceful only place in Europe without 1848 revolts sets British political system as a beacon of hope for people of Europe
-European countries create parliaments, even though may be disbanded
-governments took some responsibility for working poor (rise of socialism)
-sense of national identity strengthened
-despite activism, women blocked from politics
-balance of power waned in favour of narrow state interest realpolitik between 1850 and 1870 we see a peak period of industrialization a period of wealth and prosperity people are not as radical so liberalism is not as pushed there is an intense feeling of nationalism accompanied with industrialization

you see state interests
Congress of Vienna had wanted to control power through the countries -this waned
Crimean War 1854-6
Why did Russia feel that it had a responsibility to intervene in the Balkans?
Common ethnicity
Common religion
Russia viewed as the father
Russia also needed warm water ports
-1854 Crimean War
Ottoman Empire weak - Russia able to expand into Crimean penninsula
Britian and France are concerned about this in terms of shipping
France looking to recover from debt from wars; looking to expand influence
Britain and France go to war against Russia
-reported by journalists, 750,000 people died, nurses first modern war all countries making poor decisions, poorly supported so many die
Florence Nightengale leads nurses: uses new medical profession to create mobile forces to support the troops
Poorly fought war
Russia surrendered when Sevastopol was defeated and Prussia and
Austria threatened to enter the war
Consequences:
-huge mutual suspicion between nations
-led to narrow self-interests realpolitik: interest in own state only
Leads Britain to a period of isolation (important b/c leads to Imperialism)
Britain and France are suspicious of Prussia and Austria for not entering the
Crimean War to maintain the balance of power
Turkish Empire further weakened
Russia suspicious of all Europe
-Militarization
Splendid Isolationism - Britain retreats into splendid isolation by withdrawing from continental affairs to turn within; second industrial revolution; become great power
IClicker
What happened in 1848?
-liberalism clashed with conservatism in European wide revolutions
-parliaments were installed throughout Europe

-governments began to accept responsibility for the wellbeing of its citizens people are not subjects of monarchs, but citizens of the state begin social security nets
-women were blocked from the political process
After the Crimean War

.
Russia became seen as a major European aggressor
Britain retreated into splendid isolationism
Ottoman Turkish Empire weakened, lose some territory to Russia
Relied on Britain and France to rescue; no longer have a power base
Austria, Russia, and Ottoman Empire vying for control of the Balkans
Becomes flashpoint for WWI
Italian Unification
1848-1870
-Peidmont (Sardinia - northern Italy) gained 1848 constitution
-became beacon for Italy; ruled by liberalism
-strategically support French during the Crimean War
France then became a catalyst for Italian unification
-Naples - conservatism, organized crime in economy
-National Society formed by middle classes for unity
(nationalism, liberalism, industrialization) urban leaders, professionals, scholarly, industrialists, property owners political and economic motivations to unite Italy
-Piedmont and France allied to defeat Austria
Piedmont supported the French in the Crimean War
Much of northern Italy is controlled by Austria
France wants to expand in Europe by weakening Austria
-Playing within the "rules" of realpolitik advancing through military
Report of the meeting of Count Cavour with Emperor Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon) of France 1858:
"The Emperor started by saying that he had decided to support Sardinia with all his forces in a war against Austria, provided that the war was undertaken for a non-revolutionary cause, which could be justified

"
France's realpolitik; Louis Napoleon wants to push Italian unification for personal gain against Austria; but doesn't want liberalist ideas to come back to France
1860s
-France backs out of supporting Italian Unification, but smaller northern states voluntarily joined Piedmont
-Southern states unified by Garibaldi
Garibaldi is a revolutionary military leader

Overturns the conservative orders
Joins Piedmont
-Southern and Northern Italy joined
-universal male suffrage unites Italy under Victor Emmanuel II want to unite under a constitutional monarch already led liberalist unification
-Papal states and Venice join Italy by 1870
(excluding Vadican)
-1870 Rome becomes the capital city of Italy
Liberalism pushes the movement for independence
Nationalism unifies the people
German Unification
-1848- Metternich deposed of in Austria
-Hapsburgs are no longer strong leaders
-Prussian domination imminent (think 1648 - end of Thirty Years War; three hundred principalities in Germany had been consolidated; gained power; Prussia and Austria vie for power over Germanic lands)
-unity attempt in 1850 checked by Austrian military supremacy
Prussia invites all German-speaking lands (not Austria) to join under power
Austria threatens to invade; Prussia backs off
This sets the Prussian military agenda for next 70 years
-King William (Kaiser B__) and parliament struggled over military
King asked to raise taxes to build up army to make Prussia powerful
Parliament refuses to give the King more power (could suppress liberalists)
-Otto von Bismark appointed as Prime Minister by King William to achieve this goal
Bismark is a master politician; negotiates with parliament on behalf of King
Parliament trusts Bismark more than trust King William
Bismark convinces parliament allow army funds with iron and blood speech
"iron and blood" - the position of Prussia in Germany will not be strengthened by liberalism, but by military power; an army, weaponry, and force is needed to expand
Prussian domination
-Schleswig-Holstein was catalyst
Denmark trying to expand onto continent; Danish schools/nationalism
Denmark backs off from Austrian-Prussian aggression
Prussia turns around and attacks Austrian army in Holstein

-after winning Holstein, Prussia annexed dividing smaller states fill in holes in Prussian Empire ideas of nationalism appeals to the peoples in these territories will allow industrial expansion and economic benefit
-1871 southern businessmen then joined Prussia
Prussia invites Bavarian area around Munich
Middling order sees benefits
=unification of Germanic speaking states
-1871 William I crowned Emperor of Germany
Alsace-Lorraine
-Hohenzollerns (King William's family, Prussian royalty) claimed Spain
-France objected; puts France and Prussia at war with each other
-1871 Prussia has strong military and defeats France easily
-Prussia withdraws from France, but takes Alsace-Lorraine
This area has rich mineral deposits
-France lost Alsace-Lorraine and owed huge indemnity payments
-French bitter with this debt and the loss of an economic stronghold
-Germany under Prussian control due to force of ruler
Italy - nationalism, industrialism, and liberalism shaping unification
Germany - militarism, industrialism, and conservatism push unity
Nationalistic example
"Those about to die salute you!"
Fighting on behalf of your country for your fellow people
French New Year devastated by 1870-1871 losses to Prussia
ICLICKER REVIEW
What event marks the shift between the early modern and modern era?
Enlightenment begins shift ending the early modern era
French Revolution begins modern era
By 1848 we are in the modern era
Industrialization
Which region led to the unification of Italy?
Piedmont

Why did liberalists in Italy agree to unite under Piedmont's King?
Nationalism
Improve business interests to have a unified country
Constitutional monarchy so would gain a political voice
(liberalism, industrialization, and nationalism)
Which region led to the unification of Germany?
Prussia
Who convinced the Prussian Parliament to militarize with the "iron and blood" speech?
Otto von Bismark
The Prussian King William I appoints Bismark as Prime Minister
Industrialization
First Industrial Revolution (c.1760)
-all industrial revolution is really a series of other revolutions
-agricultural revolution:
-salvaged land in Netherlands
-1700-1800 Brits increased production by 60%
(series of innovations for: plows, seeding, fertilizer, field rotation, enclosure) technology = better use of land enclosure: landlord consolidates land; instead hires fewer workers no longer sharing profit with the tenants if workers are kicked off land urban centers
-sustained urban work force enough food being produced
-displaced farmers
Consumer Revolution:
- Consumption o Fuels industrialization o Provides a market
- increased materials form colonies o raw materials imported from colonies o send finished products back to colonies
- affordable products o more effective ways to produce goods drives down prices
Technological Revolution
- proto-industrialization led to bottlenecks o a stage that is before regular industrialization o a precursor to the factory system o women produced cloth; drives textile industry

one woman would cart raw wool; the next would spin; the next would weave; middle-man "puts-out" jobs to each woman o bottle-neck: each stage of the process does not take the same amount of time, creating backlog, weaving is the longest and most tedious
Kay's Flying Shuttle o Weaving goes more quickly o Spinning is now causing bottleneck
Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny (1765) o Spinning goes more quickly
Early inventions are improved, constantly making the process faster
Begins to move the textile industry from the household to a factory o Still relies on people to run the machines
Arkwright's water frame o Machines become water-powered
Watt's perfection of the steam engine moved industry into urban centers, non-stop work, most efficient way to harness power o Big, heavy, requires fuel o However, doesn't need water supply, so can be moved to urban area o Labor supply, materials, power supply all in one location o Supply lines can be put into place in an urban center
Improved iron smelting - basis for heavy industry o Construction of railways and machinery used for heavy industry
Second Industrial Revolution
-second I.R. (1815+) focused on steel production, chemicals, electricity and oil
-major proliferation of industrialization
-while first IR was based in Britain, the second IR was widespread through western
Europe
-inextricably intertwined with nationalism and imperialism
Transportation Revolution
-1800s
-rail tracks, bridges, canals, roads, telegraph lines
-explosion of means of transportation enhance communication and trade allow infrastructure to bring in raw materials to urban center factories, then distribute the final products to markets
-overseas transportation improved drastically ships can connect Britain to North American first clipper ship, then steamship shorten travel time with the exploding European population, more immigrants to New World
-1909 Model T Ford

Communications Revolution
-news can travel faster then people
-eg) news Battle of Waterloo's defeat of Napoleon took three days to reach London
-telegram, radio, telephone
-1870s telephone
-penny post established national postal service is widespread and affordable
-media became the "fourth estate" rotary presses can turn out huge quantities of newspapers = more affordable the press has a voice as the news expands to public/widely accessible eg) 1820s reporters first become a major political player
Agricultural Revolution
The second agricultural revolution has modern-day implications
1800 around ¾ of the population grew food
1900 only ½ of the population was involved in growing food
-1913 pop growth: 2.5x population as 1813; more than doubled more food, more variety; more efficient food production
-surplus in food at expense of the environment about 50% of European forests cleared to make way for agriculture use poisions against pests to improve yield diverting waterways, fill in swamps, lowering of the watertable
-triggered industrial development, urbanization, and immigration ability to feed a large urban workforce
-rural living conditions did not really improve
Urbanization
-population explosion: exponential demographic increase
-in 1800 10% of people lived in cities -in
1900 40% of people lived in cities
-agricultural developments and industrial options forced people in the cities
Dire social consequences as more people move to the city a lowest poor class is formed in slums
Large population combined with insufficient lighting and ventilation, rudimentary sanitation, pollution, over-crowding (densely populated apartments, some workers living on streets), and disease all led to poor standards of living and high mortality rates
Working Conditions
-16 hour day with few short breaks

-children could begin work at age 5 or 6, are paid even lower wages
-low wages, way more people than are jobs
-no safety regulations
-profit system for managers and owners to gain the most, exploiting workers
-no social welfare if unable to work
-disease and ill health prevail; lung disease from smokey factories, rickets and other heavy labour diseases
1840s: military rejected 90% of urban men from poor health
-family structure changes; extended families and large families with many children
-children are important because will be bread winners
-older grandparents care for children under 5; their children care for elderly
Working Class Responses
-Luddites: sabotage industrialization
-1840s Labour Unions
-resented corporate power and exploitations = sense of class cohesiveness
-huge, nation-wide organizations
-1850s Factory Acts
-series of acts
-legislated a 12 hour workday Monday to Friday, Saturday work until 2pm
Working Class Responses
Socialism
-old hierarchy of rank and privilege had been replaced by class hierarchy
-only obligation of wealthy to the working class is a wage
Division:
-working class (workers, employed in factories, face poor conditions),
-middle class (run factories, own business, professionals), and very wealthy; division between middling and working classes:
-competition, individualism, private property blamed
-argue could be both industrial and humane
-government needs to intervene to help protect the people
Out of socialism arises Marxism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
- Communist Manifesto (1848)
Advocate for Liberalism
Pushing people's involvement in the nation

Least amount of state intervention the better, 1845-46 industrial downturn led to extreme poverty
The workers take the brunt of industrialism
- Victory of proletariat over bourgeoisie
The abolishment of capitalism
Get rid of class structure and improve the standard of living of working class
- Same motivation as socialism
Individualism bad
- Call workers to rise up violently
"nothing to lose but their chains"
- disappearance of the state ultimate liberation equalizing factor
- different from socialism- state takes care of people, Marxism wants state gone
ICLICKER
The following were working class responses to the Industrial Revolution?
- Luddites: the anti-technology rebels who smashed factory equipment
- Trade Unions: push for workplace safety, set hours
- Socialism: state is responsible for the people and for workers
The following "isms" or ideologies were inextricably intertwined?
Nationalism, Industrialism, Imperialism, Liberalism
The Industrial Revolution cont.
Middle Class Response to Industrialization
Separate living space o middle class identity is distinctly different from working class o not blue collared workers who work with their hands o middle class is white collared workers with distinction o deserve own place to live (eg. top floor of a building, away from a factories, live away from inner city, live in suburbs) o allows middle class to separate themselves from working class
respectability, myth of social mobility o Samuel Smiles
Published self-help and advice columns in newspaper
"Heaven helps those who help themselves"
If you are a hard worker, stay away from alcohol, pull yourself up by your bootstraps, go to church, get educated
British version of the American dream

o middle class cultivate justification for identity; have all traits that allow them to be wealthy (smart with money, sober, Godly, respectable, deserving of upper class identity) o if you are middle class, you have enough money for the wife to stay home and children to go to school
creates an oppressive world for middle class women
respectable women do not go on street, do not show their wrists or ankles, a women was the angel of the kitchen, her domain was the household
Cult of True Womanhood
A good woman shows piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity
Working class women and children had to go out and work
Enforces that middle class is virtuous and respectable
Isolates middle class women
Reputation can be ruined for life if accused of acting immorally
Feminism
- most "isms" did not even consider let alone improve the conditions of women, citizenship was exclusive to men
- initially feminism came to improve working conditions of women and children, advocate in conjunction with trade unions for factory acts
- only women who are wealthy, or have a husband who can protect them can be able to politically exercise their voice
Freud and Darwin are against women as intellectuals o Freud challenges mental capacity of women o Darwin says women are physically not as highly evolved as men
1910s suffragettes won in most of western world
Suffragettes o wealthy widows and daughters o wealthy wives of industrialists who can support them o white women
not until 1960s in Canada that native women could vote
once women won right to vote, moved to women's control over their bodies o move for birth control use in married women o 1920s legalization of birth control pill o contagious diseases act
if women were found on street and suspected of prostitution they could be forcibly confined and searched for STDs
New Imperialism
-"policy of expanding a nation's power by seeking hegemony over an alien people"
-shift in ideology from colonization to imperialism

-control and power
- economic element, but mostly nationalism being able to control other people
- better technology, better religion from your view, better quality of life for the controlled peoples in the great country's colony
- example, North America was colonization, pushing indigenous away, but imperialism focuses on controlling the people such as Britain in India
- example of economic imperialism USA in Cuba, control Cuban sugar economy
-Direct or indirect political and economic controls
-Motivations/justifications:
- nationalism o Prove mother country is the best country in the world by having a strong presence in so many other countries o Britain was a great imperialist country
"the sun never set on the British Empire"
- Industrialism o Colonies provide natural resources and give a market for finished goods produced by the home country
- "White Man's Burden" o Social Darwinism o Some countries are more evolved, so it is up to the refined white man to bring culture and technology to undeveloped areas of the world, exporting political ideologies (backdrop for Cold War)
- religious motivations
- economic motivations
- detract from domestic problems o British Foreign Service: can go to India and live a lavish lifestyle that would not be possible at home country o Distract from industrial problems because those subjects who don't like the conditions in Britain can emigrate
Image: Boer War in South Africa; Dutch settlers want British to stay out and away from diamond mines, British soldiers romanticized by press to promote nationalism and imperialism
Image: Crystal Palace 1851 - London shows the world at a convention their technology
Image: Queen Victoria presenting a Bible to and African chief
Major Turning Points
Late 1880s Building of Suez Canal
-French built Suez Canal (1869)
-The last area that is expanded into is Africa
-Last opportunity for European powers to grab a holding
-France forces Egypt to be their economic partner in building the canal

-Egypt cannot afford to build the canal
-British bought majority share from Egypt (1875) because they wanted a shorter shipping route to India, which became the "jewel in the crown of the empire"
India is the number one exporting nation for British cotton, huge market, many rubber plantations
-British army to protect canal (1882)
-Egyptian revolt not concerned with the canal at all, but dislike the debt Egypt is in from construction of the canal
-British army causes concern for European powers
Triggered "Scramble for Africa"
Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
1) Divide up territory
2) must have actual possession of colony cannot exercise only economic imperialism disregard for political traditions of that African country dismantles traditional African tribal systems
3) free shipping on major routes cannot charge for others trading through your territory
4) slave trade is made illegal
- conference called by King Leopold of Belgium (has control of the Congo which is seventy times larger than Belgium)
- the European claims results in many skirmishes
- want a regulation for imperialism in Africa
-European powers did not think of the fact they are dividing tribes
- African territories now can have enemies supposed to be citizens together
- major players are Britain, France, Belgium etc.
Causes for Concern in Europe
-Concern of Germany upsetting the balance of power
-Japanese Imperialism a concern in Southeast Asia upsetting of European powers in Asia
-United States a growing power
Open Door Policy
Spanish-American War
Annexation of the Philippines
Diego Rivera - painter responding to Mexican exploitation by European powers
ICLICKER

Which of the following were middle class responses to the I.R.?
- physical divide with working class
- myth of social mobility
- separate spheres/ cult of domesticity
- feminism
What was the significance of imperialism?
- was integral to industrialization and nationalism
- imposed European and American politics, as well as cultural and economic systems on the rest of the world
- led to enormous challenges in rebuilding nations after decolonization
- set stage for World Wars and Cold War politics
ICLICKER
Which of the following were middle class responses to the I.R.?
- physical divide with working class
- myth of social mobility
- separate spheres/ cult of domesticity
- feminism
What was the significance of imperialism?
- was integral to industrialization and nationalism
- imposed European and American politics, as well as cultural and economic systems on the rest of the world
- led to enormous challenges in rebuilding nations after decolonization
- set stage for World Wars and Cold War politics
Alliance Systems
Creation of Alliances
-Bismark needed to protect German interests
-to quell suspicions of Germany, don't want to undercut power on continent
-wants a complex system of alliances to protect Germany
-want to undercut ability of France to retaliate
(Germany took Saar land and Alsace-Lorraine and made France pay)
-1873 Three Emperors League
-Russia, Austria, Germany
-Empires, with centralized power, potential for conflict if don't make treaty
-1875 Russian support in Balkans hurt Austria
Three Emperors League collapses
-1879 Dual Alliance
Secret alliance between Germany and Austria

Friends against Russian power
Isolates Russia
Links Germany to internal issues of Austro-Hungarian Empirs
Russia realizes that it does not have any allies
-1881 Three Emperors League
Russia rejoins the alliance
Bismark realizes that this alliance system is weak
-1882 Triple Alliance
Germany, Austria, and Italy
Italy is concerned about French ambitions
Excludes Russia
-1888 King/ Kaiser William I died
-1890 William II
-wants to push German ambitions
-Bismark had cultivated an "image" of Germany as non-threatening
-dismissed Bismark
-alliances collapsed
-Germany turned to Britain
-William II feels that Britain and Germany has ability to rule world in consort
-Britain stayed in "splendid isolation"
-William II built navy (counter to Bismark's policies)
-1894 Franco-Russian alliance
France and Russia both hostile to Germany, and concerned for own country
-Germany's presence in Africa (Boer War, Cape to Cairo Rail) agitated Britain
-Germany had wanted to show Britain its power to entice into alliance
-however, convinces Britain that it cannot be friends with Germany
-Germany's aggression forced Britain into Entente Cordiale
-1904 Entente Cordiale between Britain and France
-In Africa, Britain holds outer regions, France holds interior
-1905 Moroccan Crisis
Civil war in Morocco where African people trying to gain independence from
France, but Germany intervenes and supports Africans against
France
-Germany's attempt to gain alliance with Britain fails, and turns opposite, so that within a decade, France and Britain's military policy was intertwined

Russia
-after loss of Crimean War
-1861 serfs emancipated by Alexander II however, what to do with all the serfs? new system of land tenure serfs not tied to land, but now forced to rent the land for 49 years
-Alexander II's half-hearted liberalism met with discontent
-serfdom released, but starving
-military conscription reformed to 15 years, down from 25 years
-tries to make legal system consistent but still reserves right to veto
-became repressive police state
-people do leave land for cities, but still required to pay land rent
Problems:
-industrialization haphazard
-population explodes
-bread riots and many revolts
-Poland is also ticked off because Alexander II forces Russian culture
-Alexander III continues with Alexander II's reforms
-Alexander III created a reactionary state trying to appeal the reforms, but made people more angry
-Nicholas II also faced population explosion, poor urban conditions, and rioting
-Russian people turned on the tsar
-Early 1900-1905 Bolsheviks led by Lenin pushed for Marxist revolution led by of a small group of professional revolutionaries
-working class response is Marxism is support proletariat workers to rise up against the bourgeoise owning class
-Nicholas II needs to unite Russian people
-1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War
Russia loses
Nicholas II humiliated
Bolsheviks gaining prominence
-1905 Bloody Sunday and riots
Further Support of Bolsheviks
Nicholas II loses hold on power of Russia
-1905 Triple Entente
Russian ideology moving towards "liberalism" at this time
All faced by German aggression

Alliances
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy
Triple Entente: Russia, France, Britain
Balkans
-became a crises point
-Russian and Austrian ambitions
-Balkans want independence from Austria
-Serbia wanted to lead Slavic unification (Bosnia, Croatia, Herzegovenia)
-also complicated by religions (Muslim population from Ottoman Empire influence)
-June 28, 1914 Bosnian nationalist killed Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria, the
"shot heard round the world"
Alliance systems forced into action
-Austria gained German support and declared war of Serbia, July 28, 1914
-Russia had already given Serbia support for its independence
-Russia received assurance from France
-Russia mobilized army, Austria and Germany mobilized their armies
= brinkmanship
-Germany makes preemptive attack on Luxembourg, Belgium, and France
-Britain joined the war on Aug 4 when Germany attacks Belgium
-1914 World at war!

.
1917 turning point
- US enters war
- Russian worker revolution; Nicholas II abdicated; Trotsky and Lenin take power
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany
1918
- Germany accepts armistice with western powers
- Woodrow Wilson's 14 points: self-determination, open diplomacy, freedom of seas, disarmament, League of Nations
- Treaty of Versailles
Largely ineffective, legacy of WWI leads to WWII
-Significance:
Legacy of 14 points
German discontent
Collapse of old order (old emperors gone)

Rise of the U.S.A. (gets to loan money to European countries/gain interest)
Final Study Guide
TERMINOLOGY
Spanish Armada 1588
Spain attacks from a Dutch port
England sails out to meet them
Spanish hear of English speed and cut anchors to sail out quickly
Storm blows in, Spanish ships cannot anchor, crash against Brit shores
England defeats Spain by "Protestant Winds"
St Bartholomew's Day Massacre 1572
France has internal religious struggle
Protestants in Paris are killed
Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
-Caused by religious tension within Holy Roman Empire civil war between the Holy Roman Emperor and Calvinist Protestant elector
-European wide involvement as external influences get pulled in
(royal relatives pull in England and Spain; Sweden is Lutheran and wanting to expand; France looking to expand)
Treaty of Westphalia 1648
Peace Treaty ends the Thirty Years War
Recognizes Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinists
Protects property of people with different religious beliefs than leader
Netherlands recognized as an independent state
Spain loses most of European lands
Prussia gains lands; Britain is an untouched power mass death and destruction would shape developing economies
Significance of the Thirty Years War
-massive death and destruction
(additional instability: plague revisiting Europe)
-recognition of religious plurality in HRE
-shifting balance of power in HRE
- Emperor lost power (does not make sense to have Holy Roman Emperor in a land of plural religions)
- growth of Brandenburg-Prussia in the north
- Habsburg Austrian Empire in south increases power
-Netherlands independent
-Spain lost most of European lands
-French power grew in political influence
-End of Wars of Religion

Absolutism
Describes the extraordinary concentration of power in royal hands; conservative, King only answers to God, supported by nobility
Divine Right of Kingship - belief that rulers were divinely ordained by God o Reformation important to ideological change o Kings have personal relationship with God under Protestantism
Constitutionalism (Constitutional Monarchy)
King's rights are limited to a common body of government; guarantees rights of nobility, eg) Britain
Charles I (1625-1649)
Exasperated the issues left him; still left with James I's debt, and religious tensions
Saw himself as absolute ruler; power struggle between parliament/nobility and monarchy; was beheaded by parliament under Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell , Puritan leader leads civil war against Charles I
Military dictatorship faces debt and religious intolerance
Scotland flips on Cromwell and goes to civil war
Glorious Revolution of 1688
- Parliament invites Mary Stuart and William of Orange to rule jointly
- James flees Britain
- Parliament installs the new King and Queen
- Bloodless revolution
Bill of Rights and the Toleration Act
- First act of Mary and William to sign for Parliament
- Bill of Rights a political act o Rights against imprisonment (Habeus Corpus) o Limits the power of the Monarchy o No Catholic can succeed the throne of England
- Toleration Act a religious act o Any form of Protestant religion to be allowed
Deals with Puritan Calvinists
Makes it illegal for Catholics to worship/hold gov offices

John Locke
Political theory stated that the relationship between the King and the people was a bilateral contract which if broken by the king, required people to act
(ie) if the king isn't fulfilling responsibilities, people should rebel
What is the significance of the Glorious Revolution?
- political theorist John Locke argued it was now the people's responsibility to revolt against a poor leader (basis for liberalism and French Revolution)
- England's Kings governed with Parliament's consent
- Established England as a constitutional monarchy
- would bring about domestic security in England, allowing focus on expansion
Louis XIV
King Louis 14 th
absolutism and divine right of kingship
Debt from wars and overspending eg) Versailles
What was the significance of Louis XIV's reign?
-Created hallmark for absolutism in Europe which would become basis for opposition in Enlightenment thought and eventually liberalism
-Left France with a legacy of debt and over-taxation (key in igniting Fr Rev)
-Ended religious plurality in France
-By-passed political process of Estates-General
Mercantilism
-country's wealth/power = capital and bullion (an item eg. gold has value) if ensure the most trade more money more power do this through colonialism for the benefit of the country
Atlantic Triangle
-efficient shipping techniques between Africa, New World, and Europe
-relied on naval power to protect shipping route
Virginia Company
-private venture: investors had rights
-only if you put money into the company did you have political voice
-servants or workers not "citizens"
What was the significance of the Transatlantic Economy ?
- allowed governments to pursue mercantilism
- led to the build up of huge navies
- resulted in European politics being played out in colonies

- fed the growth of colonies and the slave trade
- allowed for massive wealth to flow into Europe and build a middle class
The Dutch Golden Age "The Netherlands"
- unique positioning to promote trade, maritime country, many cities
- urban system to transport, craftsmen to fashion raw materials, skilled population
- can feed an urban population
- banks created - gov investment in public and private companies eg) Dutch East India Co. was funded by the gov, banks, and private investors
- class shift and new consumption patterns developing with extreme wealth eg) great Tulip Crisis there was a huge fad of the tulip: shows the cutting edge of fashion
Peter I "Peter the Great"
- west was a model
- advance technology
- economic development
- cultural revolution (reshape nobility, abolish serfdom)
- reorganizing government (absolute rule after King Louis XIV) o builds St. Petersburg show the wealth and power of Russia o bureaucrats for day-to-day government duties
- develop military and navy o expand North and west
CIENTIFIC
EVOLUTION :
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
-political philoshoper: use science to understand politics and way that society works
-empirical method: patient, systematic observation and experimentation
-"rule in religion and nature, as well as civil administration"
-compiles information on Virginia: first dictionary of indigenous language
-if you know the people, you can know how to trade with them
Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
-Discourse on Methods: "I think, therefore I am"
-base knowledge on fact; ability to think proves us as human; expand knowledge
-you can think your way to understanding the world; from humanism and antiquity
-Cartesian Dualism: sums up role of religion allows that God is the creator
Issac Newton (1642-1724)
-gravity, laws of motion
-orderly earth and heavens human beings are apart of that nature way to understand society
-were made this way by a spiritual force

up to humans to understand the spiritual force driving nature
-understanding human nature was possible
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679)
-Leviathan: ideal state had strong sovereign to control clash of people's desires
-people are individuals, all pursuing selfish best interests which may not be best for society as a whole; therefore need central power
-people are equal
-views people as mechanistically as he views nature
-state was a machine:
-run by laws
-machine kept in good order by skilled technician (ruler)
-leader embodies the state: body of the state is the people
Ideas from Scientific Philosophers developed into Enlightenment/ Age of Reason
The intellectual movement of subjects of monarchs becoming citizens of nations was called The Enlightenment (Age of Reason).
Distinction between philosophy and science
Enlightenment (1700s)
-an intellectual and social movement (began in France)
-looking for human connection to nature
-universal laws of nature made it easier to question hierarchy, inequality and traditional forms of authority
-in particular, the old political systems; even though feudalism is gone, the ideas of King and hierarchy are still there
-science shows that matter is equal, then people are viewed as equal; since there is order in the universe there is order in nature, order in society
-distancing of science from philosophy
-debate the nature of political philosophy
-subjects of monarchs were becoming the citizens of nations
Philosophes
Develop ideas that will allow for political change:
-people must think of themselves as thinkers and critics (not sinners)
-empirical knowledge and intelligibility of the world
-to overthrow traditional "oppressive forces"
-centered on middle class/order; denied aristocratic privilege
-want order, education, tolerance, and justice for all; not just the nobility
-advocate that everyone (including wealthy) should pay taxes - enlightenment advocated of subjects of monarchs becoming citizens of states
-intellectuals - use reason and scientific knowledge to create citizens
-wanted to overthrow (not just question) old forces of hierarchy

What was the significance of the Enlightenment?
-division of science and philosophy
-creation of rhetoric surrounding citizens of nations
-provided an intellectual model for the Am Rev and Fr Rev
*middle classes demanding a political voice
-sketched out the principles upon which liberalism was built
*liberalism becomes foundation of democracy salons - elite patronage philosophes are patronized by the elite salon culture becomes popular wealthy entertained the philosophes in their parlors to converse can see the beginning of women into intellectual culture women were the ones who "ran" the conversation if men became too defensive about debates, women diffused situation
Voltaire
-believed in laws of nature and human ability through education science can teach us about human condition/behaviour in order to tap into the huge human potential, must be educated
-humans must struggle to overturn centuries of habits and politics
-England is the ultimate example of success
-Montesquieu
-believed laws were not meant to be arbitrary
-agreed with Locke's tabula rasa people are born as blank slate and become who are raised to be it is easy to educate people because they are blank slates
-education led to more liberal laws the more people are educated, the less you will need laws it is ignorance that causes rule-breaking
- Jean-Jacques Rousseau
The Social Contract
-believed men consented to be governed
-government acted by will of the people
-always need laws and need to put faith in the government
-citizenship had many demands requires rationale, reason, ability to converse in stable and civil manner
-not possible for women to participate

women are highly emotional and are unable to be rational
-women to nurture the emotional life of men
Economics
-Adam Smith
-believed in laissez-faire hands-off; no government involvement, invisible hand guides
-"it is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest" — A.Smith
-others wanted reform for collective peasant communes idea of organizing economic units and allowing them to be self-sufficient
Women and the Enlightenment
-Mary Wollstonecraft
Vindication of the Rights of Women
-without responsibility of citizenship, education and economic independence, women were not worthy of their domestic duties
-once you are educated, you should have a say in politics
-women need to be able to act as an economic person, to have a job, to participate in local economy, so that they can raise good citizens
American Revolution
-Britain wins colonies after Seven Years War with France
-British increased taxes (Sugar Act and the Stamp Tax) after 1763
-1774 and 1775 Continental Congresses resulted in consensus of independent colonies
-being taxed without representation
-are citizens but do not have a voice in parliament
-colonies ask Britain for right to rule selves
-July 4 th
1776 the Declaration of Independence signed, to be recognized in 1783
-creation of army and navy and French involvement led to civil war forced recognition of independence
Catalysts for the American Revolution:
-An Atlantic community of Enlightened thinkers
-Growing Rhetoric of citizenship
-Stamp and Sugar Taxes
-Routine political and economic independence from Britain
Significance of American Revolution
Catalyzed the French Revolution by using principles of Enlightenment

French Revolution
Crises in France 1780s
Louis XVI (16 th
) had huge debt left by Louis XIV (14 th
) money 18 th
century goes to pay off debts from Versailles and war
- Louis XVI 1774 unpopular: intendents, weak leadership, Marie Antoinnette is Austrian
-1788 crop failure (famine will continue)
-Calling of Estates-General: enlightened principles drove new reforms
Estates-General
Very feudal-looking old political body
- First Estate: clergy
- Second Estate: nobles
- Third Estate: commoners
1789 voted for a National Assembly
National Assembly (1789-1791)
-June 17, 1789 voted for a National Assembly by the Estates-General
-locked out by Louis on June 20: organized themselves in an indoor tennis court
-Slowly joined by first and second estates
Tennis Court Oath swear that they will not disband until there is a constitution
1789 - crucial year in the French Revolution
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen (1789)
-Louis is given his powers by people
-far from absolutist rule
-shows a legal end to feudal order
-no longer church tithe
-ability to compel peasant labour is illegal
-end of old privileged powers
The Civil Constitution of the Clergy :
-Government takes over wealthy lands of monasteries/nuneries as a way to finance the governments
-Make the Clergy a department of government
-Cleric therefore become government employees who must swear a secular oath (to something other than God is controversial)
-if swear oath, no longer apart of Roman Catholic Church by Pope
-if don't swear oath, then lose job
-Countryside is minimally educated where church is still the most important part of their lives; they are not enlightened and still rely on their clerics for relationship to
God; if clerics are not recognized by Pope, the people feel lost

Legislative Assembly (1791-1792)
-National Assembly had completed its objectives
-Jacobins wanted republic, Girondists were leaders
-Declaration of Pilnitz signed by Austria and Prussia in particular the emigres personal security of French King must be maintained or Austria/Prussia will invade
Legislative Assembly sees this as an opportunity to rally the people behind a cause
War declared on Austria and Prussia
Paris Commune
1792 Paris Commune a municipal office; not to be confused with federal o Run by sans-culottes
- Leaders of Paris are rising middling order
- Referred to as sans-culottes because wear "without knee" pants - represent the working order
- Symbols - pikes as weapons, and long pants o Had strong political voice
- Newspapers are based in Paris
- Direct access to the federal government o Demand a radicalization of the revolution
- These people would have very much been apart of the national
French Revolution
- Want a republic
- Erase social stratification: leveling out of social and economic order especially cheaper grain for food
- Want universal manhood suffrage
- New government structure that will rewrite a fully democratic constitution
Tri-colours: Liberty, Equality, Fraternity
National Convention
-replaced the Legislative Assembly
-France became a republic
-war with Prussia began to turn around - important symbolism
-King Louis tried for treason
-conspiring against the liberty of the people and the security of the state
-however, there is a split in the National Convention of whether or not to execute the old monarch
-Louis was executed in January 1793
Split in the National Convention
-fear the Girondists were incapable of leading France
-still facing war (externally) and famine, unhappy women, conservative order of émigrés and aristocrats vs. new republic powers (internally)

The Terror (1793-1794)
-The National Convention:
-disbanded women's political organizations (control angry radical women)
-executed Olympe de Gouges wrote Declaration of Rights of Women wanted universal suffrage
-Steps taken to try and safe-guard the Revolution
-Law of Maximum: a sealing on the price of stable goods
-Created the Committee of Public Safety is an executive branch of government whose goal is state safety
Robespierre
-eradicate all enemies of the state
Law of Suspects anyone under suspicion of undermining revolution can be executed contradictory point revolution is supposed to rescue civil liberties, not take them enforced by Committee of Public Safety
-every political perspective and social status fell victim to the guillotine
-Girondists purged
Thermidorian Reaction
-military victory
-pushed back Austria and Prussia — no longer fear of invasion
-Terror no longer necessary — the revolution will not fall
-Robespierre executed July 1794
-Robespierre pushed it too far by saying anyone in National Convention could be against the revolution
-conservative backlash
-wealthy middling orders took control of government middling order in terms of class and politics acknowledgement that conservative and extremists cannot work
Thermidorian Reaction
-National Convention disbanded
Directory (1794-1799)
-5 person executive runs all other bodies of the Directory
-vote: property and military service
-cannot let universal suffrage of man
-only those who have earned their citizenship through military service or who own property and therefore have minimal education have political voice

Napoleonic Era
(1799-1804, and 1804-1815)
-Napoleon is invited to power of the first five Directory
-1799 Napoleon is the first among equals
-Napoleon allows political compromises
émigrés allowed to return to lands, but don't think of revolt
-death to all opponents of Napoleon
-compromise entrenched some revolutionary gains but appeased opponents"
Concordat 1801
-Religious settlement
Mix of reactionary gains and also against them
-Support of Clergy of state-but cannot return under Church hierarchy
-Church lands were guaranteed to current owners
-Freedom of Worship to Catholic, Protestant, and Jewish
Religion can be allowed if it is peaceful and as long as it won't become an overriding political factor; must be kept under control
Napoleonic Code 1804
-Legal compromise
-Equality before the law for all men
-Taxation of all social classes
-Napoleon deals with major social, political, and economic problems with France now stable
-1804 crowned Emperor
-Napoleon takes European conquest outside of French borders
-1805 Battle of Trafalgar naval battle against England
English Nelson defeats French navy
England now has sole supremacy of seas
Significant to industrial revolution..
Napoleon's conquest must be over land
Continental System required war in Europe
-Napoleon bases an economic idea in military plan
-France calls the shots for politics and trade in Continental Europe (exclude Brit)
-1812 English resistance joined by Russian and Spanish opposition fuelled by revolutionary ideas
Spain bolstered by English
Russia uses scorched-earth policy: Napoleon's armies get ahead of supplies
-1815 final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo

Metternich and Congress of Vienna
-Congress of Vienna (1815) to decide what to do with Europe, with a balance of power
Metternich is the leader of the Congress (also Austria leader)
Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia
20-year peace treaty
Border boundaries are established around France's borders
Endorse rules by Monarchs (want return to pre-revolutionary Europe)
Ideologies were inextricably intertwined with the historical events of the 19 th
Century
The "--isms" affect every aspect of life in the 19 th
Century
Affected economy, colonialism, art, politics, society, religion, and identity
Romanticism and Nationalism
Conservatism and Liberalism
Imperialism and Industrialism
Conservatism
-old leaders at odds with new dynamism inspired by French Revolution
-want pre-revolutionary politics
-restore pre-revolutionary society
Edmund Burke abstract concepts of human rights were dangerous
-undermine social order and chaos will occur
-reasoning: extreme French Rev in the Terror government to be anchored in tradition
-order of society had been permanent before revolutionary ideas
-even if it wasn't perfect, its longevity proved it was the best system
-Britain: already has a const. monarchy, why are they conservative?
-most commoners disenfranchised; only wealthy were in political office
-returning soldiers find no political voice
-much unemployment and discontent = series of demonstrations and revolts
Corn Laws movement for wealthy to take control of society taxes imposed on grain imports wealthy want these taxes on imports so that can set price for own grain at home and hence force commoners to buy own grain
Peterloo Massacre in St. Peter's field in Manchester a peaceful demonstration wants universal suffrage
King's forces charge the stage to get charismatic speaker off
Afraid of people becoming inspired

-Six Acts to maintain the conservative order outlaw freedom of assembly and impose censorship on the population
Great Reform Bill 1832
-Liberal push from masses; response to Peterloo Massacre; Britain too conservative
-enfranchisement to men of the middling class
-reorganized voting system
- Chartism: named after people's charter; work towards expanding change
-want secret ballot; universal suffrage; establish salaries for members of parliament; abolish property requirements
- Corn laws repealed (1846)
Nationalism
-people derive identity from the nation and owe the nation their primary loyalty
-think: pre-revolution loyalty lay in the lords, nobility, and up to the King
French shift from supporting the king dom to the r epubli c for the sake of the people
-could include: common language, religion, political authority, traditions, and shared historical experiences etc.
-nations were made of the people
Who are the French people? Change to interest in commoners
Scholars record the culture of the people
Folklore and fairytales are recorded
-became new faith, promise of order and stability
-instead of relying on religion, one can also be supported and protected by nation
-often used to seek unity or national independence
Liberalism
-descendant of Enlightenment critique of absolutism
-best safeguard of individual freedom was reduction of government power
-government purpose to ensure citizens' happiness
-wanted constitutional limits, guaranteed central legal system want rule of law
-end of state regulation of economy invisible hand takes care of society
Smith and Malthus
-enfranchisement an issue
Bentham and Stewart Mill who should have the vote?
Educated classes, all men, all men and women, wealthy and military?
-bourgeoisie biggest supporters the middling class owning a means of production

1848
Important year for liberalism in the masses
-1845-1846 agricultural disasters/industrial downturn led to mass unemployment
-people become radicalized - push for liberalism
-liberalism clashed with conservatism in European wide revolutions (50 revolts)
-parliaments were installed throughout Europe
-people could not deal with urban problems of overcrowding, disease, and unsanitary conditions
-governments began to accept responsibility for the wellbeing of its citizens people are not subjects of monarchs, but citizens of the state begin social security nets
-liberalism and nationalism were focus of hope
-women were blocked from the political process
Crimean War 1854-6
-Why did Russia feel that it had a responsibility to intervene in the Balkans?
-Common ethnicity; Common religion; Russia viewed as the fatherland
-Russia needed warm water ports
-1854 Crimean War
-Ottoman Empire weak - Russia able to expand into Crimean penninsula
-Britian and France are concerned about this in terms of shipping
France looking to recover from debt from wars; looking to expand influence
Britain and France go to war against Russia
Consequences:
Russia became seen as a major European aggressor
Britain retreated into splendid isolationism
Ottoman Turkish Empire weakened, lose some territory to Russia
Relied on Britain and France to rescue; no longer have a power base
Austria, Russia, and Ottoman Empire vying for control of the Balkans
Becomes flashpoint for WWI
Huge mutual suspicion between nations led to narrow self-interests
Realpolitik : interest in own state only
-Leads Britain to a period of isolation (important b/c leads to Imperialism)
-Britain and France are suspicious of Prussia and Austria for not entering the
Crimean War to maintain the balance of power
-Turkish Empire further weakened
-Russia suspicious of all Europe
-Militarization
Splendid Isolationism - Britain retreats into splendid isolation by withdrawing from continental affairs to turn within; second industrial revolution; become great power

Italian Unification (1848-1870)
Peidmont (Sardinia - northern Italy) gained 1848 constitution
-became beacon for Italy; ruled by liberalism
-strategically support French during the Crimean War
France then became a catalyst for Italian unification
-Naples - conservatism, organized crime in economy
National Society formed by middle classes for unity
(nationalism, liberalism, industrialization) urban leaders, professionals, scholarly, industrialists, property owners political and economic motivations to unite Italy
-Piedmont and France allied to defeat Austria
Piedmont supported the French in the Crimean War
Much of northern Italy is controlled by Austria
France wants to expand in Europe by weakening Austria
-Playing within the "rules" of realpolitik advancing through military
1860s France backs out of supporting Italian Unification
-smaller northern states voluntarily joined Piedmont
-Southern states unified by Garibaldi
Garibaldi is a revolutionary military leader
Overturns the conservative orders
Joins Piedmont
-Southern and Northern Italy joined
-universal male suffrage unites Italy under Victor Emmanuel II want to unite under a constitutional monarch already led liberalist unification
-Papal states and Venice join Italy by 1870 (excluding Vadican)
-1870 Rome becomes the capital city of Italy
Liberalism pushes the movement for independence
Nationalism unifies the people

German Unification
-1848-Metternich deposed of in Austria; Hapsburgs are no longer strong leaders
-Prussian domination imminent (think 1648 - end of Thirty Years War; three hundred principalities in Germany had been consolidated; gained power; Prussia and Austria vie for power over Germanic lands)
-unity attempt in 1850 checked by Austrian military supremacy
Prussia invites all German-speaking lands (not Austria) to join under power
Austria threatens to invade; Prussia backs off
This sets the Prussian military agenda for next 70 years
King William I and parliament struggled over military
King asked to raise taxes to build up army to make Prussia powerful
Parliament refuses to give the King more power (could suppress liberalists)
Otto von Bismark appointed as Prime Minister by King William I to achieve goal
Bismark is a master politician; negotiates with parliament on behalf of King
Parliament trusts Bismark more than trust King William
Bismark convinces parliament allow army funds with iron and blood speech
"iron and blood" - the position of Prussia in Germany will not be strengthened by liberalism, but by military power; an army, weaponry, and force is needed to expand
Prussian domination
Schleswig-Holstein was catalyst
Denmark trying to expand onto continent; Danish schools/nationalism
Denmark backs off from Austrian-Prussian aggression
Prussia turns around and attacks Austrian army in Holstein
-after winning Holstein, Prussia annexed dividing smaller states fill in holes in Prussian Empire ideas of nationalism appeals to the peoples in these territories will allow industrial expansion and economic benefit
-1871 southern businessmen then joined Prussia
-1871 William I crowned Emperor of Germany
Alsace-Lorraine
-Hohenzollerns (King William's family, Prussian royalty) claimed Spain
-France objected; 1871 Prussia has strong military and defeats France easily
-Prussia withdraws from France, but takes Alsace-Lorraine (rich mineral deposits)
-France lost Alsace-Lorraine and owed huge indemnity payments
-French bitter with this debt and the loss of an economic stronghold
Italy - nationalism, industrialism, and liberalism shaping unification
Germany - militarism, industrialism, and conservatism push unity

Industrialization
First Industrial Revolution (c.1760)
-all industrial revolution is really a series of other revolutions
-agricultural revolution:
-made agriculture more efficient
-displaced farmers/rural workers moving to cities
-Consumer Revolution:
- Consumption fuels industrialization; provides a market
- increased materials from colonies
- affordable products
-Technological Revolution
proto-industrialization led to bottlenecks o a stage that is before regular industrialization o a precursor to the factory system o women produced cloth; drives textile industry
one woman would cart raw wool; the next would spin; the next would weave; middle-man "puts-out" jobs to each woman o bottle-neck: each stage of the process does not take the same amount of time, creating backlog, weaving is the longest and most tedious
- Kay's Flying Shuttle o Weaving goes more quickly o Spinning is now causing bottleneck
- Hargreaves' Spinning Jenny (1765) o Spinning goes more quickly
- Early inventions are improved, constantly making the process faster
- Begins to move the textile industry from the household to a factory o Still relies on people to run the machines
- Arkwright's water frame o Machines become water-powered
- Watt's perfection of the steam engine moved industry into urban centers, non-stop work, most efficient way to harness power o Big, heavy, requires fuel o However, doesn't need water supply, so can be moved to urban area o Labor supply, materials, power supply all in one location o Supply lines can be put into place in an urban center
- Improved iron smelting - basis for heavy industry o Construction of railways and machinery used for heavy industry
Second Industrial Revolution
-second I.R. (1815+) focused on steel production, chemicals, electricity and oil
-major proliferation of industrialization
-while first IR was based in Britain, the second IR was widespread through western
Europe
-inextricably intertwined with nationalism and imperialism

Transportation Revolution
-1800s
-rail tracks, bridges, canals, roads, telegraph lines
-explosion of means of transportation enhance communication and trade allow infrastructure to bring in raw materials to urban center factories, then distribute the final products to markets
-overseas transportation improved drastically ships can connect Britain to North American first clipper ship, then steamship shorten travel time with the exploding European population, more immigrants to New World
-1909 Model T Ford
Communications Revolution
-news can travel faster then people
-eg) news Battle of Waterloo's defeat of Napoleon took three days to reach London
-telegram, radio, telephone
-1870s telephone
-penny post established national postal service is widespread and affordable
-media became the "fourth estate" rotary presses can turn out huge quantities of newspapers = more affordable the press has a voice as the news expands to public/widely accessible eg) 1820s reporters first become a major political player
Agricultural Revolution
The second agricultural revolution has modern-day implications
1800 around ¾ of the population grew food
1900 only ½ of the population was involved in growing food
-1913 pop growth: 2.5x population as 1813; more than doubled more food, more variety; more efficient food production
-surplus in food at expense of the environment about 50% of European forests cleared to make way for agriculture use poisions against pests to improve yield diverting waterways, fill in swamps, lowering of the watertable
-triggered industrial development, urbanization, and immigration ability to feed a large urban workforce
-rural living conditions did not really improve
Urbanization
-population explosion: exponential demographic increase

-in 1800 10% of people lived in cities
-in 1900 40% of people lived in cities
-agricultural developments and industrial options forced people in the cities
Dire social consequences as more people move to the city a lowest poor class is formed in slums
Large population combined with insufficient lighting and ventilation, rudimentary sanitation, pollution, over-crowding (densely populated apartments, some workers living on streets), and disease all led to poor standards of living and high mortality rates
Working Conditions
-16 hour day with few short breaks
-children could begin work at age 5 or 6, are paid even lower wages
-low wages, way more people than are jobs
-no safety regulations
-profit system for managers and owners to gain the most, exploiting workers
-no social welfare if unable to work
-disease and ill health prevail; lung disease from smokey factories, rickets and other heavy labour diseases
1840s: military rejected 90% of urban men from poor health
-family structure changes; extended families and large families with many children
-children are important because will be bread winners
-older grandparents care for children under 5; their children care for elderly
Working Class Responses
Luddites:
-sabotage industrialization
-the anti-technology rebels who smashed factory equipment
Trade Unions:
-push for workplace safety, set hours
-resented corporate power and exploitations = sense of class cohesiveness
-huge, nation-wide organizations
-1850s Factory Acts
-series of acts
-legislated a 12 hour workday Monday to Friday, Saturday work until 2pm
Working Class Response: Socialism
-old hierarchy of rank and privilege had been replaced by class hierarchy
-only obligation of wealthy to the working class is a wage
Division:
-working class (workers, employed in factories, face poor conditions),
-middle class (run factories, own business, professionals), and very wealthy; division between middling and working classes:
-competition, individualism, private property blamed

-argue could be both industrial and humane
-government needs to intervene to help protect the people
Out of socialism arises Marxism
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
- Communist Manifesto (1848)
Advocate for Liberalism
Pushing people's involvement in the nation
Least amount of state intervention the better, 1845-46 industrial downturn led to extreme poverty
The workers take the brunt of industrialism
- Victory of proletariat over bourgeoisie
The abolishment of capitalism
Get rid of class structure and improve the standard of living of working class
- Same motivation as socialism
Individualism bad
- Call workers to rise up violently
"nothing to lose but their chains"
- disappearance of the state ultimate liberation equalizing factor
- different from socialism- state takes care of people, Marxism wants state gone
Middle Class Response to Industrialization
-Separate living space than working class
-respectability, myth of social mobility
-Samuel Smiles o Published self-help and advice columns in newspaper o "Heaven helps those who help themselves" o If you are a hard worker, stay away from alcohol, pull yourself up by your bootstraps, go to church, get educated
-middle class cultivate justification for identity; have all traits that allow them to be wealthy (smart with money, sober, Godly, respectable, deserving of own identity)
-if you are middle class, you have enough money for the wife to stay home and children to go to school
Cult of Domesticity and True Womanhood
A good woman shows piety, purity, submissiveness, and domesticity
Working class women and children had to go out and work
Enforces that middle class is virtuous and respectable
Isolates middle class women
Reputation can be ruined for life if accused of acting immorally

Feminism
- most "isms" did not even consider let alone improve the conditions of women, citizenship was exclusive to men
- initially feminism came to improve working conditions of women and children, advocate in conjunction with trade unions for factory acts
- only women who are wealthy, or have a husband who can protect them can be able to politically exercise their voice
Freud and Darwin are against women as intellectuals o Freud challenges mental capacity of women o Darwin says women are physically not as highly evolved as men
1910s suffragettes won in most of western world
Suffragettes o wealthy widows and daughters o wealthy wives of industrialists who can support them o white women
not until 1960s in Canada that native women could vote
once women won right to vote, moved to women's control over their bodies o move for birth control use in married women o 1920s legalization of birth control pill o contagious diseases act
if women were found on street and suspected of prostitution they could be forcibly confined and searched for STDs
Which of the following were middle class responses to the I.R.?
- physical divide with working class
- myth of social mobility
- separate spheres/ cult of domesticity
- feminism
New Imperialism
-"policy of expanding a nation's power by seeking hegemony over an alien people"
-shift in ideology from colonization to imperialism
-control and power
- economic element, but mostly nationalism being able to control other people
- better technology, better religion from your view, better quality of life for the controlled peoples in the great country's colony
- example, North America was colonization, pushing indigenous away, but imperialism focuses on controlling the people such as Britain in India
- example of economic imperialism USA in Cuba, control Cuban sugar economy
-Direct or indirect political and economic controls
-Motivations/justifications:
- nationalism

o Prove mother country is the best country in the world by having a strong presence in so many other countries o Britain was a great imperialist country
"the sun never set on the British Empire"
Industrialism o Colonies provide natural resources and give a market for finished goods produced by the home country
"White Man's Burden" o Social Darwinism o Some countries are more evolved, so it is up to the refined white man to bring culture and technology to undeveloped areas of the world, exporting political ideologies (backdrop for Cold War)
religious motivations
economic motivations
detract from domestic problems o British Foreign Service: can go to India and live a lavish lifestyle that would not be possible at home country o Distract from industrial problems because those subjects who don't like the conditions in Britain can emigrate
Major Turning Points
Suez Canal
-French helped Egypt build Suez Canal (1869)
-The last area that is expanded into is Africa
-Last opportunity for European powers to grab a holding
-France forces Egypt to be their economic partner in building the canal
-Egypt cannot afford to build the canal
-British bought majority share from Egypt (1875) because they wanted a shorter shipping route to India, which became the "jewel in the crown of the empire"
India is the number one exporting nation for British cotton, huge market, many rubber plantations
-British army to protect canal (1882)
-Egyptian revolt not concerned with the canal at all, but dislike the debt Egypt is in from construction of the canal
-British army causes concern for European powers
-Triggered "Scramble for Africa"
Berlin Conference (1884-1885)
1) Divide up territory
2) must have actual possession of colony cannot exercise only economic imperialism disregard for political traditions of that African country dismantles traditional African tribal systems
3) free shipping on major routes

cannot charge for others trading through your territory
4) slave trade is made illegal
- conference called by King Leopold of Belgium (has control of the Congo which is seventy times larger than Belgium)
- the European claims results in many skirmishes
- want a regulation for imperialism in Africa
-European powers did not think of the fact they are dividing tribes
- African territories now can have enemies supposed to be citizens together
- major players are Britain, France, Belgium etc.
Causes for Concern in Europe
-Concern of Germany upsetting the balance of power
-Japanese Imperialism a concern in Southeast Asia upsetting of European powers in Asia
-United States a growing power
Open Door Policy
Spanish-American War
Annexation of the Philippines
What was the significance of imperialism?
- was integral to industrialization and nationalism
- imposed European and American politics, as well as cultural and economic systems on the rest of the world
- led to enormous challenges in rebuilding nations after decolonization
- set stage for World Wars and Cold War politics
Alliance Systems
Creation of Alliances
-Bismark needed to protect German interests
-to quell suspicions of Germany, don't want to undercut power on continent
-wants a complex system of alliances to protect Germany
-want to undercut ability of France to retaliate
(Germany took Saar land and Alsace-Lorraine and made France pay)
Three Emperors League (1873)
-Russia, Austria, Germany
-Empires, with centralized power, potential for conflict if don't make treaty
-1875 Russian support in Balkans hurt Austria
Three Emperors League collapses
-1879 Dual Alliance
Secret alliance between Germany and Austria
Friends against Russian power

Isolates Russia
Links Germany to internal issues of Austro-Hungarian Empirs
Russia realizes that it does not have any allies
-1881 Three Emperors League
Russia rejoins the alliance
Bismark realizes that this alliance system is weak
Triple Alliance (1882)
Germany, Austria, and Italy
Italy is concerned about French ambitions
Excludes Russia
-1888 King/ Kaiser William I died
-1890 King William II
-wants to push German ambitions
-Bismark had cultivated an "image" of Germany as non-threatening
-dismissed Bismark
-alliances collapsed
-Germany turned to Britain
-William II feels that Britain and Germany has ability to rule world in consort
-Britain stayed in "splendid isolation"
-William II built navy (counter to Bismark's policies)
-1894 Franco-Russian alliance
France and Russia both hostile to Germany, and concerned for own country
-Germany's presence in Africa (Boer War, Cape to Cairo Rail) agitated Britain
-Germany had wanted to show Britain its power to entice into alliance
-however, convinces Britain that it cannot be friends with Germany
-Germany's aggression forced Britain into Entente Cordiale
Entente Cordiale (1904)
-between Britain and France
-In Africa, Britain holds outer regions, France holds interior
-1905 Moroccan Crisis
Civil war in Morocco where African people trying to gain independence from
France, but Germany intervenes and supports Africans against
France
-Germany's attempt to gain alliance with Britain fails, and turns opposite, so that within a decade, France and Britain's military policy was intertwined

Russia
-after loss of Crimean War
-1861 serfs emancipated by Alexander II however, what to do with all the serfs? new system of land tenure serfs not tied to land, but now forced to rent the land for 49 years
-Alexander II's half-hearted liberalism met with discontent
-serfdom released, but starving
-military conscription reformed to 15 years, down from 25 years
-tries to make legal system consistent but still reserves right to veto
-became repressive police state
-people do leave land for cities, but still required to pay land rent
Problems:
-industrialization haphazard
-population explodes
-bread riots and many revolts
-Poland is also ticked off because Alexander II forces Russian culture
-Alexander III continues with Alexander II's reforms
-Alexander III created a reactionary state trying to appeal the reforms, but made people more angry
-Nicholas II also faced population explosion, poor urban conditions, and rioting
-Russian people turned on the tsar
Early 1900-1905
Bolsheviks led by Lenin pushed for Marxist revolution led by of a small group of professional revolutionaries
-working class response is Marxism is support proletariat workers to rise up against the bourgeoise owning class
-Nicholas II needs to unite Russian people
-1904-1905 Russo-Japanese War
Russia loses
Nicholas II humiliated
Bolsheviks gaining prominence
-1905 Bloody Sunday and riots
Further Support of Bolsheviks
Nicholas II loses hold on power of Russia
Triple Entente (1905)
Russian ideology moving towards "liberalism" at this time
All faced by German aggression

Alliances
Three Emperor's League: Germany, Austria, Russia, weak alliance broke apart
Triple Alliance: Germany, Austria, Italy
Triple Entente: Russia, France, Britain
Balkans: became a crises point
-Russian and Austrian ambitions
-Balkans want independence from Austria
-Serbia wanted to lead Slavic unification (Bosnia, Croatia,
Herzegovenia)
-also complicated by religions (Muslim pop. from Ottoman Empire influence)
June 28, 1914 Bosnian nationalist killed Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria
-was the "shot heard round the world"
Alliance systems forced into action
-Austria gained German support and declared war of Serbia, July 28, 1914
-Russia had already given Serbia support for its independence
-Russia received assurance from France
-Russia mobilized army, Austria and Germany mobilized their armies
= brinkmanship
-Germany makes preemptive attack on Luxembourg, Belgium, and France
-Britain joined the war on Aug 4 when Germany attacks Belgium
World War I
-1914 World at war!

.
1917 turning point
- US enters war
- Russian worker revolution; Nicholas II abdicated; Trotsky and Lenin take power
- Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany
1918
- Germany accepts armistice with western powers
- Woodrow Wilson's 14 points: self-determination, open diplomacy, freedom of seas, disarmament, League of Nations
- Treaty of Versailles
Largely ineffective, legacy of WWI leads to WWII
-Significance:
Legacy of 14 points
German discontent
Collapse of old order (old emperors gone)
Rise of the U.S.A. (gets to loan money to European countries/gain interest)