AP Euro Chapter 19 Outline
I.
II.
The Crisis of the French Monarchy
 France, before the war, was depleted financially, but its debt was proportionate to other
European powers.
 Difference between France and Europe was that France’s government couldn’t use the
wealth of the nation to benefit the counties economy.
 Before the revolution, debt was half of the total budget.
A. The Monarchy Seeks New Taxes
 After 7 Years’ War, one minister after another attempted to draw up new tax plans that
would take from the nobility but always opposed by the Parlement.
 1770, Louis XV appointed René Maupeou chancellor. Maupeou abolished parlements;
was foiled because of the death of Louis XV. Parlements restored by Louis XVI.
 1786 Charles de Calonne was minister of France. “Callone proposed to encourage internal
trade, to lower some taxes such as gabelle on salt, and to transform peasants services to
money payments.” He wanted the introduction of a new land tax.
B. The Aristocracy and the Clergy Resist Taxation
 Country was at the brink of economic crisis.
 1787, Calonne met with an Assembly of Notables to get approval for his plan.
 Notables wanted a “larger share in the direct government of the kingdom” but said
they didn’t have the authority to approve taxes, only Estates General did.
 Étienne Charles Loménie de Brienne replaced Calonne.
 Brienne sought to impose land tax; July 1788, King agreed to reinstate the Estates
General in 1789.
The Revolution of 1789
 Political situation changed dramatically once the Estates General was called.
 Some say Estates General sparked conflict between bourgeoisie and aristocracy; others
between bourgeoisie/ aristocracy and the monarchy.
 Aristocracy was beginning to feel threatened by middle class.
 Debates over power arose and were made possible by the emerging print culture.
 Also, this period is seen as one chapter in the long-term political reorganization of France.
This chapter provided the foundation for a republic.
 View of revolution depended on city, region, religion and overall culture.
A. The Estates General Becomes the National Assembly
 1st Estate was clergy, 2nd was nobility and 3rd was everyone else with representatives
being the wealthier members.
 3rd Estate made it clear that it could not let 1st and 2nd decide fate of kingdom.
1) Debate Over Organization and Voting
 3rd Estate and aristocracy split before estates general met.
 2nd estate demanded equal number of reps from each estate; each estate has one
vote.
 2nd and 3rd estate were very separate; 2nd was wealthier, 3rd faced political an social
discrimination.
 December 1788, Third Estate would elect twice as many reps.
2) The Cahiers de Doléances
 List of grievances by local electors presented to king. Criticized government waste,
indirect taxes, and church taxes and corruption.
 Called for better taxes, control of administration, etc.
 3rd estate refused to sit; standoff; invited 1st and 2nd estate members to join them as
formed new body, the National Assembly.
3) The Tennis Court Oath
 At local tennis court, members of National Assembly vowed to stay until France had
a Constitution.

III.
Members of 1st and 2nd estates joined, renamed National Constituent Assembly and
set off the liberally alter the government.
B. Fall of the Bastille
 King Louis XVI attempted to gain power back, dismissed minister of finance, Necker.
 National Constituent Assembly wanted constitutional monarchy but Louis XVI didn’t.
 Population assembled an army I response to Louis’ troops. July 14, 1789, the stormed the
Bastille (a prison) for weapons and freed 7 prisoners, killed several troops and the
governor. Guards killed 98 people and wounded others.
 Other incidents happened throughout the country in response to this.
 Louis Xvi entered the city and recognized the changes, which satisfied the citizens.
C. The “Great Fear” and the Surrender of Feudal Privileges
 Population feared that troops would be sent to the countryside. “The Great Fear saw the
burning of chateaux, the destruction of records and documents, and the refusal to pay
feudal dues.”
 Peasants claimed food and land that they thought were rightfully theirs. NCA put an end to
the chaos on August 4 when some aristocrats gave up titles and privileges.
 Recent times called for these measures; many areas were starving and some saw food
riots.
D. The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen
 A broad statement of political principles. All men born free and had equal rights.
 Natural rights were liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.
 Due process of law and innocence until proven guilty; freedom of religion.
 Purposefully didn’t mention women, “men were suited for citizenship, women for
motherhood and the domestic life.”
E. The Royal Family Forced to Return to Paris
 October 5, crowd of women marched to Versailles to force the king to “sanction the
decrees of the assembly.”
 The crowd demanded that Louis and his family return to Paris; he accepted and moved
into the palace of the Tuileries the next day.
 Soon the National Constituent Assemble also moved to Paris.
The Reconstruction of France
 The NCA now sought o reorganize France. “In government, it pursued a policy of
constitutional monarchy; in administration, rationalism; in economics, unregulated
freedom; and in religion, anticlericalism.”
A. Political Reorganization
 Constitution created a constitutional monarchy, the political body would be a Legislative
Assembly, they would make the laws, and the monarch had a suspensive veto that could
delay, but not halt legislation.
1) Active and Passive Citizens
 Only active (“men paying annual taxes equal to three days of local labor wages”)
citizens could vote.
 Women couldn’t vote or hold office.
 1791, Olympe de Gouges published a Declaration of the Rights of Women. This was
basically the same as “…of Man” but replaced man with women throughout. She
wanted equality of the sexes.
2) Departments Replace Provinces
 NCA abolished old provinces (like Burgundy and Brittany) and created 83
departments.
 These were subdivided into districts, cantons and communes; they still exist today.
B. Economic Policy
1) Workers’ Organization Forbidden
 Guilds had been suppressed and peasants and urban workers were suffering from
inflation. The Chapelier Law forbade workers’ associations.
2) Confiscation of Church Lands

IV.
The NCA had removed many old and hated indirect taxes and replaced them with land
taxes that were insufficient.
 Decided to confiscate and sell land owned by the Roman Catholic Church. This led to
“further inflation, religious schism, and civil war.”
3) The Assignats
 Were government bonds; issued December 1789.
 Originally there was limit to how many could be sold, became very popular and
began to be used like currency.
 More were sold to end national debt but their value sharply declined and inflation
increaser further.
C. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 “Transformed the Roman Catholic Church in France into a branch of the secular state.”
Was done without consent of Pope or French clergy.
 Huge mistake, created bad relations between church and state which persists today.
 Said that all clergy must take oath to support Civil Constitution, few did. Those who didn’t
were refractory and were removed from clerical functions.
 1791 Pope condemned Civil Constitution of the Clergy and the Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen. This made being religious and revolutionary incompatible.
D. Counterrevolutionary Activity
 Émigrés were aristocrats that left France and settled near the French border to begin
counterrevolution.
1) Flight to Varennes
 June 20, 1791, Louis and family left Paris in disguise; was recognized in Varennes.
 June 24, King was escorted back to Paris. This revealed the fact that the largest
counterrevolutionary sat on the throne.
2) Declaration of Pillnitz
 Issued August 27, 1791 by King Leopold II of Austria and King Frederick William II of
Prussia. It promised to intervene in France if the Royal family was in danger only if
the other European powers agreed. (This would never happen.)
 NCA ended September 1791, its goal completed.
A Second Revolution
 Sept. 1791, all parts of government had been reformed yet France was still unstable.
 Aristocrats disliked their new lack of power, peasants disliked changes to the church,
some in Paris thought things had not gone far enough, women wanted more rights.
A. End of the Monarchy
 “Ever since the original gathering of the Estates General, deputies from the Third Estate
had organized themselves into clubs composed of politically like-minded persons.”
 Most well known was Jacobins; wanted a republic, not constitutional monarchy.
 In Legislative Assembly, group of Jacobins called Girondists took power. They declared
war on Austria and allied Prussia.
 War ended up removing the monarchy and establishing a republic. More rights for women
were obtained, some fought in the army.
 August 10, 1792, a crowd forced the king to take refuge in the Legislative Assembly,
afterwards, many lay dead.
B. The Convention and the Role of the Sans-culottes
 During the first week of the month, in what are known as the September Massacres,
the Paris Commune summarily executed or murdered about 1,200 people who were
in the city jails.”
 The Convention declared France a republic September 21, 1792.
1) Goals of the Sans-culottes
 Sans-culottes (without breeches), were shopkeepers, artisans, wage earners and some
factory workers who led the Second Revolution. They generally wanted their lives back
to normal; pushed for ends to food shortages and wanted more equality.

Were very radical: antimonarchical, very Republican and were suspicious of
representative governments. Wanted complete public involvement.
2) The Policies of the Jacobins
 The Jacobins and sans-culottes weren’t totally compatible.
 From Flight to Varennes onward, extreme Jacobins cooperated with sans-culottes.
 These Jacobins known as the Mountain, worked with sans-culottes to carry the
revolution forward. They were separated from the Girondidsts.
3) Execution of Louis XVI
 December 1792, Louis XVI put on trial. Girondists tried to spare his life but Mountain
prevailed. Condemned to death and beheaded January 21, 1793.
 “The next month, the Convention declared war on Great Britain, Holland, and Spain.
Revolution now at war with most of Europe and most of the French people.
V.
Europe at War with the Revolution

VI.
To begin, other European powers believed that the revolutionary efforts were
necessary t transform the corrupt and inefficient government.
A. Edmund Burke Attacks the Revolution
 Burke wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France which basically degraded the
revolution. Was published in 1790 and by 1792, the rest of Europe realized he was right.
B. Suppression of Reform in Britain
 William Pitt the Younger, Prime Minister, turned against reform and popular movements.
 Made government suspend habeas corpus; made it possible to commit reason in writing.
C. The End of Enlightened Absolutism in Eastern Europe
 Revolution brought end to enlightened absolutism.
 1793 and1795, eastern powers combined against Poland. Poland had organized a new
constitutional monarchy recently. The eastern powers annexed different areas of Poland
as their own. Poland was removed from the map until after WWI.
D. War with Europe
 Success of revolution brought end to reform in rest of Europe.
 “November 1792, the Convention declared that it would aid all peoples who wished to cast
off the burdens of aristocratic and monarchical oppression.”
 By April 1793, France at war with Austria, Prussia, Great Britain, Spain, Sardinia and
Holland. This was called the First Coalition.
The Reign of Terror
 ‘New war” erupted, “major issue was not protection of national borders as such, but rather
the defense of the bold new republican political and social order that had emerged during
the past four years.
A. The Republic Defended
 Government created committees that were meant to organize French life in a wartime
setting. Ultimately led to loss of many liberties and intense search for enemies of revolution.
1) The Committee of Public Safety
 Carried out the executive duties of the government. Eventually became dictatorial,
led by Jaques Danton, Maximilien Robespierre and Lazare Carnot.
2) The Levée en Masse
 June 1793, “Parisian sans-culottes invaded the Convention and successfully
demanded the expulsion of the Girondist members.”
 June 22, Convention approved fully democratic constitution to be implemented after
the war. (It never was implemented.)
 August 23, Carnot began levee en masse to gather all males to the army. Began the
Reign of Terror. It stretched from autumn 1793 to mid-summer 1794.
B. The “Republic of Virtue”
 The convention believed the Committee of Public Safety created a Republic of virtue. “In
the republic, civic virtue would flourish in place or aristocratic and monarchical corruption.
 This changed the culture including new street names, new dress code, no powdered wigs
and attack against crimes such as prostitution.
VII.
1) The Society of Revolutionary Republican Women
 “Purpose was to fight internal enemies of the revolution.” At first accepted by
Jacobins but is soon became very radical.
 October 1793, Jacobins banned all women’s clubs and societies.
 Olympe de Gouges opposed the Terror and accused certain Jacobins of corruption,”
2) De-Christianization
 Convention attempted to de-christianize France. New calendar started with the first
day of French republic, 12 months, 20 days each, every 10th day was a holiday.
Notre Dame was now Temple of Reason.
3) Robespierre
 Emerged as chief figure on the Committee of Public Safety. Opposed the war in1792
in fear it might aid the monarchy.
 Depended on the support of the sans-culottes and opposed de-Christianization.
C. Progress of the Terror
 The goal was to try the enemies of the republic, but enemy was too broad a term.
 First victims were Marie Antoinette and other members of the royal family in October 1793.
Next moved to Girondists, then to countryside dwellers that supposedly supported internal
opposition to the revolution.
1) Revolutionaries Turn Against Themselves
 Executed sans-culotte leaders know as enrages. Also executed more conservative
republicans, like Danton, who were not being militant enough, gaining monetarily
from the war and not upholding moral virtue.
 Robespierre executed leaders from both groups that might threaten him.
2) Fall of Robespierre
 Decided worship of Reason was too broad and established the “Cult of Supreme Being.”
 July 27th, he was shouted down when attempted to deliver a speech. That night he
was arrested and the next day he was executed. This was possible because he had
left himself no ‘friends’.
 25,000 had been killed, mostly peasants and sans-culottes.
The Thermidorian Reaction
 Began July 1794, it destroyed machines of terror and instituted new constitutional regime.
Came about because of feeling that revolution was too radical.
A. The End of the Terror
 After Robespierre, Girondists were allowed to return to their seats. The Committee of
Public Safety received much less power now.
 Different people and organizations related to the terror were killed and removed.
 The “White Terror” was the executions of the terrorists involved with the terror. The ideals
once established during the terror were reversed like new plays arising.
 Catholic worship was revived.
 Women’s roles were reconsidered but many women ended up with less power after 1795
than before 1789.
B. Establishment of the Directory
 New document rejected monarchy and democracy, demanded two houses, the Council of
Elders and the Council of 500.
 Executive body was a five-person directory chosen by the Council of Elders form a list
from the Council of 500.
C. Removal of the Sans-culottes from Political Life
 Thermidorians believed in an unregulated economy which made them “remove the ceiling
on prices.” His resulted in terrible food shortages and riots.
 Some royalists attempted to take advantage of this and were led by Napoleon Bonaparte.
 When it was time for elections in the council of 500, it was decided that 2/3 of it must stay
the same.
AP Euro Chapter 20 Outline
I.
II.
The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
 Biggest danger to the Directory was from the royalists. “Monarchy seemed to promise
stability.”
 Directory staged a coup d’etat so that the monarchy could not be restored.
 Napoleon Bonaparte was born in Corsica, “pursued a military career and obtained a
commission as a French artillery officer.”
A. Early Military Victories
 France annexed Belgium, which ensured the war would continue with Great Britain and
Austria.
 Bonaparte was successfully leading his troops in Italy. He crushed the Austrian and
Sardinian armies and closed the Treaty of Campo Formio. Italy and Switzerland were soon
under French domination.
 Only enemy left was Britain, instead of direct attack, attacked British interests like Egypt.
 France was defeated in the invasion of Egypt; other nations became threatened, like Russia.
Russia, Austria and the Ottoman Empire joined Great Britain to form the Second Coalition.
B. The Constitution of the Year VIIII
 Abbé Siéyès proposed a new constitution on the principle of “confidence from below,
power from above.” Another coup d’état would be required with military support.
 Napoleon heard about this and abandoned his army in Egypt in October 1799.
 Siéyès’ plan divided executive authority between three people but Napoleon pushed this
aside and established the Constitution of the Year VIII. It seemed sufficient on the outside
but it was really meant only to benefit Bonaparte.
The Consulate in France (1799-1804)
 “Establishing the Consulate in France in effect closed the revolution in France.”
 The Third Estate by 1799 was able to prosper somewhat because obstacles previously
holding them back were removed. Peasants gained the land they always were striving to get.
A. Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic Opposition
 Napoleon satisfied France by making peace with their enemies. Russia had already left
the Second Coalition, France defeated Austria and signed a treaty and later signed a
treaty with Britain for total peace in Europe.
 Napoleon’s government was very efficient and easily stamped out opposition. His staff had
a wide variety of political views but he was able to keep them in check through a
centralized government. He invented reasons to achieve his goals.
B. Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church
 Catholics in France were becoming a large problem, refractory clergy continued to
promote counterrevolution.
 1801, Napoleon signed a concordat with the church. It “required both the refractory clergy
and those who had accepted the revolution to resign. Napoleon viewed religion as a
political matter and the concordat was exactly what he wanted.
 Organic Articles of 1802 “established the supremacy of state over church.”
C. Napoleonic Code
 1802 Napoleon received full power and was declared consul for life.
 Napoleonic Code also known as the Civil Code of 1804. It “safeguarded all forms of
property and tried to make French society secure against internal challenges.”
 “Workers’ organizations remained forbidden, and workers had fewer rights than their
employers.” Husbands had dominance in the family but property was now distributed
among all children.
D. Establishing a Dynasty
 1804, there was a bomb threat on Napoleon’s life and he then decided to make himself
emperor. He claimed it would make the regime more secure.
 He was now called Emperor of the French; invited pope to coronate him but pope insisted
that he coronate himself. Known also as Napoleon I.
III.
IV.
Napoleon’s Empire (1804-1814)
 Between his coronation and his defeat he basically conquered all of Europe.
 His advances intensely increased nationalism throughout Europe. His army had upwards
of 700,000 troops and he could risk up to 100,000 troops in one battle.
A. Conquering an Empire
 Peace of Amiens in 1802 between France and Britain was only a truce.
 Napoleon’s ideas were ambitious; he set off to re-conquer Haiti, he intervened on the
Dutch Republic, Italy, and Switzerland and reorganized Germany.
1) British Naval Supremacy
 Britain declared an ultimatum which France ignored so Britain declared war in May
1803. They organized the Third Coalition with Austria and Russia.
 Britain defeated the French in the Battle of Trafalgar and reduced all of their hopes of
invading Britain and giving Britain naval dominance for the rest of the war.
2) Napoleonic Victories in Central Europe
 Napoleon was much more successful on land. December 1805 he defeated the
combined Austrian and Russian armies.
 The Austrians had to sacrifice a lot of their land including withdrawing from Italy
which made Napoleon the King of Italy.
 Bonaparte also made changes in Germany, which caused many German princes to
withdraw from the Holy Roman Empire, and it was dissolved.
 Napoleon also defeated the previously neutral Prussia and eventually was the
master of all of Germany.
3) Treaty of Tilsit
 Tsar Alexander I wanted to make peace with France and on “July 7,1807 they signed
the Treaty of Tilsit, which confirmed France’s gains.”
 Napoleon used family members to help him rule the various parts of his empire
including his stepson, three brothers and his brother-in-law.
B. The Continental System
 Napoleon knew that he couldn’t defeat Britain with his navy so he decided to “cut off all
British trade with the European continent and thus to cripple British commercial and
financial power.”
 Milan Decree of 1807 attempted to stop neutral countries from trading with Britain.
 After initial struggling on Britain’s part, the economy survived but it hurt the other European
nation’s economies.
European Response to the Empire
 “Napoleon’s conquests stimulated the two most powerful political forces in nineteenthcentury Europe: liberalism and nationalism.”
 Napoleonic Code was enforced wherever he reigned, hereditary social distinctions were
abolished, feudalism was gone and peasants were no longer serfs.
 France was supposed to be enhanced by Napoleon’s rule, not all of Europe.
A. German Nationalism and Prussian Reform
 Germany had never been unified so great nationalism erupted during this time period.
 First stage of nationalism was embracing the unique German culture. The second stage
was using nationalism to unite against Napoleon.
 An example as to why to be nationalistic was set by France. After Tilsit, achieving unity
was difficult because many parts of Germany were under Napoleon’s control or actively
collaborating with him.
 Prussia began reforming their army but Napoleon limited it to just 42,00 troops, yet the
Prussians found a way around that and eventually built up an army of 270,000 by 1814.
B. The Wars of Liberation
1) Spain
 France and Spain had been allies since 1796 but Spain had a great national
resistance to France.

V.
France attempted to invade Portugal to get them to abandon their alliance with
Britain. He stayed in Spain and used an outbreak in Madrid to rid the Spanish throne
of its king and place his brother on it.
 Napoleon had a harsh set of rules in Spain and that slowly drained French strength
which led to his eventual defeat.
2) Austria
 Austrians renewed the war in 1809. They believed that France would be too
preoccupied in Spain and it would be an easy victory. Yet Napoleon was fully in
command of France and he defeated the Austrian army and further decimated their
population.
 Napoleon’s wife Josephine de Beauharnais had not had any children so he divorced
her and married the 18-year-old Austrian princess. “Napoleon had also considered
marrying the sister of Tsar Alexander, but had received a polite rebuff.”
C. The Invasion of Russia
 Russia was upset with France for several reasons. The marriage of Napoleon to an
Austrian, France lack of support for them in attacking the Ottoman Empire and their
annexation of Holland against the Treaty of Tilsit.
 “At the end of 1810, Russia withdrew from the Continental system and began to prepare
for war. “
 Napoleon attempted to attack the Russians with over 600,000 but they retreated. They
instead destroyed the land they had tread and left the French without supplies. Napoleon
refused to abort even though he was advised to.
 France did pull through in a few battles including Bordino, yet they gained nothing
substantial. He was forced to retreat in December with only about 1/6 or his army remaining.
D. European Coalition
 After his Russian defeat, Napoleon was able to obtain another 350,000 men.
 The Austrian King would have been willing to make peace with France if it meant Europe
without Russian domination but Napoleon wouldn’t hear it.
 Russia, Austria and Prussia formed a new coalition with British funds.
 Napoleon’s new army was weak and inexperienced and his generals were tired yet he still
managed to defeat the allies at Dresden.
 After Napoleon was defeated in March 1814, he went into exile on the island of Elba.
The Congress of Vienna and the European Settlement
 As soon as Napoleon was removed, the allies pursued separate ambitions. Robert Stewart
was able to achieve peace between the countries.
 He had them sign the Treaty of Chaumont early on. It restored the Bourbons to the throne
in France and made Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia a quadruple alliance for 20 years
to guarantee future peace.
A. Territorial Adjustments
 Congress pf Vienna assembled Sept. 1814 and concluded Nov. 1815. “All the victors
agreed that no single state should be allowed to dominate Europe, an all were determined
to see that France should be prevented from doing so again.”
 The powers arranged buffers by granting land to each of them to prevent repeat French
conquest.
 There was significant discussion about Poland and other territories and through
deliberation, France finagled its way into being the 5th great power.
B. The Hundred Days and the Quadruple Alliance
 Napoleon returned in March 1815 and many felt they would be safer under his rule. He
was restored to power when he saw the Congress dissolving. The allies sent their armies
to crush him and he was defeated at Waterloo and died as an exile in 1821.
 The period of his return was called the Hundred Days.
 The powers (not Britain) signed The Holy Alliance to promote Christian ways and shy
away from war. They wanted their treaty to secure peace, not promote victory.

A new idea that came from the Congress was that treaties were made between states, not
monarchs and they remained when the monarch died.
VI. The Romantic Movement
 It was “a reaction against much of the thought of the Enlightenment.” These thinkers said
that philosophes thought too much in mathematical and rational ways. Romanticists
wanted to think in terms of feelings and imagination.
 The philosophes criticized religion while romanticists embraced it.
 The period was roughly from 1780-1830.
VII. Romantic Questioning of the Supremacy
 Romanticists include Samuel Richardson, several German philosophers and previous
enlightenment thinks (Jacques Rousseau and Immanuel Kant).
A. Rousseau and Education
 “What romantic writers especially drew from Rousseau was his conviction that society and
material prosperity had corrupted human nature.”
 He believed that to be truly happy, human kind had to return to its natural roots.
 In Émile, Rousseau stressed the difference between children and adults. He believed that
a child should be guided by his parents and teachers but other than that be set free to
experience life and learn how to live on their own.
B. Kant and Reason
 He wrote The Critique of Pure Reason and The Critique of Practical Reason.
 He said that the mind wasn’t solely like a mirror but it categorized it in sensory ideas.
 He believed in pure reason and thinking through ideas clearly.
VIII. Romantic Literature
 “Neoclassical writers then used the word (romantic) to describe literature that they
considered unreal, sentimental, or excessively fanciful.”
 In England and Germany, the term was used for any work that didn’t follow classical style.
 August Wilhelm von Schegel wrote Lectures on a Dramatic Art and Literature to portray
his view that romantic literature was classical, just a different style.
 The revoltion peaked in England and Germany before it peaked in France.
A. The English Romantic Writers
 They believed that poetry was enhanced by freely following the creative impulses of the
mind.” They also believed that “the artist’s imagination was God at work in the mind.”
1) Blake
 He “considered the poet a seer and poetry to be translated vision.” He said that
people shouldn’t think rationally but see the beauty in the world.
 At one point he wont into depression because he was unable to see the world as he
wanted to and blamed it on the materialistic society.
2) Coleridge
 Was the master of Gothic poems and wrote “Christabel,” and “The Rime of the
Ancient Mariner.” These dealt with issues like guilt, punishment and redemption.
3) Wordsworth
 Published Lyrical Ballads with Coleridge “as a manifesto of a new poetry that
rejected the rules of eighteenth century criticism.” Wrote about nature in “Ode on
Intimations of Immortality” and how he once worshipped nature but now felt
disconnected.
 Also believed that childhood was “the bright period of creative imagination.”
4) Lord Byron
 Was a rebel, many other British poets distrusted and disliked him. “He rejected the
old traditions… and championed the cause of personal liberty.”
B. The German Romantic Writers
 All German writers wrote at least one novel. They borrowed stories from medieval
romances.
 “The first German romantic novel was Ludwig Tieck’s William Lovell.
1) Schlegel

IX.
Wrote Lucinde in 1799. It defended women and had a view that women should be
seen as more than just domestics.
2) Goethe
 Wrote The Sorrows of the Young Werther. The novel describes two lovers and their
emotional sentimentalism. Other themes that his works possess are morality, greed,
guilt and self-sacrifice.
Religion in the Romantic Period
 Middle Ages, religion was the church. Reformation, religion was the Bible. Enlightenment,
religion was nature. Romanticism, religion was the inner emotions of humankind.
A. Methodism
 Was a revolt against rationalism and deism in the Church of England.
 Was led by John Wesley and he was inspired by German Moravians with unshakable faith.
 He had a message of repentance and good works, which many responded to. “Methodism
stressed inward, heartfelt religion and the possibility of Christian perfection in this life.”
* See timelines throughout the book*
pg 662 (Entire French Revolution)
pg 675 (Napoleon and the Continental System)
pg 686 (Napoleonic Europe)
pg 693 (Publication Dates of Major Romantic Works)