Scientific Audit of Marine Parks
Background information for Aquatic Biosecurity
This document and the material referenced herein relate to the Scientific Audit Terms of
Reference:
“Review the degree to which all threats to the varying types of marine environments have
been properly identified and prioritised. In doing this the panel will consider the degree
to which the marine parks process is anticipated to address each significant threat”
Department of Primary Industries contacts:
Adrian Toovey
adrian.toovey@industry.nsw.gov.au
tel: 02 9527 8443
mob: 0412 252 596
Bob Creese
bob.creese@industry.nsw.gov.au
tel: 02 4916 3806
Mob: 0419 204 967
The NRM Ministerial Council Marine Biodiversity Decline Report (2008) has categorised threats
to marine biodiversity as follows:
Climate change
Resource use
Fishing (Commercial, recreational, indigenous, plus
illegal, unreported and unregulated
Aquaculture
Dredging and spoil dumping
Mineral, oil, gas exploration and extraction
Shipping
Tourism
Land based impacts
Diffuse and point-source pollution
Marine Biosecurity
Pests and Disease
Marine Pollution
Oil spills, marine debris,
This material deals with the threat of marine pests & diseases.
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Marine Pests & Diseases
Marine pests in Australia
Marine biosecurity is a system-wide threat to marine biodiversity. The NRM Ministerial Council
Marine Biodiversity Decline Report (2008) noted that the impacts of introduced marine
organisms include, but are not limited to:
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changes in distribution and/or abundance of marine species;
disrupted food chains;
establishment and spread of new aquatic disease, pathogens and parasites;
hybridisation;
increased competition with native species for resources;
loss and degradation of habitat; and
predation and domination of native species by introduced species.
The threats of new incursions of introduced marine pests, or translocations of existing pests to
new locations within Australia, are real and immediate. A 2007 review identified 133 non-native
marine species established in Australia and a further 301 species whose invasion status was
unclear (NRM Ministerial Council Marine Biodiversity Decline Report 2008). Wild fisheries,
aquaculture production, human health, shipping and ports, tourism, coastal amenity, and
species and ecosystem health and diversity are all vulnerable to the impacts of invasive marine
species. The economic impact of introduced marine pests can be very serious.
Marine pests can attach themselves to boat hulls, anchor chains, fishing gear, recreational
equipment and internal compartments of boats (biofouling). Pests can also be transported in
seawater systems of boats, including inside pipes and in bilge and ballast water. An estimated
10,000 species are in transit in ship’s ballast water around the world at any one time. Once
established in Australia, a marine pest may then pose a threat to other locations. Some of
Australia’s most notorious marine pests have been present in the country for many decades, yet
there is a paucity of information about the impacts that these species might have had. Much of
the information used to classify these species as pests (i.e. species that cause ecological or
socio-economic impacts) comes either from experiments done overseas, or from anecdotal
observations.
Invasive marine species now dominate many Australian places, but NSW is relatively unaffected
compared to more southerly states (Tasmania and Victoria in particular). These invasive
species cover many taxonomic categories including microalgae, macroalgae, fish and
invertebrates. Historically, it is the latter group that has received the most attention, in Australia
and overseas. Glasby & Creese (2007) identified 6 marine invertebrates that have received high
profile attention in Australia (Table 1). Two macroalgal species have achieved similar high
profile status Undaria pinnatifida and Caulerpa taxifolia. The impacts of these invasive species
on Australian marine biodiversity are difficult to quantify, and only a few studies have used
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manipulative experiments to unequivocally demonstrate an adverse ecological effect (see Table
1 and Glasby & Creese 2007 for references).
Marine pests in NSW
NSW 2021:A Plan to Make NSW Number One, a 10 year plan to guide Government policy and
budget decision making and deliver on community priorities places a high priority on maintaining
preparedness to deal with biosecurity threats. Goal 28 of NSW 2021 (p54) recognises that
strong biosecurity measures will ensure pest and disease outbreaks have minimal impact on the
NSW economy, environment and community, and protect against and help to limit the risks.
Up until very recently, there had been little investigation of marine pests in NSW. Surveys of
major ports in NSW were done as part of a national initiative (in Newcastle (CSIRO 1998), Eden
(Pollard & Rankin 2003), Port Kembla (Pollard & Pethebridge 2002), Botany Bay (Pollard &
Pethebridge 2002), and Port Jackson (AMBS 2002)). These surveys identified several non
indigenous species (NIS) in most ports, but only very low numbers of any species listed on the
national trigger list of the time. Thus, although the presence of the European fan worm and
green crabs were noted in Twofold Bay in (Pollard et al 2003), this finding failed to trigger any
management action. The outbreak of the invasive green alga Caulerpa taxifolia in Port Hacking
& Lake Conjola in 2000, however, did evoke widespread concern, largely because of the very
high profile this species had achieved in the Mediterranean. This led to an increase in research
and management activity, which is an indication of the greater awareness of marine invasive
species issues in the 21st century.
The outbreaks of Caulerpa taxifolia in NSW (and subsequently in South Australia) lead to
considerable research on its possible ecological effects and ways of controlling it. Topics
covered include: dispersal, growth and control of C. taxifolia, interactions between C. taxifolia
and native herbivores, the ecological effects of using salt for controlling the spread of C.
taxifolia, and comparisons of the fish assemblages or benthic bivalves associated with C.
taxifolia beds compared to native habitats (see Glasby & Creese 2007 and Industry &
Investment NSW 2009 for reference material). Ongoing research is continuing to investigate
the major presumed threat of C. taxifolia – the competitive displacement of native seagrasses.
Multiple approaches are being used, including regular mapping of the extent of infestations at
the scale of waterways, detailed surveys of the abundance of seagrass and C. taxifolia at scales
of 1 – 50 m, and small-scale experimental transplantations of C. taxifolia at the scale of 1 – 10
m (done in areas where the alga C. taxifolia was already abundant). No effects of C. taxifolia on
the seagrass Posidonia australis have been detected after more than 6 years of mapping and
experimentation. Effects on the other common seagrass (Zostera capricorni), are less clear,
largely because both species vary significantly in abundance at time scales of months to years
(Tim Glasby; pers. comm.).
Caulerpa taxifolia has been found in 14 estuaries in central to southern NSW, but it is
consistently abundant only in a few of them. A control plan is now in place which summarises
the appropriate management responses to new incursions (Industry & Investment NSW 2009).
This is the only marine pest in NSW for which a control plan has been developed and
promulgated. The only other marine pest of current concern is the European shore crab
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(Carcinus maenas) which occurs in many south coast estuaries and has potential impacts on
native molluscs (its prey) as well as on cultivated oysters. Some resources previously dedicated
to surveys for C. taxifolia have now been redirected towards C. maenas, and research into its
ecology and interactions with native biota has recently been initiated.
A risk assessment for marine pests was recently completed for the Sydney region (Glasby &
Lobb 2008). It identified several high risk vectors for a suite of new marine pests. Modelling
work, done in collaboration with the University of New South Wales, then determined the
likelihood of these species spreading to other NSW estuaries. Of the pests considered, the
Asian bag mussel (already in Australia, but not in NSW) was by far the most likely to invade
Sydney ports. The assessment can be extended to all NSW ports and other estuaries, and will
help improve the targeting of surveys for marine pests and thereby increase the likelihood of
early detection of any new incursions.
Management of marine pests & diseases in NSW
Conservation of biodiversity and habitats are explicit objectives of the Marine Parks Act and
Fisheries Management Act and both legislative frameworks include provisions that support
management of marine pests and diseases. Specific provisions relating to the identification and
management of noxious fish and marine vegetation (Part 7, Division 6) and the protection of fish
and marine vegetation from disease (Part 7, Division 7) are set out in the Fisheries
Management Act and apply to all NSW waters, including within marine parks. The Marine Parks
Act extends beyond fish and marine vegetation to encompass all marine life, including reptiles,
birds and mammals. It is recognised that marine pests and disease can also impact on the
maintenance of ecological processes, a primary objective of the marine parks legislation.
The NSW Department of Primary Industries has identified several invasive species of
economical or ecological concern for NSW, some of which are already present in the state (6
species), others already in Australia but not NSW (6 species) and some from overseas (7
spcies) which are considered to be of high risk if they were to establish in NSW. These species
are listed as noxious under the Fisheries Management Act and are featured on the department’s
web site and in brochures which are distributed to boaters, fishers and coastal communities
more generally. Anyone seeing or finding a marine species that looks unfamiliar is urged to
report the sighting to the department for further investigation
(www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/pests-diseases/marine-pests).
State wide plans of management are contained in the NSW Invasive Species Plan 2008-2015
and the NSW Department of Primary Industries Biosecurity Plan 2007. The discovery of any
new NIS that it is listed on the Coordinating Committee for Marine Pest Emergencies (CCIMPE)
Trigger List as a pest species would lead to an emergency response under new arrangements
contained in the National System for the Prevention and Management of Marine Pest Incursions
(www.marinepests.gov.au). These provisions were most recently invoked when an ascidian
suspected of being Didemnum vexillum (a listed pest) was found in Twofold Bay in early 2010
(www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/fisheries/pests-diseases/marine-pests/overseas/seasquirt). Investigations
by the response team quite quickly determined that the specimens were not D. vexillum, so no
control actions were necessary. However, the exercise demonstrated that any future such event
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in NSW could be rapidly and efficiently dealt with. Similar procedures would also be used in the
event of an outbreak of an exotic disease which affected marine biodiversity.
Marine pests & diseases in NSW marine parks
Targeted marine pest surveys are only required for designated major ports – none of the four
NSW ports with this designation are within marine parks. The NSW Invasive Species Plan 20082015 has 4 goals: to prevent the establishment of new invasive species, eliminate or prevent the
spread of new invasive species, reduce the impacts of widespread invasive species, and ensure
NSW has the ability and commitment to manage invasive species.
The Marine Parks Authority contributes to the first and second goals through restrictions on
ballast water exchange and powers to order the removal of boats with heavily-fouled hulls from
marine parks. The MPA could also, if necessary, use closure powers (under s20A of the Marine
Parks Act 1997) to support management of pest or disease outbreaks. Further, for goal 2, it
uses periodic surveys (eg Aquenal 2010) to detect these species. For goal 4, on-site training
and development of operational procedures enable a rapid response, and general measures to
maintain or improve the health and resilience of the marine environment within each park also
contribute. Under goal 3, it is recognised that further research is needed to understand and
manage pest invasions, and the MPA actively collaborates with universities and other NSW
agencies to develop ways to minimise the impacts from marine pests and diseases that are
known to occur in NSW marine parks.
Two marine pests which are on the CCIMPE Trigger List and which are of major concern occur
in NSW marine Parks - Caulerpa taxifolia and Carcinus maenas. Both have only been recorded
from Batemans Marine Park (BMP); the other marine parks appear to be free from these and
other listed marine pests. Targeted research into the biology and impacts of C. maenas has
recently commenced in a collaborative study between Macquarie University, the MPA and the
NSW Department of Primary Industries
(www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0017/191600/Current-Project-Summaries-forWeb_AQUATIC-ECOSYS_220711.pdf). C. taxifolia occurs in parts of Batemans Bay and in
Durras Lake in BMP, but it is quite scattered and currently does not pose a major risk to native
biota. Concern that this invasive alga would spread from St Georges Basin to the nearby Jervis
Bay Marine Park, led to investigations into interactions between sediment type and the growth
of C. taxifolia (Peart 2005).
Coral bleaching and associated diseases have long been recognised as a major threat in
tropical marine parks such as the Great Barrier Reef. Investigations into the dynamics of
bleaching and disease have been studied in Solitary Islands Marine Park (Dalton 2003, 2010;
Goodwin 2008) and more recently at Lord Howe Island. Finally, disease issues for the native
kelp species Phyllospora comosa have recently been studied in the Batemans Marine Park
(Peters 2010).
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Bibliography:
Australian Museum Business Services (AMBS). (2002). Port Survey for Introduced Marine
Species – Sydney Harbour. 146 pp.
Aquenal (2006) Exotic marine pests survey, Lord Howe Island, New South Wales. Report
prepared by Aquenal Pty Ltd for the NSW Marine Parks Authority.
CSIRO Marine Research (1998). Introduced species survey, Newcastle, New South Wales.
CSIRO Marine Research, Hobart, Tasmania, 53 pp.
Dalton SJ (2010) The dynamics of subtropical white syndrome and coral bleaching affecting
scleractinian corals within subtropical reefs adjacent to eastern Australia, NSW. PhD
Thesis, University of New England, NSW.
Dalton SJ (2003) Stressors of scleractinian corals: coral bleaching and coral disease within the
Solitary Islands Marine Park. Honours Thesis, University of New England, NSW.
Department of Premier and Cabinet (2011) NSW 2021: A Plan to Make NSW Number One.
NSW Government, Sydney
http://2021.nsw.gov.au/sites/default/files/NSW2021_WEB%20VERSION.pdf
Glasby, T.M. & Creese, R.G. (2007). Invasive Marine Species Management and Research.
Chapter 22 in: Marine Ecology (S. Connell & B. Gillanders, eds). Oxford University Press.
pp 569-594.
Glasby TM and Lobb K (2008) Assessing the likelihoods of marine pest introductions in Sydney
estuaries: A transport vector approach. Final report to the Sydney Metropolitan Catchment
Management Authority. NSW Department of Primary Industries – Fisheries Final Report
Series No. 105. 84pp.
Godwin S (2008) The pathology and bacterial ecology of Subtropical White Syndrome: A
disease of scleractinian corals in subtropical Eastern Australia. PhD Thesis, University of
New England, NSW.
Peart J (2005) Sedimentation and the invasive algae Caulerpa taxifolia. Honours Thesis,
University of Wollongong, NSW.
Peters T (2010) Distribution and disease in crayweed, Phyllospora comosa. Honours Thesis,
University of New South Wales, NSW.
Pollard, D.A. & Pethebridge, R.L. (2002). Report on Port Kembla Introduced Marine Pest
Species Survey. NSW Fisheries Final Report Series No. 40. 65pp.
Pollard, D.A. & Pethebridge, R.L. (2002). Report on Port of Botany Introduced Marine Pest
Species Survey. NSW Fisheries Final Report Series No. 41. 73pp.
Pollard, D.A. and Rankin, B.K. (2003). Port of Eden Introduced Marine Pest Species Survey.
Final Report to Coasts & Clean Seas Program. NSW Fisheries Final Report Series No. 46.
67pp.
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Table 1. High profile invasive marine invertebrates in Australia that are generally considered to be pests (from Glasby & Creese
2007). Note that the impacts attributed to these species are rarely based on evidence from manipulative experiments (Australian
exceptions indicated by *).
Common
Scientific name
name
States where
Likely impacts
Supporting references
introduced
European
Sabella
WA, Tasmania, SA,
Fouls hard surfaces and soft sediments,
Currie et al. (2000),
fan worm
spallanzanii
Victoria, NSW
competes with natives, can limit settlement
Holloway & Keough
of invertebrates
(2002)*
WA (no recent
Consumes bivalves, barnacles, whelks,
Rangeley & Thomas
sightings), Tasmania,
juvenile fish; out-competes other crabs
(1987), LeRoux et al.
European
Carcinus maenas
shore crab
SA, Victoria, NSW
(1990), Cohen & Carlton
(1995); Grosholz & Ruiz
(1996); Taylor (2005)
Clam
Varicorbula gibba
Tasmania, Victoria
Limits size and growth of some scallops
Currie & Parry (1999),
Talman & Keough (2001)*
Black-
Mytilopsis sallei
NT (eradicated)
striped
Fouls industrial water-intake pipes, ships,
Morton (1981), Rao (2005)
buoys; excludes other sessile invertebrates
mussel
Asian green
Perna viridis
Qld
mussel
Fouls industrial water-intake pipes, ships,
Benson et al. (2001)
buoys, etc.
Asian date
Musculista
WA, Tasmania, SA,
Fouls structures, smothers soft sediments,
Willan (1987), Creese et
mussel
senhousia
Victoria
excludes native infauna, affects growth of
al. (1997), Reusch &
patchy seagrass
Williams (1998)
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