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FVE/TAIEX Conference on Animal Welfare, Belgrade 2006
Animal Welfare in Veterinary Education
John Webster, Professor Emeritus, University of Bristol School of Clinical Veterinary Science.
Langford, Bristol BS40 5DU, UK
john.webster@bris.ac.uk
The subject of animal welfare should be an integral part of all education in agriculture and veterinary
science. The essence of these vocations: good husbandry and the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of
disease are critical to ensuring that animals in our care are fit and happy. However the traditional structure
of the agriculture and veterinary curricula that deals with production and health has, until recently, rarely
given proper attention to conveying proper knowledge and understanding of the science and values that
should underpin a professional career in animal care. It is my contention that formal education in animal
welfare, a discipline based on sound science and. sound ethics, is as essential to the veterinary curriculum as
a programme in pathology or surgery.
A Curriculum for Animal Welfare
The curriculum described below in that which has evolved at the University of Bristol. A more complete
syllabus, containing course and examination material, has been prepared as a distance-learning package by
the University of Bristol, in association with WSPA (World Association for the Protection of Animals).
A programme for education in animal welfare should include the following elements.

Principles of Husbandry and Welfare
Definitions of welfare, sentience and suffering:
Elements of good and bad welfare: the ‘Five Freedoms’
Elements of good husbandry: management of farm, companion and laboratory animals
Ethics of animal welfare within a matrix of respect for human values

Animal welfare science
Physiology of pain and stress and adaptation to stress
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Ethology: normal behaviour in relation to environment; disturbed behaviour.
Psychology: perception, emotion, cognition and motivation
The recognition and motivational basis of abnormal behaviour in animals
The human-animal bond

Animal Welfare Laws and Regulations

Animal welfare in clinical practice
Practical assessment of husbandry and welfare on farms (etc.).
Cruelty to animals: actions and omissions likely to cause unnecessary suffering.
‘Systematic problems’: ‘unnatural’ breeding and rearing of animals.
Herd health and welfare: planning and operation.
This outline contains the elements necessary for a full programme of study in animal welfare within a degree
course for veterinarians. A course for degree and diploma students in agriculture and animal science would
need to give attention to most (but not all) of these elements. They would probably devote relatively less
time to (e.g.) neurobiology and more to stockmanship. The teaching methods should involve a combination
of formal lectures, practical experience and directed self-education. The following sections outline the
elements of the course in a little more detail. For a more complete picture see Webster (2005) or WSPA
‘Concepts in Animal Welfare’ (www.wspa-international.org).
Principles of Husbandry and Welfare.
Definitions: Animal welfare is an emotional subject. If it is to be approached with a cool head, it needs
some clear definitions. There are two useful, mutually supporting definitions of animal welfare. “ The state
of an animal as it attempts to cope with its environment” (Fraser and Broom 1990) recognises that the
process of coping with challenges from the external and internal environment carries a physiological and
psychological cost; the welfare of the animal is determined by its success (or otherwise) in meeting that
cost. My definition of good welfare “Fit and Happy (feeling good)” (Webster 2005) also recognises that our
responsibility to any sentient animal within our care requires us to promote both its physical and
psychological wellbeing.
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Sentience may be defined as “Feelings that matter”. A sentient animal is one that interprets and acts
upon incoming sensations in an emotional sense, according to whether they induce pleasure, pain or
indifference. It may, or may not recruit cognitive behaviour to modify this emotional response but the
welfare of any sentient animal (including ourselves) is primarily defined by its emotional state as it seeks to
cope with challenge. If the stimuli are pleasant or the challenge is modest and it can cope with ease, then its
welfare is likely to be satisfactory. Suffering occurs when the animal is unable to cope, or has difficulty in
coping, because the challenges are too severe or too prolonged.
The Five Freedoms: The essential elements of good welfare and good husbandry are encapsulated in the
‘Five Freedoms and Provisions’ (Table 1, FAWC 1993). The 'Five Freedoms' identify the elements that
determine the ideal welfare state as perceived by the animal. The Five Provisions define the husbandry and
resources required to promote a state of well being. They provide a comprehensive diagnostic tool to
evaluate welfare and establish best husbandry practice, whether one is assessing an individual farm or a
production system.
Table 1. The Five Freedoms and Provisions
1. Freedom from thirst, hunger and malnutrition -by ready access to fresh water and a diet to maintain full
health and vigour.
2. Freedom from discomfort -by providing a suitable environment including shelter and a comfortable
resting area.
3. Freedom from pain, injury and disease -by prevention or rapid diagnosis and treatment.
4. Freedom from fear and distress-by ensuring conditions which avoid mental suffering.
5. Freedom to express normal behaviour-by providing sufficient space, proper facilities and company of
the animal's own kind.
Table 2 illustrates the use of the five freedoms to compare the welfare of laying hens in three
systems, conventional (barren) cages, enriched cages as required by EC from 2012, and on free
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range. There is not sufficient space here to discuss this table in detail. Suffice it to say that no
system is perfect and some compromise is always necessary when seeking to promote all the
elements of physical and emotional well being.
Table 2. An outline comparison of the welfare of laying hens in the conventional battery cage, the
enriched cage, and on free range
System
Conventional cage
Enriched cage
Free range
Hunger and thirst
adequate
adequate
Adequate
Comfort, thermal
good
good
Variable
Bad
Adequate
Adequate
Low risk
Low risk
Increased risk
Moderate risk
Stress
High risk
(Feet and legs)
Frustration
Variable risk
(feather pecking)
Aggression
Fear
Low risk
Low risk
Natural behaviour
Highly restricted
Restricted
physical
Fitness, disease
pain
Less frustration
Aggression
Agarophobia
Unrestricted
Ethics: The concept of animal welfare arises from the recognition of sentience. A sentient animal is one for
whom feeling matter. Since they matter to them, they should matter to us. It follows therefore that an
education in animal welfare must involve the study of ethics. Our approach to practical ethics, where animal
welfare has to be incorporated into the totality of human values and responsibilities is based on an ‘Ethical
Matrix’ (Table 3, Mepham 1996). This recognises three principles of ethics; beneficence, autonomy and
justice and applies them, in this example, to all parties worthy of respect in relation to the production of food
from animals, namely consumers, farmers, farm animals and the living environment. As with the principle of
the five freedoms, it acts as a deterrent to simplistic solutions.
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Table 1.4.The Ethical Matrix as applied to the production of food from animals
Respect for
Beneficence
Autonomy
Justice
(health and welfare)
(freedom/choice)
(fairness)
Treated organisms
Animal welfare
‘Telos’
Duty of care
Producers
Farmer welfare
Consumers
Availability of safe,
wholesome food
Conservation
Freedom to adopt or
not
Choice and labelling
Fair treatment in trade
and law
Affordability of food
Biodiversity
Sustainability of
populations
Living environment
Animal Welfare Science
Having introduced the principles, practice and ethics that underpin the understanding of animal welfare and
good husbandry, it is then necessary to introduce the formal disciplines that contribute to animal welfare
science. Since animals employ both physiological and behavioural methods to respond to environmental
challenges and since their welfare is defined both by their physical and emotional state, it follows that
animal welfare science must embrace key elements of physiology, ethology and psychology.
Physiology of stress and adaptation: Classical teaching in stress physiology is based on explanation of the
mechanisms of the HPA (Hypothalamus/pituitary/adrenal axis) in response to various environmental
challenges. This derives from (but largely ignores) classic work by Selye (1950) who described the
“General Adaptation Syndrome” whereby animals react initially to ‘stressors’ with an acute non-specific
alarm (or arousal) mechanism based on the HPA. Thereafter they progress to a chronic state of partial or
complete adaptation, using mechanisms more specific to the stimulus. Adaptation may be complete, in
which case the stress is eliminated, or partial, in which case the animal can cope, but at a cost. If the cost of
coping is too severe or prolonged, the animal may proceed to the state of exhaustion, at which stress has
undoubtedly progressed to suffering. A criticism of much current teaching in stress physiology is that it is
too obsessed with the non-specific alarm response and physiological indices of this response, chosen as socalled ‘objective’ markers of stress. It is more scientific, and more relevant to good husbandry to study the
specific nature of adaptation to stress (see Webster 2005, Chapter 2).
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Ethology and psychology: The normal response of a sentient animal to a perceived environmental
challenge is to behave in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain. It is thus necessary to study the
normal behaviour of different species in ‘natural’ environments in order to understand how they choose to
use the resources they have evolved to ensure the fitness of their phenotype. However, this alone is not
enough. It is also necessary to study the motivational basis of behaviour. This involves elements of classic
psychology involving preference testing, measurement of strength of motivation and consequences of
denying animals the resources to carry out behaviours necessary to maintain fitness and deal with
environmental challenges. The interpretation of stereotypic behaviour provides a good example of the need
to study both ethology and psychology. It is conventional to describe a typical stereotypy as disturbed
behaviour but we cannot necessarily equate this to suffering unless we can understand its emotional basis,
which may be anxiety, boredom or self-arousal.
Two further maxims need to be introduced at this stage. Animal welfare science is a ‘fuzzy’ science
that has few simple answers and cannot be resolved through any single discipline. Thus it is not possible to
define welfare state from physiological indices considered in isolation, nor from behavioural indices,
considered in isolation. The truth is seldom certain and is best approached by ‘triangulation’; i.e. views from
a variety of directions (e.g. physiology, ethology, neurobiology). The second maxim is that issues in animal
welfare cannot be resolved by science alone. For example the EC and USA both reviewed the same science
relating to the welfare of pregnant sows in individual stalls and reached opposite decisions. It is acceptable
in USA unacceptable in the European Union. Though both groups claimed to base their conclusions on
science, both ended up by making value judgements. In effect they gave different values to the different
elements of the five freedoms.
Animal welfare in clinical practice
It is essential that the study of animal welfare is not considered simply as a preclinical subject to be taught as
part of an introductory course in animal husbandry and among the ‘-ologies’. The primary duty of
veterinarians has always been to ensure the welfare of animals in their care. In recent years society, and
those who govern society, have placed ever greater demands on veterinarians to monitor and ensure the
welfare of animals used for commercial purposes on farms and in laboratories. At the same time new ethical
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dilemmas have arisen in relation to what constitutes due care and acceptable veterinary practice for
companion animals in an age where a cat may have its life prolonged by a kidney transplant or be
resurrected as a clone. Animal welfare must therefore be part of the clinical curriculum and taught in a
clinical way; i.e. through practical experience and directed self-education.
Monitoring and assessment of husbandry and welfare at the farm level: The qualified veterinarian must
be competent to assess in specific detail the quality of husbandry on a farm and its impact on the welfare of
the animals. This may be to ensure compliance with a welfare-based quality assurance (QA) scheme or as
the basis for a farm-specific strategic programme for health and welfare. The approach must include both
monitoring of husbandry provisions and an animal-based assessment of welfare outcomes (Fig 1). The ‘Five
Freedoms and Provisions’ (Table 1) offer a comprehensive framework for specific observations and records
of both provision and outcome. Good husbandry includes the provision of appropriate resources of food and
shelter, effective management and sympathetic stockmanship. These include:

Physical resources necessary to ensure proper feeding, housing and hygiene

Strategic management to address the physiological, health and behavioural needs of the animals

Competent ‘stockmanship’ sympathetic to the day-to-day needs of the animals
Animal-based observations and records relating to welfare outcomes include the following:

Fitness
Good body condition, growth, fertility (etc.) contingent upon good nutrition
Good condition of the skin and coat, contingent upon comfortable, clean accommodation and
absence of external parasites
Good health, contingent upon good hygiene, preventative medicine and early recognition and
attention to disease.

Feelings
Evidence of chronic discomfort
Evidence of pain associated (e.g.) with lameness and injury
Evidence of fear and stress, e.g. anxiety, disturbed behaviour.
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The development of protocols for monitoring animal welfare on farm is discussed in Ch.4 of Webster
(2005). For recent proceedings of an international workshop on the subject see Webster and Main (2003).
For
further
details
of
the
University
of
Bristol
Welfare
Assurance
Programme
see
www.vetschool.bristol.ac.uk/animalwelfare.
Animal suffering: cruelty and systematic abuse: A prime function of the veterinarian is to recognise and
relieve suffering in animals. This requires a clinical ability to recognise signs of suffering and identify their
source: e.g. hunger, thirst, pain, fear, frustration. This ability to diagnose the physical and emotional causes
of suffering is an essential prerequisite to remedial action, which may range from advice to the owner
through to prosecution. When suffering attributable to direct acts of cruelty or neglect forms the basis for a
prosecution, the veterinarian who examines the animal has a special responsibility to provide a clear record
of evidence to indicate what has caused the animal to suffer and why. This is a skill that must be taught. It
is however a sad but true fact that the vast majority of animal suffering is not attributable to specific acts of
cruelty but to systematic (and legal) farming practices that cause distress to millions of animals through
(e.g.) chronic pain and denial of patterns of behaviour designed to cope with environmental stress. The
prevalence of painful lameness in broiler chickens and dairy cows exceeds 20% in most large commercial
units. The veterinary profession has a responsibility to address this problem, both through action on
individual farms and by bringing the problem to the attention of the public at large and thereby increasing
the demand for higher welfare standards.
Herd health and welfare: planning and operation: The concept of preventive medicine has for many
years been a central tenet of the education of farm vets. It is in the interests of the farmer, the consumer, and
the animals themselves to promote herd health and prevent disease before it occurs. Traditional teaching in
preventive medicine has concentrated on control of infectious diseases. Today, there is increased demand to
ensure that strategic planning should incorporate elements of health and welfare (the two overlap but they
are not synonymous). A major reason for this is that many of the most severe current problems of health and
welfare on the farms are the ‘production diseases’ like metabolic disorders and lameness, which can be
attributed primarily to the systems of breeding and management imposed in the interests of economic
productivity. Strategic herd health and welfare planning is therefore a veterinary skill that needs to be
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acquired before graduation. However it has proved difficult to persuade farmers to pay for prevention rather
than treatment in the matter of specific diseases. It can be even more difficult to persuade farmers to invest
time and money in steps to improve husbandry unless it brings then some financial reward or recompense.
Thus it is unrealistic to consider on-farm strategies designed to improve welfare standards unless they are
matched by strategies designed to increase consumer demand for added-value foods of animal origin, where
added value includes guarantees of high standards of animal welfare. Fig 2 illustrates this approach to
improving animal welfare through the creation of two virtuous cycles (or a ‘Virtuous Bicycle’) whereby
action to monitor, improve and review animal welfare on farm is matched by action to promote and
guarantee high welfare products at the point of sale.
Conclusions
This paper outlines briefly what I believe to be the essential elements for a programme of teaching and
learning in animal welfare within the veterinary curriculum. It is for individual Universities and Colleges to
decide how best to deliver the syllabus. In the past, many teachers in veterinary and agricultural colleges
have been unsure as to what the syllabus should contain, not least because they had no clear understanding
of the problem. They had a vague (emotional) notion that animal welfare was important, and a good thing,
but found it difficult to define and explain the principles of science and ethics that underpin our
understanding of what welfare means to the sentient animals in our care, and what it should mean to us. The
purpose of this paper has been to outline these basic principles: science as the route to the proper
understanding of animals, ethics as the route to proper respect for animals, and professional training as the
route to converting right thoughts into right action. To seek full understanding of these principles becomes
the work of a lifetime.
References
Farm Animal Welfare Council (1993) Second report on priorities for research and development in farm
animal welfare. DEFRA Publications, London.
Fraser D and Broom D.B. (1990) Farm Animal Behaviour and Welfare. CAB International, Wallingford
UK.
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Mepham, Ben (1996) Ethical analysis of food biotechnologies: an evaluative framework. In Food Ethics ed.
Ben Mepham, London, Routledge, 101-119.
Selye, H (1950) Stress. Acta Publishing, Montreal Canada.
Webster John (2005) Animal Welfare: Limping towards Eden Blackwell Publishing, Oxford UK.
Webster A.J.F. and Main D.C.J. (2003) editors, Proceedings of the 2nd International Workshop on the
Assessment of Animal Welfare at Farm and Group Level. Animal Welfare Vol 12(4).
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Fig 1. Elements of assessment: husbandry provisions and welfare outcomes
MANAGEMENT
procedures
stockmanship
RESOURCES
Provision
HUSBANDRY
food
accommodation
RECORDS
Outcome
WELFARE
FITNESS
FEELINGS
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Fig 2. A strategy for welfare-based quality assurance. “The Virtuous Bicycle”
Public
Producers
SET
STANDARDS
Promote
Self-assessment
Improve
Assure
!
Review
effectiveness
Monitor
Welfare
Respond
Act to improve
welfare