Muhammed, A. Y., Ayinla, S. A. & M. N. Adeoye (2006) “Ethnic
Discrimination and Religious Intolerance: An Overview of Inter-Group Relations
in Nigeria.” In O. Akinwunmi., Okpeh, O. O, J. D. Gwamna (eds.) Inter-Group
Relations in Nigeria during the 19th and 20th Centuries. Makurdi: Aboki
Publishers. 605-617.
Ethnic Discrimination and Religious Intolerance:
An Overview of Inter-Group Relations in Nigeria
Ayinla S. Alanamu, A. Y. Muhammed & M. N. Adeoye
Introduction
Many societies all over the world have had to grapple with the problem of
inter-group relations. Such concepts as ‘apartheid’, ‘discrimination’, ‘prejudice’,
‘pogrom’, ‘ethnicity,’ ‘hatred’, ‘fanaticism’, ‘intolerance,’ ‘war,’ and ‘terrorism’, etc
are terms in common use. The Jews, the “chosen people of God” divided
mankind into themselves and the Gentiles. The Arabs on the other hand,
regarded themselves as the noblest nation in comparison with all other nations.
This egoistic feeling of the nations of the Middle East resulting in intolerance
and discrimination has given rise to the many years of intractable Middle East
question.1 In fact, the consequences of the problem of inter-group relations in
the Middle East is comparable to or even worse than the effects of September
11 2001 terrorist attacks in the United States.
In relation to Nigeria, one of the greatest and most inhuman problems of
inter-group relations witnessed in the country’s political history is the civil war
(1967-70). The Eastern region, under the leadership of Col. Odumegwu
Ojukwu, seceded, declaring itself the Republic of Biafra. Thirty months of civil
war began in July, claiming more than a million lives and devastating the
Eastern region.2
Nigeria is composed of peoples with different religious, ethnic and
cultural diverse backgrounds. Home to some 250 distinct linguistic groups,
Nigeria has been proned to the intense politicization of ethnic and religious
differences. Regional location and religion have served to reinforce the tripartite
cleavage of the three dominant ethnic groups (Yoruba, Igbo and Hausa)3.
British colonial rule reinforced these regional and cultural differences. These
disparities have been a source of intolerance, discrimination, political tension
and instability ever since.
Against this background, this paper sets out to examine the implications
of ethnic discrimination and religious intolerance on inter-groups relations in
Nigeria. To accomplish this objective, the paper is sub-divided into five sections.
Section one deals with the introductory aspect while section two examines the
concepts of ethnic discrimination and religious intolerance. Section three
discusses the manifestation of ethnic discrimination and religious intolerance in
Nigeria. Section four is devoted to measures for promoting inter-group relations
in Nigeria while section five concludes the work.
Conceptual Clarification
In order to put the focus of this paper in its appropriate context, some
concepts deserve clarification. These are ethnic discrimination and religious
intolerance.
Ethnic Discrimination: Ethnic discrimination represents one of the
problems of inter-group relations in any society. According to Ojie4, this is a
situation which people of the minority ethnic groups are given unfair or unequal
treatment simply because they are from a different ethnic group. It could be
referred to as tribalism, which emanates from the ethnocentric feeling of the
dominant group. When there is feeling of superiority by one ethnic group, the
tendency is to look at the other ethnic groups with contempt.
The root cause of ethnic discrimination could be attributed to cultural
factors while others argue that it is rooted in the struggle for the national cake.
Eyo identifies psychological fear as the cause of ethnicity when he said:
… at the root of ethnicity is fear, fear of the unknown, fear of loosing the
predictability of one’s ways of behaviour …; fear of having one’s established
values changed thus cutting one adrift in a wider and more uncharted sea
called Nigeria that seems to lack an articulate goal and value system; fear of
competition for scare resources, and a lot of other fears that may be explicit or
implicit.5
It is logical to deduce from Eyo’s comments that the cultural, structural
and frustration-aggression arguments combine to cause ethnic discrimination
in Nigeria. Since the conquest of the “sub-nations” in Nigeria and the eventual
2
amalgamation of the southern and northern Nigeria in 1914, this fear has
increased ethnicity in the nation. The various ethnic groups have now come
into closer contacts with one another and this increased interaction has
tremendously accelerated the degree of ethnic discrimination 6.
Religious Intolerance: Intolerance is a blind refusal to understand and
respect views or positions that are opposed to one’s cherished religious views.
Hence, by religious intolerance, Ekwunife opines that it is a blind and fixated
mental and psychological negative attitude towards religious beliefs and
practices that are contrary to one’s cherished beliefs and practices 7. Such
negative attitudes exhibit themselves in situations whereby leaders or groups
in any society blindly refuse to understand and respect contrary religious views
and practices except the ones they consider to be true.
In other words, there is religious intolerance when any group in a
society deliberately and violently sets out to stamp out what the members
subjectively consider to be error in religious thought and practice. 8 In short,
there is religious intolerance when a particular group refuses to accept or
accommodate the views, opinions of other opposing religious adherent. Often,
this refusal to accept contrary religious views and practices is accompanied by
series of violence and destruction.
Manifestation of Ethnic Discrimination and Religious Intolerance in
Nigeria
In Nigeria today, ethnic discrimination has become a chronic social
disease, in fact a canker worm, which has eaten deep into the heart of
Nigerians. Discrimination based on ethnic nationality is common to all ethnic
groups in Nigeria. It is generally believed that Nigeria has 250 ethnic group 9.
Some estimates put the number at over 400. 10 Otite provided list of 374 ethnic
groups11. The common agreement, however is that these ethnic groups are
broadly divided into ethnic ‘majorities’ and ethnic ‘minorities’. The numericallyand politically-major ethnic groups are the composite Hausa- Fulani of the
North, the Yoruba of the Southwest and the Igbo of the Southeast. These three
‘hegemonic’ ethnic groups are popularly referred to by the generic term
‘Wazobia’. All the other ethnicities constitute different degree of ‘minority’ status.
There are ‘large minorities’ like the Ijaw, Kanuri, Edo Ibibio, Nupe and the Tiv 12.
3
Basically, the various ethnic groups in Nigeria exercise a certain degree
of discrimination against each other. Each group sees the other as superior.
This disposition is evident in all spheres of life: politics, sports, religion as well
as economic and social endeavours. The domination of certain spheres of the
society by some ethnic groups has served to further entrench the spate of
discrimination among different ethnic groups in Nigeria. For instance, the Igbo
people are known to dominate some areas of the business sector such as the
spare parts, manufacturing and sales, maintenance and repair of machinery as
well as manufacturing of complex industrial goods and home equipment. The
success of the Igbo man in these fields has made him an object of
discrimination by other ethnic groups. At times he may be denied residence
permit in areas dominated by other ethnic groups and may be a target of violent
attacks in times of social or political upheavals.
While the Igbo man dominates the business sector, the Hausa man is
successful in politics and administration. He is known for his shrewdness and
maneuvering in politics. Like the plight of the Igbo man, the Hausa man suffers
discrimination in the hands of other ethnic groups due to his outstanding feat in
the political sphere. The Yoruba man also meets similar fate like the other
dominant ethnic groups in the country. The group is known to dominate the
bureaucracy (Civil service) and key areas of the business sector such as
banking, import and export trade and indigenous entrepreneurship. As a result
of his dominant role in these spheres of life, the group often suffers most during
retrenchment in the civil service and government ban on importation of goods. 13
The similar ethnic groups experience discrimination within their region or state.
At the national level, the smaller ethnic groups are perceived alongside with the
larger ethnic group from their geographical area.
Ethnic discrimination is also experienced in our organizations and
institutions. It is pretty difficult for one to obtain a job in any organization unless
“his” tribal man is there. If he is employed, he faces all sorts of odds because he
is of different ethnic group. The same can be said of admission into the nation’s
institutions of higher learning. There is no gainsaying that government contracts
are awarded to contractors from the awarding officers’ ethnic groups. Ethnic
discrimination has blinded our sports official in choosing our representatives for
international competitions.
4
The consequences of these discriminatory practices cannot be fully
measured. The evil effects of these in organization is that jobs are given to less
qualified and incompetent people in preference to the more qualified and
competent competitors who are from different ethnic groups. The current low
standard of education in the country can equally be attributed to discriminatory
admission process. Ethnic administration in sports also explains the failure of
Nigeria to win the expected honours at international sporting events. The end
result is inefficiency and poor performance of our organisations with consequent
huge loss of profits. The problem of ethnic discrimination makes Nigerian unity
more elusive. Where there is ethnic discrimination, the call for national
integration becomes a mirage.
Like ethnic discrimination, religious intolerance constitutes one of the
problems of inter-group relations in Nigeria. Nigeria is no doubt a religiously
pluralistic society. There are those who adhere to African Traditional religion
(ATR), others profess Islam or Christianity, while still some owe their orientation
towards atheism or agnosticism. Of all these beliefs, Islam and Christianity are
the two most active religions in the country. The activities of some of the
adherents of these religions with regard to intolerance need proper diagnosis.
Historically, Islam was introduced into Nigeria from the North by the
Arabs while Christianity was introduced by the Europeans through the South.
Since then the coverts of both religions have been regarding each other with
scorn.14 The rise in the level of religious fanaticism and an extreme sense of
religious intolerance had resulted into numerous cases of intra and inter and
religious violence.15 Consequently, there have emerged several flash points of
religious violence across the country in the sense of occurrence of direct
violence in addition to a number of potential situations of violence outbursts.
The spiral of violent conflicts generated by religious intolerance in
contemporary Nigeria had become ferocious over the last two decades.
Beginning from the 1980s, the country has recorded very bizarre experience in
the domain of religious violence16 embracing the three broad types identified by
Ikenga-Metuh (1994): Intra-religious disturbances which occur between different
denominations or sects; inter -religious violence between adherents of different
religious beliefs but capable of assuming socio-economic dimension; and interreligious violence, which have socio-economic origin, end up in the form of
5
religious conflicts. In order to be more analytical, an analysis of different violent
religious conflicts in Nigeria since the 1980 to 2005 is presented below.
Cases of Religious Violence in Nigeria, 1980-200517
Groups Involved
Maitatsine
followers
Maitatsine
escapee disciples
Maitatsine
disciples
Muslims/Christians
Maitatsine
disciples
Maitatsine
disciples
Christians/Muslims
Date
Location
Outcome
of
such
Religious
Violence
Dec. 1980
Municipal Kano
4,177 persons died, over 146 houses,
436 shops and 554 kiosks were
completely destroyed.
16
Oct. Bullumkutu,
Borno 5000 people died, 1,712 rendered
1982
State
homeless, N2.3 million worth of
personal property destroyed, N 1.2m
estimated value of houses damaged.
20
Oct. Rigassa
Village, 52 persons killed.
1982
Kaduna State
30
Oct. Kano
3 Churches were set on fire, 2 were
1982
burnt down completely, 6 others
severely damaged.
1984
Jimeta-Yola (former 1,000 people died, property worth
Gongola State))
N5m destroyed while 5, 913 people
displaced.
April, 1985
Gombe
Colossal loss of lives and property.
April, 1986
Ilorin Metropolis
Destruction of lives and property.
Christian/Muslim
March, 1987 Kafanchan Town
Students
of
College
of
Education
Kafanchan
Colossal loss of lives and property.
Muslims/Christians
Many people were killed and several
others injured. Property valued at
millions of naira was vandalised.
Many lives were lost.
1990
Kano
Muslim Youths
Oct.
14, Kano
1990
Muslims/
April, 1991
Dass and Tafawa More than 200 people were killed
Christians
Balewa Bauchi State Churches, Mosques, residential and
commercial buildings destroyed.
Muslims/Christians 1992
Zango-Kataf,
and Hundreds of people were killed and
environs, Kaduna
colossal property destroyed.
Muslims/Christians May,
30 Kano city
17 persons were killed.
1995
Yoruba Traditional July 1999
Sagamu, Ogun State Many people were killed and property
worshippers/minori
worth millions of Naira destroyed.
ty Hausa groups
Muslims/Christians 21-22
Kaduna metropolis
An estimated 3,000 people lost their
February
lives.
2001
6
Igbo
Christians February
against Hausa
2001
Muslims/Christians May 2000
Aba, Abia State
450 persons were killed in retaliatory
attacks.
Kaduna
Over 1,500 people were killed and
property worth millions of Naira
destroyed.
Muslims/Christians June
19- Tafawa Balewa Local Over 100 person were killed.
July 4 2001 Government, Bauchi
State
Christians
and September
Jos
Over 1,000 lives were lost, about
Hausa/Fulani
7, 2001
1000 others injured and property
Muslims
worth millions of Naira destroyed.
Muslims
and 12 Oct 2001 Kano city
150 persons were killed.
Christians
Muslims
and May 22-23 Kaduna metropolis
Over 3,000 lives were lost.
Christians
2002
Muslim
and 22
Nov Kaduna city
Over 200 people were killed, several
Christians
2002
buildings were burnt.
Maitatsine sect
Dec 2003
Kanamma town in 2 policemen, 2 civilians were killed
Yobe State
and police station was burnt.
Hausa/Muslim
Feb 2004
Yelwa Shendam LGA About 48 persons were murdered in a
Militants
Plateau State
Church.
Christian groups
May
2-4 Yelwa
Shendam Between 500 to 600 people mostly
2004
Plateau State
Muslims
were
massacred,
49
vehicles 210 houses were destroyed
in reprisal attacks.
Muslims
and May 2004
Kano city
Over 100 people died, several
Christians
hundred injured and over 30,000
displaced, property valued at billions
of naira were either looted or
vandalized.
Christians
and June 2004
Numan Town (HQs of 17 persons were killed and some
Muslims
Numan
LGA) worship centers destroyed
Adamawa State
Sunni and Shia May 2005
Sokoto State
Several people injured.
Muslims
From the above table, it can be derived that religious intolerance has
done incalculable harm to the socio-economic and political life of Nigeria. Apart
from wanton destruction of lives and property, religious intolerance has impeded
the nomination and ultimate elections of the best candidates into presidential
and other elective positions that would have saved us from the problems that
the country is grappling with. Appointments into many strategic positions have
been influenced by religion. Most dismal is the fact that the military whose
primary consideration for appointments and promotions due to the nature of
their work, should be excellence in performance, is also neck deep in religious
intolerance and discrimination.
7
For lasting peace, unity and development in Nigeria, it calls for concerted
actions to be taken to stop all forms of ethnic discrimination and religious
intolerance in Nigeria.
Promoting Inter-Ethnic and Religious Relations
Several solutions have, and can be proffered as ways of promoting interethnic and religious relations in Nigeria. Nigeria is no doubt a complex country
given its numerous ethnic groups with varied cultural characteristics and
interests. Ayinla traces the genesis of ethnic and religious problems of Nigeria
to the British colonial policy.18 According to him, the British had wrongly
assumed that for any political arrangement in Nigeria to succeed, it must satisfy
the “aspirations of the three major ethnic groups. 19 This forms the basis of the
tripod theory of power in Nigeria. Unfortunately, in an attempt to satisfy the
wishes and aspirations of the majorities (so-called Wazobia) the wishes and
stabilizing role of the minorities of the total population of the country were
ignored.20
To eliminate the problems of ethnic discrimination and religious
intolerance in Nigeria, Okediji calls for the establishment of a more humane
social order.21 To him this can be achieved through increased utilization of the
intellectual resources of the land by encouraging social research and using the
results for solving social problems, which of course include those relating to
inter-group relations.22
Similarly, there is the need to mobilize Nigerians who are divided along
ethnic, cultural, economic and religious diversities in the task of national
development.
This
also
constitutes
part
of
Okediji’s
social
action
recommendations for the resolution of the national crisis. 23
As a further step to promote inter-ethnic and religious relations among
the Nigerian people, Adebisi noted that Nigerian leaders must address the
problem of educational imbalance between the North and South. 24 According to
him, this will help reduce the different rates of development between the two
regions.25 Also, government must ensure that the economy of the country is
nationally integrated. Besides, emphasis from now must be on actual
production, not mainly on the distribution of national wealth. State of origin,
religious sentiments and ethnicity must be de-emphasized in all issues of
national interest.
8
To further reduce the problems of ethnic discrimination and religious
intolerance, Ojie suggested that a concerted effort to bring about cross-cultural
awareness among the citizenry of this country should be advocated. 26 Thus, the
study of the people of Nigeria, their culture and religions should be made
compulsory all through our educational system. Efforts should also be geared
up towards enhancing greater interaction between the various ethnic, religious
and political groups.
There is also the need for dialogue among different ethno-religious
groups in the country. We posit that ethnic and religious groups in the country
should not only talk about the need for dialogue among themselves, they should
also act by organising a forum for dialogue in all states and local governments
of the federation. Dialogue will help to create ethnic accommodation, religious
tolerance, understanding and peaceful co-existence among the different groups
in the country. Finally, we advocate for a stringent law against official
discrimination and intolerance.
Conclusion
In this paper, it has been observed that ethnic discrimination and
religious intolerance play a background but very important role of fanning the
embers of inter-group conflict in Nigeria. Again, religion and ethnicity have
created tensions and had led the nation into bloody and destructive crises thus
seriously threatening the peaceful-coexistence and interaction among the
various ethnic and religious groups. The paper pointed out that the continued
existence of ethnic hatred and religious intolerance pose serious threat to
national survival.
Therefore, for a lasting peace, unity and development to be achieved in
Nigeria, we identified some measures towards promoting inter-ethnic and
religious relations in the country. Some of these measures include the
establishment of a more humane social order, positive mobilization of Nigerians,
the promotion of cultural awareness, the use of dialogue and enactment of law
against official discrimination and intolerance.
It is hereby envisaged that the full acceptance and implementation of the
suggested programmes of action will see Nigeria emerge really as a free, just
and egalitarian society; a society where respect for the worth and dignity of the
individuals is accorded to all irrespective of ethnic or religious affiliations. In
deed, if all hands will be on deck to root out the problems of ethnic
discrimination and religious intolerance from the Nigerian system, there is the
hope that Nigeria of 2005 onwards will be a new society.
9
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11