Course book
Chordata texa and Comparative
anatomy of vertebrates
2014-2015
Mr. Jamal M. Aziz
Dr. Sarbaz I. Mohammad
Assist. Professor
Assist. Professor
E-mail: jamal_jamalphysiol@yahoo.com
sarbaziraq@yahoo.com
Mobile: +964(0)750 449 92 43
+964(0)750 454
53 86
Biology Dept./ College of Science/ University of Salahaddin.
Course book
Chordata texa and Comparative anatomy of vertebrates
Mr. Jamal Mohammed Aziz
Dr. Sarbaz Ibrahim Mohammad
Assist. Professor
Lecturer
E-mail: jamal_jamalphysiol@yahoo.com
sarbaziraq@yahoo.com
Mobile: +964(0)750 449 92 43
+964(0)750 454 53 86
Biology Dept./ College of Science/ University of Salahaddin.
Academic Year: 2013/2014
Course objective
Before undertaking a study of the anatomy of the chordates it is
desirable to have a working knowledge of the animals include in phyla.
Zoologists have grouped these animals in an orderly style according to
their morphological and anatomical affinities. This grouping serves as a
basis for classifying all members of the phylum.
1- It is important that the student of comparative have some knowledge of
the classification of the chordates.
2- Comparative anatomy is similarities and differences in structural
organization and functional morphology of the bodies of different
animals.
3- Comparative anatomy may be used to explain some of the phenomena
that appear during embryonic development. Knowledge of structure alone
has very little meaning unless it is interpreted in terms of function.
Morphology and physiology complement each other.
4-We introduce comparative anatomy as an integrative science-a holistic
approach that fosters an understanding of organisms, their parts and
functional systems, development, evolution, and ecology.
5-Most students of biology are interested in man, but a study of man
alone would lead to an extremely narrow conception of his place on the
earth.
Lec. 1: Terminology, Origen of chordate, classification of phylum
chordate; Characteristics of chordate, classified into; 1Subphylum; Hemichordata (e.g Balanoglosus), Hemichordates
considered an invertebrate because, 2- Subphylum; Urochordata
(e.g Ciona and Molgula), 3- Subphylum; Cephalochordata (e.g
Amphioxus lanceolatus), 4- Sub phylum: Vertebrata (Craniata),
Differences between protochordates and vertebrates, Evidence for
relationships between protochordates and vertebrates
Lec. 2: Subphylum: Vertebrata (Vertebrates), Super class (1): Agnatha
(jawless fish), Class 1: Myxini (Hagfish), Class 2:
Cephalaspidomorphi (Lamprey), Super class (2): Gnathostomata,
Order (1): Selachii (Squalidae), Order (2): Batoidea
(Rajomorphii) (Skates and rays, 476 sp), Class 2: Osteichthyes
(bony fish), Relationship with amphibian, Did descendants of the
lobe-finned fishes or lungfishes move onto the land?
Lec. 3: Class (3); Amphibians, Order 1 = Apoda, Urodela, and Anura,
Class (4) = Reptilia, Subclass (1) = Anapsida (skull has no
temporal opening behind eye). Subclass (2) = Euryapsida,
Subclass (3) = Synapsida, Subclass (4) = Diapsida (Skull has two
temporal opening behind eye, in each side).
Lec. 4: Class (5) = Aves (bird), Classification, Class (6) = Mammalian,
Classification, What are differences between apes and humans?
Lec. 5: The Origin of Life, Chemical, heterotroph theory. These steps
that led to more complex living cells are outlined.
Evolution
Evolution is changes in allele frequencies (genetic) in
populations over time. There are two areas of evolutionary study,
as follows:
1. Microevolution
2. Macroevolution
Natural Selection
Natural selection is the differences in survival and
reproduction among individuals in a population as a result of their
interaction with the environment. In other words, some
individuals possess alleles (genotypes) that generate traits
(phenotypes) that enable them to cope more successfully in their
environment than other individuals.
Lec. 6: Variation
In order for natural selection to operate, there must be variation
among individuals in a population.
Speciation
A species is usually defined as a group of individuals capable of
interbreeding. Speciation means the formation of new species.
Lec. 7: Integumentary system. The integument or outer covering of the
body is commonly referred to as the skin. Together with its
derivatives are called integumentary system. It is continuous with
the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, mouth, nostrils, and the
openings of the rectum and urogenital organs. Comparative
anatomy of the integument structures: - Amphioxus BCyclostomes. C- Fishes D- Amphibians E- Reptiles F-Birds GMammals.
Lec. 8: Skin derivatives, in many vertebrates the skin gives rise to
various integumentary structures, which gives it protection.
Skin derivatives are two types:-
1- Epidermal structure:
2- Dermal structure:
Comparative anatomy of the Skin derivatives: - Amphioxus BCyclostomes. C- Fishes. There are 4 types of dermal fish scales.
1-Ganoid scales. 2- Placoid scales. 3- Ctenoid scales 4- Cycloid
scales.
D- Amphibians E- Reptiles F-Birds (Spur, Feather, Beaks &
Bills, Talons and Teeth) G- Mammals (Hairs, furs, Claws, Nails,
Hooves, Horns, Hollow horns, Keratin-fiber horns, Antlers,
Porcupine quills, Giraffe horns and Prong horns).
Lec. 9: Digestive Systems, in all vertebrates the digestive tract is
complete, having a mouth at on end and an anus at the other end.
The primary function of digestive system is to transfer nutrients,
water, and electrolytes from food into the animal body's internal
environment. The complexity of digestive system depends on the
feeding habitats, food type, and animal behavior. The digestive
system in higher vertebrate animals is more complex than in
lower vertebrate animals. Comparative anatomy of the digestive
tract among Amphioxus B- Cyclostomes C- Fishes DAmphibians E- Reptiles F-Birds G- Mammals.
Lec. 10: Muscles system, Vertebrate Muscles includes: Skeletal, striated,
voluntary muscles, Smooth muscle, Cardiac muscle and Electric
organs. Names of skeletal muscles are based on: Direction of
fibers, Location or position, Number of divisions, Shape, Origin
and/or insertion, Action, Size, or some combination of these.
Axial muscles in cyclostoma, fish and tetrapods. Tetrapods, like
fish, have epaxial & hypaxial masses, & these retain some
evidence of metamerism even in the highest tetrapods. AEpaxials of tetrapods: B- Hypaxials of tetrapods (a- Oblique &
transverse muscles b- Rectus muscles and Sub-vertebral
muscles). Function of Epaxials of Tetrapods, Function of
Hypaxials of Tetrapods.
Examination
Mean semester examination: 25%
Practical Examination 15%
Final examination: 60%
The marks divided according to number of subject (lecture) or
number lecture pages.
Comparative anatomy theory examination
4th stage
Q1/ Fill the following blanks with suitable answer.
1- Comparative anatomy established by ------------, -----------, and ------------.
2- Chordata body has true coelom, -------- chambers in protochordata, while ----in vertebrata.
3- The caudal fin in lobe-finned fish is ----- type with a median ----- but -----type in lung fish.
4- Super class agnatha include two class ----------- & -----------5- Morphologically Lizards can be distinguished from snakes by the presence of
-----, -----, and -----6- The term "amphibia" means ------------- and obligatory --------------- life.
7- The majority of bird species are socially ---------, other species are rarely -------, and rest species are -----------.
8- Testes remain in the -------- sacs in most of the mammals except ------------, -------and some
---------- are abdominal.
9- In fish, ------- containing crystals of guanine are responsible for the ------- and
-------.
10- Semiplumes are found beneath the ------- feathers. They possess short -------and long ------with extended ------.
11- The only gland that is present in the skin of birds is the ----------- glands.
12- Cycloid scales contain concentric lines of ------------- which used as a means
of determining the
------------ of the animal.
13- Disruptive selection occurs when the environment favors ---------- traits,
while selecting against the ----------- traits.
14- Speciation occurs by the following processes ----------, ---------- and ----------.
15- Coevolution occurs between ---------- and ---------.
16- Gene flow describes the ---------- or ----------- of alleles from the population.
17- In amphioxus, endostyle found on the floor of the pharynx is consisting of an
alternating rows of ---------- cells and ----------- cells, and in the roof of the
pharynx is a -----------.
18- Water absorption occurs in ------------ region of the mammals stomach.
19- In mammals, rectus abdominis extends from the anterior end of the --------- to
the ---------.
20- In tetrapods, hypaxial muscles support contents of --------, assist in ---------- &
assist epaxials in bending --------------Q2/ Answer by True (T) or False (F).
1- Chuker bird drinks water by sucking.
2- In birds crop is the principal organ of digestion.
3- Synapsids are ancestor of the first mammals.
4- Warm-bloodedness evolved separately in the ancestors of mammals and birds.
5- Respiration is performed by gills in lobed fin fish.
6- In shark the eyes are laterally in position without lids.
7- Turtles are believed to be surviving diapsids.
8- In frog mouth usually with true teeth and tongue protrusible.
9- Young rats are altricial but young turtle is precocial.
10- Carnivora have two pairs of upper and lower small incisors.
11- Outer epidermis in snake has one layer of germinal columned cells.
12- In bird, the chromatophores which are present between epidermis and dermis.
13- Mucous and mammary gland are skin derivatives.
14- Antlers horns found in the Elk.
15- Proteinoids are biotically produced polypeptides.
Q3/
A- Compare evolutionary idea between Lamarck and Darwin?
BCDEFG-
Write difference between amphibian & amphioxus skin epidermis?
Draw and label the digestive tract in adult amphibians.
Draw and label the lateral muscular system in fish.
How endosymbiotic process led to formation eukaryotic cell?
Why Hemichordates considered a vertebrate?
Did descendants of the lobe-finned fishes or lungfishes move onto the land?
Why
Lec. 11: Nervous System, Subdivisions of the Vertebrate Nervous
System: 1- Central Nervous System. 2- Peripheral Nervous
System. 3- Autonomic nervous system. Nervous System
Includes: nerve cells (or neurons), Neuroglia cells, Nerves. Brain:
1- Prosencephalon (forebrain) – 2- Mesencephalon (midbrain) 3Rhombencephalon (hindbrain). Spinal cord, Comparative
anatomy of the spinal cord among Amphioxus B- Cyclostomes
C- Fishes and Amphibians D- amniotes. Spinal nerves:
Difference between lower and higher verebrates?. Functional
types of neurons in spinal nerves (& other nerves). Cranial
nerves, Difference between invertebrate and vertebrate nervous
systems?
Lec. 12: Circulatory system, a portal system, the heart and its evolution
in Amphioxus, Hearts of gill-breathing fishes, Hearts of Dipnoans
and Amphibians, Hearts of Amniotes. Arterial channels.
Lec, 13: Evolution of arteries: In amphioxus, Cyclostomes, Fishes,
Tetrapods. Evolution of posterior arteries, Veins system (Cardinal
system & abdominal system).
Lec. 14: Excretory system. Kidneys are the primary adult excretory
organs. Other organs that may contribute to the elimination of
wastes from the body are the gills, lungs, skin, parts of digestive
system, and various salt glands. Together, these organs perform
two related and essential function: Types of kidneys: In some of
the invertebrates, amphioxus, in Holonephros (Archinephros), in
anamniote kidney; (Pronephros, Opisthonephros), in amniotes
(reptiles, birds, and mammals) - (Mesonephros & Metanephros),
Urinary bladders.
Lec. 15: Skeleton system, 1- Exoskeleton 2- Endoskeleton: - refers to
internal skeleton structure of the body. It is composed of
cartilage, bone, or combination of the two & serves for support,
protection, movement, attached to muscles, mineral storage, &
formation of RBC and it's mesodermal in origin. (Axial skel. &
Appendicular skel). Basic Components of Axial Skeleton:
Vertebrae: Comparative anatomy of vertebra:- In amphioxusm,
lampreys, cartilaginous fishes, bony fishes, amphibians, lizard &
crocodilians, birds and Mammals.
Lec. 16: Sternum (Brest bone), the sternum, found only in tetra pods, is
composed of mid-ventral skeletal elements closely related to the
pectoral girdle and to the thoracic ribs. Its functions are to
strengthen the body wall, help protect the thoracic viscera and
help in ventilating the lungs. Comparative of sternum in
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals; Ribs, Fish ribs, in
Amphibians, Reptiles, Birds and Mammals.
Lec. 17: Pectoral girdles, the pectoral girdle suspends the forelimbs and
is supported by muscular attachment only to the axial skeleton.
Comparative In shark, In bony fish, Amphibian girdles, In the
urodela forelimb, In the anura forelimb, The pectoral girdle of
bird consists on each side of a large coracoid, a thin, narrow
scapula and a slender clavicle. The 2 clavicles which are fused
medially to a small interclavicale form the furcula (wishbone). In
bird's forelimb, the pectoral girdle of mammals (Forelimb in
human).
Lec. 18: Pelvic Girdles & Hind Limb. The pelvic girdle is composed of
a ventral ischium, a dorsal ilium, and an anterior, ventral pubis.
All three bones join at the acetabulum serves as the point of
articulation of the hind limb with pelvic girdle. The ilium on each
side attached to the transverse process of the sacral vertebra. The
two pubis bones usually unite ventrally at the pubic symphasis &
the ischia often at ischial symphasis. The pelvic girdles in fishes,
urodela, anura, birds, mammals, mammalian hind limb and man
hind limb
Lec 19: Joints refers to an articulation between 2 or more bones come
inclose contact in the body and are attached to each other by
ligaments or cartilage. Joints are mainly classified structurally
and functionally. Structural classification is determined by how
the bones connect to each other, while functional classification is
determined by the degree of movement between the articulating
bones. Structural classification 1- fibrous joint - joined by fibrous
connective tissue 2- cartilaginous joint - joined by cartilage 3synovial joint - not directly joined.
Lec. 20: Skull. The skull is a skeletal framework of the vertebral head.
The part of the skull which surrounds and protects the brain is
called the cranium. The skull of most vertebrates is derived from
three
embryonic
components.
1-Neurocranium
2Dermatocranium 3- Visceral skeletons
Lec. 21: Comparative anatomy of skull 1- Cyclostomes 2- Shark 3Bony fish 4- Anura 5- Bird 6- Mammals.
Examination
The marks divided according to number of subject (lecture) or
number lecture pages.
Comparative anatomy theory examination
4th stage
Q1/ Fill the following blanks with suitable answer.
1. In fish, myosepta serve as ------------- & -------------.
2. Renal tubules consist of several segments & begin as a----------, ---------, -------- and ---------.
3. Fish bladders are terminal enlargements of the mesonephric ducts called ----------.
4. Pronephric tubule varies in number -------- in frogs, ------- in human & ------ in
chicken embryos.
5. In adult amphibians, Abdominal vein system consists of paired ---------, which
receive --------- and ----------- from the posterior and anterior appendages and
drain into the common ------------ veins.
6. In hypophyseal portal system blood follow from the capillaries of ---------- to
capillaries of the ------------ before continuing to the heart
7. Gomphoses, like articulation ---------- with socket of maxilla & ----------bone.
8. In anural hind limb; there are ----------- tarsal bones, arranged in two rows, the
proximal row contains ------- & ------ bones, but distal row is reduced to --------- & ------- bones.
9. Digital formula of bird hind limb is ----------, ----------, ---------- and -------phalanx.
10. In frog pterygoid is a Y-shaped bone extending forward from the -------- and -------to point near the junction of the ---------- and ------------ bones.
11. The most common apophyses are --------, ---------, -----------, --------- and --------.
12. In human skull, cranium contain ----------, face ---------, hyoid ---------- and
audiotory ossicles---------- bones.
13. In cyclostomes the --------- and --------- matter of spinal cord cannot be
distinguished because nerve fibers are ------------.
14. Neuroglia cells that support, --------- & ---------.
Q2/ Draw and label
1- The basic plan of the brain.
2- Arterial system of rabbit.
3- Pectoral girdle and forelimb in fish.
4- Ventral view of bird’s skull.
5- Coxa in human.
6- Ball and socket joints.
Q3/
12345-
Compare between nephridia and Holonephrose.
Compare between hearts of Dipnoans and gill breathing fishes.
Compare between forelimb in bird and anura.
Compare between frog and cat sternum.
Discuss the cartilage arcualia in cyclostoma.
Lec. 22: Endocrine system. The endocrine system consists of a number
of ductless glands which secrete substances called hormones into
the blood or lymph. They are carried by the circulating fluid to all
parts of the body. They are all derived embryologically from
epithelial surfaces, with the exception of the interstitial cells of
the testis. Aminogenic Tissue and the Adrenal Medulla, in fishes
and Amphibians, Amniota, Steroidogenic tissue and adrenal
cortext, Thyroid gland, Parathyroid glands, Pancreas glands,
Thymus glands and Avian bursa of fabricius.
Lec. 23: Animal behavior: - Is response to stimuli in its environment.
The capacity for behavior is inherited, but much inherited
behavior can be modified by experience. Instinctive Behavior
(Genes and behavior), Hormones and Behavior, Learned
behavior, Categories of learned behavior and Communication
signals.
Lec. 24: Illegitimate Signalers and Receivers, Sometimes the wrong
parties intercept communication signals. In certain assassin bugs
hook dead and drained bodies of termite prey on their dorsal
surface to acquire the odor of their victims. By deceptively
signaling that they belong to a termite colony, they hunt termite
victims more easily. The female of certain predatory fireflies, if
one observes a flash from a male firefly, she flashes back. If she
can lure him into attack range, he becomes her meal. Mating
behavior, Costs and benefits of parenting, Benefits of living in
social groups, Cooperative predator avoidance, the selfish herd,
Dominance hierarchies, Evolution of altruism.
Lec. 25: Reproductive system. The two cardinal concerns of living
things are the maintenance of self and the perpetuation of the
species. Reproduction is essential only so that the species may
continue to live upon the earth. Two methods of reproduction,
asexual and sexual, are recognized. Reproductive organs (eggs,
sperms, gonads, in male testes, in female ovaries and both secrets
hormones). Comparative anatomy of ovaries and oviduct in
female of chordates.
Lec, 26: Reproductive system. Comparative anatomy of testes, seminal
duct and sperm cell in male of chordates.
Lec, 27: Respiratory system, every living cell in an organism consumes
oxygen. A supply of oxygen in essential to that phase of
metabolism known as catabolism. Comparative anatomy of the
nasal passages, gills and lungs of chordates.
Lec, 28: Receptor organ, comparative anatomy of eyes of chordates
Lec, 29: Hearing system, Comparative anatomy inner ear, middle ear
and external ears of chordates.
Examination
The marks divided according to number of subject (lecture) or
number lecture pages.
References
1- Kardong, Kinneth V. (2008) Vertebrates: Comparative
Anatomy, Function, Evolution. 5th Edition. McGraw-Hill
2- Weichert, C. K., (1970). Anatomy of the chordates. 4 th edit.
McGraw-Hill Book Company.
3- Kent G. C. and Carr R. K., (2001). Comparative Anatomy of
the vertebrates. 9th edit. McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
4- Hildebrand M. and Goslow G. E., (2001). Analysis of
Vertebrate Structure. 5th edit. John Wiley & Sons, INC.
5- Ganguly B. B., Adhikari S. and Sinha A. K., (2008). Biology
of Animals. 7th edit. Vol. II. New Central Book Agency (P)
Ltd.
6- Lal S. S., (2009). Practical Zoology Vertebrate. 10 th. Rastogi
Publications.