INTRODUCING
THE LINGUIST
AND
LINGUISTICS
ISSA O. SANUSI
2
Copyright© 1996IssaO Sanusi
ISBN 978- 102-0-6
First Published 1996
Published in Nigeria
by
JIMSONS PUBLISHERS
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Cover Drawn by; Mr. A. A. Salami
3
DEDICATION
To my parents, teachers,
good friends, wife and children.
4
FOREWORD
Only a few individuals have ever heard of the discipline of Linguistic before,
and fewer still know what, exactly, it is all about. All too often, the assumption made
even by well educated laymen hearing the name for the first time is that any person
called an expert in it must be fluent in several languages, Mr. Sanusi’s aim in this
short, thoughtful book is to clear this and other popular misconceptions about
linguistics as an academic discipline. In six short chapters he discusses the nature,
aims, principles and major sub-divisions of the subject, and also highlights, for all
prospective students, some of the discipline's major areas of practical application in
Education, Government, Mass Communication and History.
The book fills an existing need, and all those who take enough trouble to read
through it are sure to gain some insights into this all important subject dealing with
human communication.
OLADELE AWOBULUYI
(Professor of Linguistics)
- Foundation Dean, Faculty of Arts,
- Foundation Head of Department,
Department of Linguistics and
Nigerian Languages,
University of Ilorin, llorin.
Nigeria.
3RD JULY, 1990
5
PREFACE
The urge to write this book was initially prompted by my experience as an
undergraduate student of linguistics My friends and room-mates in the University
often raised series of questions just to find out what exactly linguistics is, as a
discipline, and who actually could be referred to as a linguist. As a result of such
probing questions, I was always forced to define, from tune to time, what my course
of study-Linguistics' is all about.
I also faced similar task during my service year in Benue State. Any time I had
to introduce myself and my course of study to fellow corpers, they would always be
wanting to know what linguistics is all about. Their conception of linguistics was quite
erroneous and totally contrary to what linguistics actually is. For many of them, a
linguist is viewed as a polyglot.
The purpose of this book therefore is to define, m simple language and explain
in clear terms, what linguistics is all about and who could be correctly referred to as a
linguist. It is also hoped that the book will make explicit what exactly we have in
mind when we define linguistics as the scientific study of language.
Considering the narrow scope of this book, it is pertinent to state here that the
book is purely introductory, as regards the task of having to define and explain what
linguistics is all about and who a linguist is.
I hope this book will go some way towards removing some of the
misconceptions the general public has about linguistics and the linguist, and thereby
enlighten readers who are very new to the subject.
I have written this book with the sincere hope that readers from other
disciplines, as well as students of linguistics, having a first contact with linguistics,
will have an insight into, or probably a working knowledge of, some basic ideas about
linguistics as a course of study. It is also assumed that this book will be of some help
to Guidance Counsellors or Career Masters and Mistresses in introducing linguistics
to Secondary School Pupils, Students in Colleges of Education, Polytechnic and other
tertiary institutions; most especially in the aspects of career guidance. Such guidance
will be of assistance to those who may likely offer courses in linguistics or probably
6
specialize in linguistics as a course of study in higher institutions of learning. It will
also serve as a guide for students of Diploma programmes in language related fields,
My indebtedness to many earlier writers and experts in linguistics is
acknowledged on many pages of this book 1 am specially grateful to Professor
Oladele Awobuluyi. a distinguished and erudite scholar of linguistics, who read the
manuscript and made necessary corrections and offered invaluable suggestions
towards improving the original draft and for consenting to write a foreword to the
book.
Except for those ideas suggestions and styles that are personal, this book could
not have been written without the findings of all those authors listed in the
bibliography, as well as the stimulating ideas of my lectures during lectures and
seminars in the Department of Linguistics and Nigerian Languages, University of
Ilorin, Ilorin,1 Nigeria (1980 - 1990)
The encouragement and assistance I received from members of my family,
good friends and colleagues served as impetus in writing this book.
I wish to acknowledge the contribution of Alhaji Umaru Saro towards the
successful completion of this book. May Almighty Allah continue to bless him and
lengthen his life.
1 sincerely thank Dr. Efurosibina Adegbija, of the Department of Modern
European Languages, University of Ilorin, whose critical comments and suggestions
have made this a better book than it would otherwise have been.
My sincere thanks also go to Dr. S A. Jimoh, the former Provost, College of
Education, .Oro, Kwara State, who is now in the Faculty of Education, University of
Ilorin, for his fatherly advice and moral support.
I am greatly indebted to all my lecturers in the Department of Linguistics and
Nigerian Languages, University of Ilorin, who over the years have taught me,
formally or informally, something about linguistics. They include Prof Oladele
Awobuluyi, Prof (Chief) Oludare Olajubu, Prof Beban S. Chumbow, Prof. Hounkpati
B. C. Capo, Dr. Yiwola Awoyale, Dr. Bisi Ogunsina, Dr. .Ore Yusuf, Dr. Francis
Oyebade, Dr Kayode Fanilola, Dr. Bade Ajayi, Dr Adewale Abolade, Dr Noel
Ihebuzor, Dr. L. Marchese, Dr. Victor Manfredi and many others.
7
Both the teaching and non-teaching staff as well as students in the department
have in one way or the other assisted the author in writing this book. I thank you all
Mr. Abdullahi Arije, who carefully typed the manuscript, also deserves special
mention.
Above all, all praise is due to Almighty Allah for giving me the thought and
wisdom to write the book.
Full responsibility for any errors or infelicities of style is , of course, solely my
own.
Issa O. Sanusi
August, 1983.
8
CONTENTS
PAGE
Foreword
.......................................... ……………………………………. ….
iv
Preface
...........................................................................................................
v
1.
Introduction ..........................................................................................
I
2.
Who is a Linguist? .................................................................................
3
3.
Why Study Linguistics? .......................................................................
8
- Functions of Language .....................................................................
9
What is Scientific in Language Study?...................................................
14
- A Brief History of the Theories of Grammar ....................................
17
-
Formal Grammar...............................................................................
18
-
Pedagogic Grammar ..........................................................................
22
Levels of Linguistics ...................... …………………………………...
29
-
Micro-Linguistics...............................................................................
29
-
Macro-Linguistics..............................................................................
37
Linguistics as a Career .............................................................................
48
- Entry Requirements .............................................................................
48
- Job Opportunities .................................................................................
48
Conclusion ............................................................................................
49
Notes.....................................................................................................
51
Bibliography ........................................................................................
53
Recommended Further Reading ............................................................
58
CHAPTER:
4.
5.
6.
9
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
In the layman's language, many people can simply and correctly define many
professions and courses of study in our schools and higher institutions of learning at
least to tell what actually such professions and courses of study are all about, and the
basic functions of the people who engage in them. Hence, most people think they have
a clear idea of what the more traditional subjects of the school or university
curriculum are about. This is why at social gatherings one does not often hear the
question - "What is Biology?'' or "What is Chemistry?" or "What is Mathematics?"
etc. But this is not the case with linguistics as a discipline. Anyone who introduces
himself or herself as a linguist to friends in any social gathering or perhaps in an
interview for employment, is quite likely to face such questions like "How many
languages can you speak?", "Can you speak my language?", "What is linguistics?" ,
"Who is a linguist?" , etc. All these questions point to the fact that people are not yet
acquainted with linguistics as a course of study.
At this point, one may ask the relevant question - 'Is linguistics a new course of
study?1 An answer to this question could be derived from the fact expressed by Alien
(1975:16), that:
Although linguists can trace the origins
of their subject back to the
fourth or
fifth century. B.C.., it is only
in comparatively recent
years
that
linguistics has begun to be studied and taught on a really wide scale.
In other words, compared to other subjects in our schools or university
curriculum, linguistics might be said to be a 'new' subject. This may not be
unconnected with why many people are yet to be aware of the existence of a subject
like linguistics as a discipline.
Many renowned erudite linguistic scholars (foreign and indigenous) have
written many works on the major aspects of linguistic analysis, i.e. syntax, phonology,
morphology, semantics, phonetics, historical linguistics, as well as applied linguistics;
however, such works are usually research works purely meant for the experts in the
10
field rather than for the laymen or beginners who want to know what linguistics is al]
about and who actually can be referred to as a linguist.
11
CHAPTER TWO
WHO IS A LINGUIST?
Many people (both literate and illiterate) in our society today believe that a
linguist is one who speaks many languages fluently without much difficulty. This is
no doubt a general misconception about linguistics and a linguist. Chumbow (1985:9)
refers to this kind of misconception as -'Innocent ignorance" about linguistics. To
correct this wrong notion, it is pertinent to state here that a linguist is not necessarily
someone who is a fluent speaker of many languages, either foreign or indigenous.
Going by the dictionary meaning of linguistics, the Oxford Advanced Learner's
Dictionary defines linguistics as "the study of languages or the science of language".
That is, the scientific study of language. Therefore, it would be more appropriate and
accurate to say that linguists are concerned with the scientific study of human
languages in general rather than being learners and fluent speakers of languages.
Attesting to this fact, Cook (1988:22) states that, "..... the linguist is not interested in a
knowledge of French or Arabic or of English but in the language faculty of the human
species".
However, it is an advantage if a linguist has a practical mastery of one or more
languages apart from his own mother tongue, but this is never an essential condition
for being a linguist.
The linguist studies the science of language as applicable to the understanding
of the structure of all and every human language. The job of the linguist, therefore,
includes:
(i)
studying the human language faculty,
(ii)
developing theories to explain language behaviour,
(iii)
providing the most efficient means for describing languages,
(iv)
making
the
most
accurate
and
comprehensive description of
languages available,
(v)
devising orthographies for the unwritten languages
(vi)
revising the orthographies of the written languages, as and when due,
12
(vii)
assisting
the
government
(vii)
writing phonetics manuals,
in
language
planning activities,
(viii) compiling dictionaries, etc.
By virtue of his training, the linguist has a flair for languages and is therefore
sensitized to features of every human language and to the complexity of such a
language, Revealing the competence of linguists. Sells (1985:7) remarks that,
"Linguists are in a sense language experts, for they, if anyone, have some idea of what
is English and what isn't'1.
Using linguistic theories, the linguist is able to understand both the simple and
complex structures of human languages and thereby make explicit the implicit
knowledge of a native speaker of a given language. That is, the application of
linguistic theories to languages makes it possible for the linguist to explain vividly the
intuitive knowledge, that is, the linguistic competence that a native speaker of any
particular human language possesses. The increasing awareness of the linguist about
languages makes him a language expert
As a result of his expertise or deep knowledge of how a language works, the
linguist knows the underlying reality of a language much better than the native
speakers of such a language.
The experience of the linguist is, therefore, acquired through his knowledge of the
theories of linguistics and the application of such theories to language data.
Bloch and Trager (1942:8) describe a linguist in the following revealing terms:
He is a scientist whose subject matter is language, and his task is to
analyse and classify the facts of speech, as he hears them uttered by
native speakers or as he finds them recorded in writing.
There
are
some
people
who
speak
a
good
many languages. The
ability to speak many languages does not make them linguists because they know
nothing about the underlying reality of language and how a language works. Such
people are better called 'polyglots1 or 'multilinguals' rather than linguists.
In a
nutshell, one who speaks many languages with every degree of fluency without a
knowledge of linguistics is merely a polyglot or multilingual and not a linguist.
Through the process of studying languages, a linguist may end up speaking a
13
number of languages; however, it is not necessary to be a speaker of many
languages in order to be a linguist.
One of the main tasks of training a linguist is to equip him with the theoretical
knowledge and technical know-how necessary to write a grammar of language (any
human language). In other words, a trained linguist can write the complete grammar
not only of the language he speaks but also a language he does not know. This is only
possible where the linguist has access to a native speaker of the language who will
serve as informant in providing relevant linguistic information on the language.
Thereafter, the linguist applies his acquired field work procedures and analytical skills
to tap the grammar out of the data collected from the native speaker. Every language,
no matter the number of people who speak it, has its own grammar and anyone who
speaks a language has internalized the grammar of that language. That is, he has the
implicit knowledge of the rules of grammar in that language. The primary duty of the
linguist is to discover the rules of the grammar and make explicit the implicit
knowledge of the grammar which the native speaker has mastered.
Unlike other school subjects, the teaching and learning of linguistics (as of
now) is still restricted to the four walls of some institutions in Nigeria. Perhaps, this is
why many people do not know that linguistics exists as a subject on its own. Be that as
it may, it is the opinion of this writer that as part of the effort to introduce linguistics
to the grassroots level some elements of general linguistics should be incorporated
into the secondary school curriculum as a subject in the Department of Languages.
This will enable linguists, or perhaps language teachers with some knowledge of
.linguistics, to use information from linguistics and (or) applied linguistics in teaching
languages and language skills to students (of Na Allah and Sanusi (1992) This will in
turn afford the students the opportunity of an adequate grasp of what is being taught.
In other words, a knowledge of linguistics and (or) applied linguistics is an advantage
in language teaching and learning. If this could be done, more and more people will,
in no distant future, get to know about linguistics as a discipline.
To make linguistics a familiar subject like every other school subject, experts
in linguistics must be ready to organize an4 participate in workshops, seminars and
symposia aimed at informing the general public (most especially language teachers)
14
about the role and place of linguistics in specific areas like: language teaching and
learning, language planning, language testing, development of orthographies for the
unwritten languages, writing of primers and readers in newly written languages, etc.
All these linguistic activities, requiring the services of linguists, are very necessary in
a multilingual country like Nigeria Hence the need for linguistic studies.
15
CHAPTER THREE
WHY STUDY LINGUISTICS?
Linguistics is worth giving proper attention simply because 'Language1, which
is its primary concern, is very useful in almost all facets of life and serves as the
primary medium of communication for mankind- It is a statement of fact that,
biologically, no other creature possesses a well -developed language faculty similar to
that of human beings.
Language is an essential part of man and his environment. It is, indeed, an
integral part of our socio-cultural heritage. Besides serving as a medium through
which we understand our historical past, language helps to bring diverse people closer
to one another and it is an instrument of unity among human beings.
Language is a medium of thought. It is a means of expressing our intentions
and emotions; reacting to human beings at different situations; influencing people at
different circumstances, etc Considering the relationship between language and
thought. Chomsky (1988:196) makes the following assertion:
The fact is that if you have not developed language, you simply don't
have access to most of human experience, and if you don't have access
to experience, then you're not going to be able to think properly.
Being a medium of thought, language is essentially required in the acquisition
of any form of knowledge either through educational or vocational training. Of course
speaking, writing, reading and listening comprehension can only take place with the
help of language as a medium of instruction. In other words, we use language to
impart knowledge and to acquire skills as well as to awaken and develop the
intellectual potentialities of a learner.
The effectiveness of educational or vocational training programmes depends
(among other things) on whether or not effective communication has taken place
between the teacher and the learners.
16
In a nutshell, acquisition of any form of knowledge and skills is made possible
through the use of a language, as a medium of communication. Therefore, what makes
language very crucial and useful is its creative nature, which determines man's
intellectual abilities. It is the creative nature of language that makes many of its
functions possible in any human society.
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
We use language in virtually everything we do and this makes it highly
indispensable in any society. Apart from using language in talking to fellow human
beings (in both formal and informal situations), we also use language in other aspects
of life like social interaction, administration, economic activities, mass mobilization,
law making, entertainment, etc. Without language, civilization would have remained
impossible.
It is through the medium of language that we are able to teach the younger
generations and ensure that civilizations progress from generation to generation.
Therefore, language could be seen as a phenomenon that makes all other things
possible.
It also facilitates the rate of inventions and discoveries in every human society.
Thus, it is the use of language that ensures socio-economic, political,
cultural,
religious, and educational developments all over the world.
From the foregoing, it is obvious that without language the world would be
very different from what it is today.
In other
words,
none
of the
above
mentioned language -dependent activities can be effectively carried out without the
use of language.
Language is a universal thread running through all cultures, knitting mankind into one
world community. It is chiefly through effective communication at home; school and
abroad that men will come to appreciate the inherent dignity of every human being
and will learn to live together in peace and harmony.
Every human language is endowed with prestige and such prestige is usually
commensurate with the prestige or influence of its speakers .However, linguists are of
17
the opinion that no language is superior to another. Rather, it is extralinguistic factors
like political power enjoyed by the speakers, the numerical strength of the speakers,
historical background, etc that determine the ultimate destiny of a particular language
Considering the power of language in any human society. Lowenfeld (1970) as
quoted in Chumbow (1985.1) observes that:
Language can be used to sooth anger, excite, tranquilize, stimulate,
intimate, energize,
stultify, create, destroy, assassinate or immortalize.
Word power is the one measurable element that has been found to be
present among men who have become leaders in any and all areas of
endeavour.
Language, as a medium of communication, is used in many human
interactional situations to express ideas, describe things or situations, convince,
deceive, criticize, commend, etc. It is, of course, a natural endowment that
distinguishes human beings from other creatures. Though many other living things
have different types of communication codes like hissing, screaming, cackling, and a
host of other par a linguistic codes, none could be likened to human language.
Language is generally human specific.
Not only the ability to produce words that distinguishes man from other
creatures; there are some other human communication codes that are quite distinct
from those of animals. For example, the way and manner a man laughs or weeps is
never the same as the way and manner
a cat mews,
a dog barks,
a horse neighs,
a goose cackles,
a monkey chatters, ;
a swine/pig grunts,
an ass brays,
an elephant trumpets,
an ox lows, etc.
18
The fact that language is inherently part of man makes many people take
language for granted. They do so simply because they grew up with their language
and found themselves speaking one language or another either consciously learnt or
otherwise absorbed without much effort.
A scientific study of language reveals that the nature, structure and functions of
human language are much more complex than we ordinarily take them to be at the
surface level. Linguistics is therefore seen as an attractive field of study for students of
language as a discipline, fort those who have a genuine flair for languages and for
those who possess a strong desire to recognize communication as a vital human
endeavour.
The study of linguistics at all its various levels, provides practical and effective
application of its -results to finding solutions to all .human problems. In other words,
the scientific study of language provides answers to scientific questions about the
nature, form, structure and functions of language, which in turn, provides for the
linguistic needs and services of man as well as national development. For example, by
practical application of linguistic theories and analyses, linguistic methods provide the
basic tools necessary for analyzing and describing many African languages which had
never been written before. For example, using his knowledge of descriptive grammar,
the linguist, in a developing country like Nigeria, assists in problems of language
teaching (foreign and indigenous), devising and revising orthographies, writing
primers, readers, or even textbooks in local or national languages.
In this connection, Bamgbose (1982) makes the assertion that the third world
linguists need not wait to be called upon to assist in such linguistic problems. The
linguists should be
prepared to think up ways and means of initiating many more projects like the Rivers
Readers project1, the Itsekiri Language project2, etc. with or without assistance of any
kind from the government.
Bearing in mind the relevance of linguistics to the educational domain, most
especially for pedagogical purposes, it is the opinion of this writer that some aspects
of applied linguistics (i.e. linguistics and language teaching) be incorporated into the
school curriculum, both at the secondary and tertiary levels. Such a move will, no
19
doubt, assist in teaching and teaming both foreign and indigenous languages without
much difficulty.
20
CHAPTER FOUR
WHAT IS SCIENTIFIC IN LANGUAGE STUDY?
Our frequent reference to linguistics as the scientific study of language might
prompt the question - what is scientific in language study? Linguistics as the science
of language seeks to know more about the phenomenon of language in all its
complexity. Linguistics is conceived as the science of language principally because it
approaches the study of language through scientific method and practice. Such
scientific methodology
and practice employed by linguistics in the study of
languages include:
(a) Data collection, transcription. observation, elicitation and analysis,
(b) Hypothesis formulation based on the observable facts from a language data,
(c) Empirical verification of the postulated hypothesis,
(d) Formulation of grammatical rules that are relevant to and derivable from
certain scientific theoretical framework in linguistics, etc.
The contribution of linguistics as a 'new' science is to increase one's
understanding of the nature, structure and functions of language. Therefore, it may be
said that the scientific study provided by linguistics is one which is based on the
systematic investigation of language data, conducted with reference to some general
theory of language structure. The linguist, in a scientific manner, studies language
data in order to discover the nature of the underlying language system, but he is not
likely to make sense of the data unless he has an understanding of the way in which
language is structured. Ideally, any theory of language structure that the linguist may
formulate must be checked against the data to make sure that the theory is consistent
with the observed facts of language use. Supporting this claim, Alien (1975:17)
remarks that,
In the working methods of all linguists, however, theory formulation and
the study of data have always proceeded side by side. We may say that
in linguistics, as in other areas of science, data and theory 'stand in a
dialectical complementation' and that neither can be profitably studied
without the other.
21
The aim is to present an analysis in such a way that every part of it can be
tested and verified, not only by the author himself, but by anyone else who chooses to
refer to it or make a description of his own based on the same principles.
The primary concern of a linguist when confronted with a new language is to
write the grammar of that language. The grammar in this sense is a set of rules
governing the usage of a language as a medium of communication. A linguist does
this by collecting and eliciting relevant data in the language. There are two possible
methods of data collection:
(a) Informant method
(b) Introspective method
In the informant method, relevant linguistic information on the language under
study is provided by an informant otherwise known as a 'language helper1, who speaks
the language as his or her first language or mother tongue.
On the other hand, the use of introspective method involves the linguist serving
as his or her own informant. This method describes a situation where the linguist is
directly working on his or her own native language.
Having collected and elicited relevant and ample data on the language, the
linguist formulates. rules, based on the observable information provided by his
analysis, to present general linguistic information derivable from the structure of the
language.
Pointing out the duty of a linguist, as regards grammatical analysis of a
language, Chomsky (1957:13) states that,
The fundamental aim in the linguistic analysis of a language (L) is to
separate the grammatical sequences which are the sentences of (L)
from the ungrammatical sequences which are not sentences of (L) and
to study the
structure of the grammatical sequences. The
grammar of (L) will just be a device which generates all of the
grammatical sentences of (L) and none of the ungrammatical ones.
In this manner, linguistics could be said to be an empirical science that
seeks to study language, as a medium of communication, from the purely scientific
perspective on the basis of observed language data. Such language data are always
22
subjected to critical analysis to determine the rules that govern effective and
meaningful communication in a given language.
In other words, a language is studied based on the grammatical rules operating
in that language. Many theories have been propounded for the purpose of grammatical
analysis.
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE THEORIES OF GRAMMAR
Learning a language means learning the rules of the grammar of the language.
A grammar could be defined as an organized system or set of rules guiding the usage
of a language. This is exactly what we have in mind when we refer to the 'grammar' of
a particular human language.
According to Riemsdijk and Williams (1986:3) the term 'grammar' could be
defined in two senses:
In its most important sense, the grammar of a language is the knowledge that
we say a person has who "knows" the language - it is something in the head.
The study of grammar is the study of this specialized kind of knowledge how it is constituted, how it is used.
In its second sense, a grammar is a linguist's account of the "structure"
of a language, or a "definition" of a language.
Defining grammar in its technical sense, Radford (.1988:2) considers
grammar of a language vis-a-vis the different
levels of linguistic analysis.
According to him, grammar covers not only morphology (i.e. the internal
structure of words) and syntax (i.e. how words are combined together to form phrases
and sentences), but also phonology (i.e.
pronunciation)
and some aspects of
semantics (i.e. meaning) as well.
The fact that the process of sentence formation in any language is rule
governed is expressed in Stockwell (1977:1) as follows, "No language allows
sentences to be formed by stringing words together randomly. There are observable
regulations," Such observable regulations that are guiding the co-occurrence of
constituents in sentence formation are referred to as grammatical rules.
We can distinguish between formal grammar on the one hand and pedagogic
grammar on the other. While formal grammar presents a systematic account (or
23
description) of the linguistic knowledge or competence a native speaker of a language
possesses; a pedagogic grammar consists of materials extracted from one or more
formal grammars. Such materials are modified and adapted in such a way that they
could be used as the basis for language teaching. A pedagogic grammar, therefore,
could be viewed as a type of grammar designed to promote effective and efficient
teaching and learning of a particular language among the group of learners for which
the grammar is intended.
Many theories have been propounded for both formal and pedagogic
grammars. Such theories are used as theoretical framework or methodological tools
for analyzing language data.
FORMAL GRAMMAR
Some of the earlier formal theories of grammar that have been developed and
used as methodological tools for analyzing language data include the following:
(i) Traditional or Classical Grammar
(ii) Structural or Taxonomic Grammar
(iii) Systemic Grammar
(iv) Transformational Generative Grammar (T.G)
(v) Government and Binding (GB) Theory.
Other contemporary syntactic theories that are considered along with the GB
theory include Lexical Functional Grammar (LFG) (as in Bresuan (1982) and Falk
(1983) and Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (G.RS.G.) (as in Gazdar, Klein,
Pullum and Sag (1985).)
In the history of syntactic models, traditional or classical grammar started as a
pedagogical grammar designed for teaching and learning some Indo-European
languages like Greek and Latin (cf Tomori (1977:3),
Proponents of traditional grammar include earlier philosophers like Aristotle,
Plato, Socrates, Trinysius Thrax, etc.
For the fact that traditional grammar lacks explicit and comprehensive general
theory, its practice involves making the analysis of the grammar of any language
reflect the grammar of Latin, This was regarded as one of the major weaknesses of the
grammar. However, despite the weaknesses of traditional grammar, many
24
grammarians consider it as the starting point, from which other theories of gra-mmar
emerged. In other words, many of the present-day theories of grammar could be
viewed as offshoots of traditional or classical grammar.
Structural or taxonomic grammar, popularly known as Bloomfieldian grammar,
was developed as a result of the inadequacies of traditional grammar. Structural
grammar came into limelight in the early 1950s. Proponents of the grammar include
Zelling Harris, Bernand Bloch, and Charles Hockett.
Structural grammarians offered the suggestion that each language should be
studied on its own merit without relating it to any other language; since every human
language has its own grammatical rules guiding sentence formation.
The development of transformational generative grammar (T.G.) through
Chomsky's Syntactic Structures early in (1957), which served as an improvement over
the existing structural approach to grammatical analysis, kept the ideas and
methodology of structuralism off the stage.
Using the structuralist ideas of his teacher (Zelling Harris), Chomsky
developed TG. as a model that attempts to explain the ability of a native speaker to
form and understand sentences in his native language.
Chomsky is of the opinion that the ability of the native speaker is the
'competence" and what the native speaker does when he uses utterance on specific
occasions is referred to as performance . Performance, then, is a reflection of the
native speaker's underlying competence (cf Chomsky (1965:4). It is this underlying
competence that transformational grammar seeks to explain That is, an attempt to
make explicit that knowledge which is implicit in the native speaker of a given
language
Another type of grammar, which has been employed in the grammatical
analysis of languages like English, is called systemic grammar. It is otherwise known
as 'Scale-and-category' grammar (of Haliday (1961:247-8). Tomori (1977:26- 64), etc.
For instance, using systemic analysis, five units are recognized in the grammar
of English: morpheme, word, group, clause and sentence. These five units of grammar
form a hierarchy or taxonomy.
25
In the systemic analysis, a sentence is ranked the highest consisting of one or
more clauses, a clause is said to compose of one or more words and so on, down to the
morpheme the lowest rank of abstraction in the hierarchy.
Government and Binding theory is the latest among the theories of grammar
mentioned in this book. It is Chomsky's current framework. The theory is named after
Chomsky's book - Lectures on Government and Binding, published in (1981). It is a
modular deductive theory of Universal Grammar (UG.) which posits multiple levels of
representation related by the transformational rule (move-alpha). The application of
move-alpha is constrained by the interaction of various principles which act as
conditions on possible representation. (See Awoyale (1995:116-7))
Associated with the principles are parameters which account for variation
across languages. Thus the grammar for a particular language is specified by the
appropriate parameter settings and a lexicon.
GB theory greatly eliminates proliferation of transformational rules like:
passive, affix hopping, verb -number agreement, question formation, equip-NP deletion, raising, permutation, insertion, etc.
Simply put, of all the numerous transformational rules we have under TG., only
the movement rules, alias move-alpha, are retained in the new GB theory; while others
are considered differently.
It should be noted that the kind of theoretical changes or development
discussed above is not peculiar to syntactic theories; similar development had taken
place at other levels of linguistics. ,, For example, in phonology, some of the
weaknesses or inadequacies of both generative phonology and prosodic analysis led to
the development of new phonologicaktheories like Auto-segmental phonology (ASP)
otherwise known as nonlinear or tiered phonology (as in Goldsmith (1976) and
Lexical Phonology/Morphology (as in Kiparsky(1982).
Apart from the above mentioned theories of formal grammar, we also have
some other theories that are devised for the purposes of language teaching and
learning. Such theories are considered as theories of pedagogic grammar.
26
PEDAGOGIC GRAMMAR
Many linguists and language teachers alike believe in the efficacy of linguistic
methods and techniques of analysis as well as the application of research findings in
linguistics in solving problems in language teaching and learning.
Some of the old and new theories of language teaching and learning, with
inputs from theoretical linguistics, include the following:
(i)
Grammar- Translation Method
(ii)
Direct Method
(iii)
Audio-Lingual Method
(iv)
Contrastive Analysis
(v)
Error Analysis, etc.
GRAMMAR - TRANSLATION METHOD
This is one of the oldest methods of language teaching In this method, both the
teacher and learners make use of the native language in learning the target language.
In other words, students are not allowed to make use of the language being studied.
They are only required to recite and learn by rote things like conjugations pf the
irregular verbs in the target language. The teacher spends most of his time translating
sentences, clauses, and phrases in the target language into the native language of the
learners.
It has been observed that under this method, a learner seldom speaks or hears
the language, but is expected to know the rules of its grammar. He spends a good deal
of his time translating sentences in the target language into the native language, with
the help of grammatical rules and a dictionary sometimes without understanding what
he translate.
It is therefore not surprising that students; taught In tin.-method often acquire a
mass of grammatical information about the language being studied, yet cannot speak a
word of it.
DIRECT METHOD
The direct method of language teaching was developed as a reaction to the
grammar-translation method. In this method, as the name implies, the teacher, from
27
the beginning, uses only the target language hi class, helping the students to
understand the foreign language with the help of gestures. He does not explain of
translate the grammar of the target language. The teacher aims at total immersion of
the students in the language. Although the lessons in this method are planned, they
generajly emphasize the new vocabulary rather than any other levels of linguistics.
Unlike the grammar-translation method, the direct method can teach a student
to speak and understand the target language; hut it can be extremely inflexible and
time-consuming.
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
As a result of widespread reaction against grammar-translation method, the
audio-lingual approach assumed a position of favour in second language teaching.
It could also be said that the audio-lingual method was the outgrowth of a
swing away from the traditional methodology employed to teach Latin and Greek.
It is an approach to language teaching that considers listening and speaking (
the skills of oracy) as the first and central task in learning a language. While reading
and skills (the skills of literacy) are considered as secondary. Audio-lingual method is
popularly referred to as (aural - oral).
Some of the proponents of audio-lingua) method like Nelson Brooks believes
that language is primarily what is said and only secondarily what is written. In other
words, the audio-lingual stage, in language learning, which is a stage in which the ear
and tongue are trained, is considered to be the most important. It lays an indispensable
foundation for the other two skills (i.e. reading and writing;.
This method encourages that accurate pronunciation should be developed with
a good mastery of the sound system before the spelling system. This order is
considered to be the natural order.
This method has gained popularity in second language teaching, most specially
in the United States of America (U.S.A.) among experimental psychologists, cultural
anthropologists and linguists.
CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS
The publication in 1957 of Robert Lado's Linguistics Across Cultures marks
the real beginning of modem applied contrastive linguistics. Lado was of the opinion
28
that apart from eroding language teaching materials like text-bocks, there should be a
comparison between the source language or mother tongue (i.e. LI) of the learners and
the target language (i,e. L2)
Other proponents of Contrastive Analysis like Charles C. Fries. Di Pietro. etc. also
claimed that a systematic comparison of the source language and the target language at
all levels of structure, will generate predictions about the areas of learning difficulty in
the target language. On this note, it is assumed within the framework of Contrastive
Analysis that the best teaching materials will emphasize those features of the target
language that differ markedly from corresponding features of the source language.
Simply put, the theory stipulates that whenever the structure of a second or
foreign language differs from that of the mother tongue of the learners we can expect
both difficulty in learning and error in performance However, where the structures of
the two languages are similar, no difficulty is anticipated.
In summary, the aim of Contrastive Analysis is to compare both the source
language and the target language of a given group of learners with the hope of
identifying the areas of structural similarities and differences between ;lie two
languages. Having done this, the theory predicts the likely errors of the learners and
thereby provides the linguistic input to language teaching materials and curriculum
development.
Despite the relevance and applicability of Contrasts e Analysis approach to
second or foreign language teaching and learning, some reservations have been noted
in the application of the theory: Areas that were assumed to be difficult sometimes
turned out not to lead to errors and vice versa. Also, apart form interference from the
mother tongue, \\hich is the focus of Contrastive Analysis, errors in second language
learning may have physiological and psxcholoeical Origins. For example, lack of
attention, tiredness. forgetfulness. and a host of other lapses may lead to errors in both
spoken and written forms of the target language. This and many other weaknesses of
Contrastive Analysis led to the development of a new theory like Error Analysis.
29
ERROR ANALYSIS
As the name implies, unlike Contrastive Analysis, Error Analysis concentrates
on those erroneous parts of learner's performance in the target language that diverge
from whatever norn this performance is compared with.
The theory views the learner as one who interacts actively with the new
language, developing new hypotheses about the structure of the language he is
learning as well as modifying and discarding earlier formed ones. Proponents of Error
Analysis believe in studying the difficulties facing second language learners rather
than predicting such difficulties. Error Analysis therefore emerged as an alternative to
Contrastive Analysis approach.
In using Error Analysis as a methodological tool in second language teaching
and learning, one has to follow its tenets or procedures as a theoretical framework.
They include:
(i) recognition of errors,
(ii) description of errors,
(iii) correction of errors,
(iv) classification of errors, and
(v) explanation of errors,
According to Corder (1974 : 126). the most important stages in Error Analysis
are those of recognition, description and explanation of errors.
Some of the major works on Error Analysis include those of Nemser (1971),
Richards (1972), Selinker (1972), Adjeinian (1976), Corder (1977) and Brown
(1980).(see Sanusi(l988)).
30
CHAPTER FIVE
LEVELS OF LINGUISTICS
Like many other subjects, either in the school or university curriculum,
linguistics has various sub-divisions or levels. In each of such levels, 'language' is
normally focused as the subject matter. The levels constitute the different facets of
linguistic organization of any given human language.
Each level of linguistics has its own terminologies and techniques of analysis.
However, in order to ensure the natural pattern in which a language is structured, the
different levels must interrelate, pragmatically, in one way or the other, in the process
of using language as a medium of communication.
We can classify all the levels of linguistics under two broad headings:
(1) Micro-linguistics
(2) Macro-linguistics
MICRO-LINGUISTICS
The levels of linguistic analysis that are classified as micro-linguistics arc
those levels that arc
commonly referred to as descriptive or theoretical linguistics.
They form the central core of language
study. The major aspects of descriptive or
theoretical linguistics .include:
(i) Phonetics,
(iii) Syntax,
(ii) Phonology,
(iv) Semantics,
(v)
Morphology (vii) Historical Linguistics, etc
(vi)
Pragmatics
Some of these levels are briefly defined below, for the purpose of intimating to
our readers what each of the levels actually stands for..
PHONOLOGY
Phonology (also known as phonemics) is the study of the sound system (or
patterns) of language in terms of the functions of individual sounds in the words of a
language. In other words, phonology studies how sounds are modified in the -process
of word formation.
31
It is the level of linguistics that deals with how sounds are used in a particular
language in order to convey meaning.
Using phonological analysis, the linguist describes all the attested phonemes of
a language and their variants (allophones). He also determines whether two sounds
represent two different phonemes or they are variants of the same phoneme This is
done through the technique of "minimal pair". That is, comparing a pair of words that
differs in meaning as a result of difference in one sound segment. For example,
consider the following pairs of words in English:.
(a)
r a t
b
(b)
a t
p i n
(c)
p
a n
d
o g
d
o t
The words in each of the above three pairs are similar except for only one
sound. For instance, in (a) consonants hi and /b/ contrast in an identical environment
(i.e. word-initial position), in (b) vowels /i/ and /a/ contrast in an identical
environment (i.e. word-medial position), and in (c) consonants /g/ and / t / also
contrast in an identical environment (i.e. word-final position). Technically speaking,
these sounds that brought about the difference in meaning are said to be phonemic and
therefore constitute individual phonemes rather than being allophones or variants of
the same phoneme.
PHONETICS
Phonetics is the study, analysis, and classification of individual sounds of a
language. That is, it studies and describes the speech sounds of a language.
It should be noted that there is close interconnection between phonetics and
phonology — while phonetics is concerned with the study of individual sounds and
their pronunciation phonology focuses on the way in which these sounds are put
together, organized, and used in a particular language, in order to convey meaning.
There are three major aspects of general phonetics:
(i)
Articulatory Phonetics - the study of speech sounds in relation to the speech
32
organs that are used in pronouncing them. That is, the study of how sounds are
produced.
(ii)
Acoustic Phonetics — the study of the physical properties of speech sounds
and transmission of such sounds.
(iii) Auditory Phonetics — the study of the anatomy and physiology of the ear and
the process of perception of sound waves or impulses from the outer ear, middle ear
and inner ear.
The above three sub-divisions of general phonetics can be illustrated with a tree
diagram as shown in (Figure 1) below:
(Fig.l)
PHONETICS
`
Articulatory
Acoustic
Auditory
MORPHOLOGY
Morphology is the study of the organization of morphemes and words in the
process of word formation. It is that area of language study that • accounts for internal
structure of words.
A morpheme is the minimal meaningful unit of language. Morphemes are those
units that make up words. For example, the word 'child1 consists of only one
morpheme, while "childishness" consists of three: child, -ish, and -ness.
Morphologically, some words can be segmented or divided into their
morphological components, while some irregular words cannot be so divided. For
example, English words like: books, keeper, cooking, jumped, smaller, etc. can he
segmented into their morphological component parts: book-s. keep-er, cook-ing,
jump-ed, small-er, respectively. But some irregular English words like: men, mice,
feet, teeth, women, etc cannot be clearly divided into their various morphological
component parts.
All possible alternative representations of a particular morpheme are referred to
as allomorphs. As we have the concept of 'allophone' in phonology so do we have the
concept of 'allomorph' in morphology. In other words, the expression — 'Allophones
33
of the same phoneme* in phonology is similar to the expression — 'allomorphs of the
same morpheme' in morphology.
SYNTAX
Syntax is the study of the patterns of arrangement of words, or how words are
combined to form phrases, clauses, and sentences Syntactically, no human language
allows sentences to be formed by stringing words together randomly. Thai is. every
human language has regular and peculiar patterns in which words must combine to
form phrases, clauses, and sentences in that language.
The acceptable regular patterns of co-occurrence, among various constituents
of a sentence in any language, constitute what could be regarded as grammatical rules
in that language. Any attempt to violate such acceptable patterns, in forming
sentences, will always lead to ungrammaticality.
It is a matter of syntax that basic sentences in a language must follow a
particular basic word order. The basic word order shows how the subject, verb and
object co-occur hi any basic grammatical sentence.
The issue of basic word order is one of the universals of human language. Ft>r
example, languages like English, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba exhibit Subject, Verb,
Object (i.e. S.V.O) word order in a given basic sentence. Languages like Japanese,
Batonu, Ijo (Kalahari), etc. display Subject, Object, Verb (i.e. S.O.V.) word order in a
given basic sentence, while languages like Arabic, Hebrew, Egyptian, etc. exhibit
Verb, Subject, Object (i.e. V.S.O.) word order in a given basic sentence.
SEMANTICS
Semantics is the study of meaning. For the fact that meaning'is the core of
communication, it has always been a central pan of the study of language and
communication systems. However, modern linguistics tends to doubt the possibii;ty of
studying meaning as objectively and rigorously as other levels of linguistics like
phonology and grammar. In their attempt to be scientific and objective, modern
linguists are compelled to reject anything that could not be objectively verified.,Thus,
some linguists like Leonard Bloomfield thought it would be desirable to limit the
scope of linguistics to observable data. This is why semantics, unlike other levels of
linguistics, has not received much attention.
34
PRAGMATICS
Pragmatics is the level of linguistics that deals with language use. It studies
how words are used and what exactly speakers have in mind in using certain word(s)
in a particular context. That is, how utterances ha\e meanings in situations.
A pragmatic study helps to differentiate between sentence-meaning and
speaker-meaning. While other levels of linguistics like phonology, syntax,
morphology and semantics concentrate on the rules guiding the possible combination
of different constituents of a language, pragmatics focuses on speakers"
'communicative competence'. That is, the knowledge required to produce and
understand grammatical utterances in relation to specific contexts and specific
communicative purposes.
‘Speech Act Theory’- is an aspect of pragmatics that is concerned with the
linguistic ACTS made while speaking, which have some social or interpersonal
purpose and pragmatic effect.
Three types of acts are differentiated under the speech act theory:
(i)
Locutionary Act (the act of uttering),
(ii)
Illocutionary Att (the act performed in saying something, e.g. Promising,
Swearing, Warning, e.t.c.).
(iii)
Perlocutionary Act {the act performed as a result of saying something, e.g.
persuading).
HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS
The field of historical-comparative linguistics traces relationships among
human languages as they change and diverge from a common original source (i.e.
parent language or proro-Ianguage). Historical linguistics is otherwise kno\\n as
diachronic linguistics,
Just as archaelogical discoveries provide information about prehistory, so also
do studies in historical-comparative linguistics provide information about historical
linguistic interrelations among different speech communities. Using the available
documents and linguistic evidence, historical linguistics describes the earlier forms of
a language. For instance, studies in linguistic history started to receive-greater
attention when linguists discovered that the resemblances in form between Sanskrit (a
35
language spoken in North India) and those of Latin and Greek (languages spoken in
Western Europe) were too close to be attributable to chance. It was the discovery of
similarities between the features of Sanskrit and those of Latin and Greek that led to
the conclusion, by linguists, that the three languages belong to or developed from the
same proto - form or mother language (i.e. INDO -EUROPEAN language).
Through the methodology provided by historical linguistics (i.e. Genetic
comparison and reconstruction), the linguist can reconstruct many features of an
extinct and unattested parent language from which the existing languages could be
presumed to be derived.
MACRO - LINGUISTICS
Those levels of linguistics that are popularly referred to as applied linguistics
are classified, in this book, under a broad heading - 'Macro - linguistics', in contrast to
other levels of linguistics earlier referred to as 'micro - linguistics'.
The development of applied linguistics represents an effort to find practical
applications for 'modern scientific linguistics'. In other words, applied linguistics
could be defined as the application of linguistic theories to other areas of study, for the
purpose of serving language related problems.
The term applied linguistics has two senses. In one sense, the term refers to any
area of inquiry where linguistic methodology, techniques of analysis, findings from
descriptive or theoretical linguistics may be applied to provide solutions to human
problems.
In this case, linguistics could be regarded as a means to an end rather than an
end in itself.
The term, in its second sense, is used in a more specialized sense to refer to the
application of linguistics to LANGUAGE TEACHING, most especially, the teaching of
a second or foreign language (i.e. a language that is not the mother tongue or native
language of the learners).
As rightly expressed by Crystal (1971: 258), each of the fields of applied
linguistics selects its basic information and theoretical framework from the overall
perspective which linguistics provides, and applies it to the clarification of some
general area of human experience.
36
Some of the major aspects of applied linguistics, in which research findings
from modem scientific linguistics have been applied, include the following:
(i) Sociolinguistics,
(ii) Psycholinguistics,
(iii) Linguistics and Language Teaching,
(iv) Lexicography,
(v) Language Planning, etc
Effort is made in this book to briefly define each of the above listed levels of
macro - linguistics as follows:
SOCIOLINGUISTICS
Sociolinguistics is the study of the structure and use of language in its social
and cultural contexts.
It is the study of language in relation to society Stubbs (1976: 19) describes
sociolinguistics as studies of how language is used in different social contexts such as
homes, factories, schools and classrooms.
Simply put, sociolinguistics involves the study of the ways in which language
interacts with society It looks at the social relevance of language as it relates to human
beings in their interpersonal and intergroup interactions. In other words, the concern
of sociolinguistics is the way in which the structure of a language changes in response
to its social functions in different social contexts.
However, it is the belief of some sociolinguists like J.B. Pride that the label 'sociolinguistics' should not be interpreted literally to mean a combination of
sociology and linguistics. That is, it is not appropriate for one to explain
sociolinguistics by merely enumerating the various disciplines which go into its
making. One has to indicate or show how such disciplines relate to each other in the
study of language.
PSYCHOLINGUISTICS
Psycholinguistics studies the interrelationship between psychology and
linguistics and defines the extent to which language mediates or structures thinking. It
describes how language interrelates with memory, perception, intelligence and many
other psychological factors.
37
In a nutshell, psycholinguistics deals with the psychological context of
language. Psycholinguists .are concerned with the task of constructing models that
account for mental processes.
Some of the major sub - divisions or sub - fields of psycholinguistics include,
(i)
Experimental or Developmental Psycholinguistics.
(ii)
Language Pathology.
Experimental or Developmental Psycholinguistics.
This is an aspect of psycholinguistics that deals with the regularities within the
components of language structure and use of language.
That is, a psychological
analysis of normal language development.
Language Pathology
Pathological Psycholinguisties is the asp«ct of psycholinguistics that examines
irregularities within the components of language structure (i.e. Aphasia or language
disorder). Communication may break down as a result of language pathology or
disorder.
Aphasia or language disorder occurs when the part of the brain that is used in
processing language is
damaged.
This may occur as a result of head injuries
sustained during accidents, falls or in certain violent acts Such brain
lead to either production or
communication
damage can
disorder The word -APHASIA is a
medical terminology that is used in describing different types of language
disorder.
That is, inability to produce grammatical and semantic structure. One who suffers
from any form of aphasia is called - aphasic.
TYPES OF APHASIA
There are various types of language disorder. Among the major types are:
(i) Amnesic Aphasia,
(ii) Dementia (Schizophrenia) Aphasia
(iii)Alexia or Dyslexia Aphasia, etc.
Amnesic Aphasia
This involves loss of memory or any form of memory problem. A patient
suffering from amnesic aphasia will find it very difficult to retain any information.
Apart from loss of retentive memory, such a patient will also have distortion in his/her
38
production of utterances. That is, he/she will not he able to process utterances in a
logical sequence.
Dementia Aphasia
People with dementia aphasia do not only have problem with retentive memory
but a total loss of proper speech production. This results in abnormal* verbal
behaviour that may lead to total break down in communication. Since there is lack of
control in speech, utterances produced by such a patient usually consist of
irrelevances.
Alexia/Dyslexia
There are two types of alexia or dyslexia:
(a) Phonological Alexia
(b) Verbal or Surface Alexia
Phonological Alexia / Dyslexia
This is a communication problem resulting from inability of the patient to read
individual letters that make up a word. That is, at the phonological level, people with
this type of language disorder find it very difficult to realize individual phonemes in a
word.
Verbal or Surface Alexia / Dyslexia
People with this kind of language disorder have problems in recognising
individual words as wholes, but they can identify individual letters that make up a
particular word. They often confuse words with similar structure.
THERAPY
For any of the above types of "Aphasia', therapeutic measures must combine
both anatomical and neurolinguistic techniques.
The anatomical approach consists of re-educating the patient and reconditioning of the speech organs affected.
Neurolinguistic approach uses both phonetic and phonemic techniques in
correcting the patient in the area of difficulty.
Generally speaking, investigation of first language or mother tongue
acquisition by children forms an important area of study in psycholinguistics
39
LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE TEACHING
Language teaching is another aspect of human endeavour in which insights
from linguistics can be profitably applied. Apart from knowing how to teach a foreign
language, the language teacher is expected to know how to analyse such a language. It
is in the aspect of analysis that the usefulness of linguistics becomes practically
obvious. In other words, ability to analyse a given language requires knowledge of
some background courses in linguistics.
A knowledge of linguistics enables the linguist to prepare language teaching
materials such as grammars, orthographies, dictionaries, primers, supplementary
readers, textbooks, etc. which are of immense benefit to both the language teacher and
learners.
A knowledge of linguistics helps the language teacher to understand, evaluate
and describe the language he is teaching. Some of the theories of applied linguistics
that are normally employed in language teaching are those theories described in this
book as theories of pedagogic grammar (see pages 22-28 ‘above).
LEXICOGRAPHY
Lexicography is another aspect of applied linguistics. It is the art and science of
compiling dictionaries. The process of compiling a dictionary, for a particular
language, involves identification, description, classification and definition of the
words of that language. All these activities require a good basic linguistic analysis.
One who compiles a dictionary is called - a 'lexicographer'.
A dictionary could be either monolingual ( i.e. written in one language) or
bilingual (i.e. written in two languages). The purpose of writing a dictionary for any
language is to provide useful information on the vocabulary of that language. A
dictionary is generally regarded as a reference book that provides readers with
different types of information on a particular language for which the dictionary is
compiled.
There are different types of dictionaries. They vary in size, volume, and price,
depending on the category of users for which each type is intended (see Sanusi (1994 :
116 -125)).
40
Among the popular types of dictionaries are: the pocket dictionaries, desk
dictionaries and the unabridged version. The unabridged version, as the name
suggests, is usually very hefty and voluminous.
LANGUAGE PLANNING
Language Planning is
generally
regarded
as
a
sub-discipline of
sociolinguistics (Kennedy (1982: 264)).
Das Gupta and Ferguson (1977) define language planning as -a process of
assessing language resources, assigning preferences and functions to one or more
languages and developing their use according to previously determined objectives.
Similarly, Weinstein (1980. 56), in his definition of language planning, states
that:
Language planning is a government-authorised, long-term,
sustained and conscious effort to alter a language's
function in a society for the purpose of solving
communication problems.
In language planning, the determination of language policy is a political
activity. Therefore, language policy decisions are made by politicians or the
government in power and not by professional linguists. Ideally, the task of language
planning is supposed to be delegated to expert planners and professional linguists.
Ironically, this' is often not the case. For instance, reporting a case of total neglect of
professional linguists in language planning activities in Nigeria, Awobuluyi (1979 : 3
- 4) wonders how well any official bodies would be able to advise the government on
so many highly technical issues relating to language in education and nation building,
without direct involvement of professional linguists.
Simply put, it would be erroneous for any government to embark on a serious
and meaningful language planning programme without a conscious effort to employ
the services of professional linguists.
Apart from those mentioned in this book, there are many other levels of
linguistics that may be classified either as micro-linguistics or macro-linguistics. The
major levels of linguistics discussed above can be diagrammatically represented as
given in (figure 2) below.
41
42
As clearly shown in (figure 2) above, linguistics has many areas of study which
have vastly expanded. However, despite the ever - increasing interest in different
aspects of linguistics as a discipline, it is almost impossible for -a linguist to be expert
in every aspect of the discipline. For example, an applied linguist who specializes in
language teaching and learning or socio-linguistics may not necessarily be an expert in
historical linguistics ( the study of the developments in languages across time) nor
does he necessarily know much about psycholinguisties ( the psychological aspects of
language).
Although, the more a linguist knows about all the related aspects of the subject
the better off he is as a linguist. He does not need to be an expert in every aspect of
linguistics. He can only specialize in one or two levels he has chosen as his area(s) of
interest. However, there are some talented individuals who are well - versed in general
linguistics.
43
CHAPTER SIX
LINGUISTICS AS A CAREER
ENTRY REQUIREMENTS
To study linguistics as a course in any of the Nigerian Universities, a candidate
must possess at least five ordinary level credit passes including a good credit pass in
English language, plus a credit pass in one of the three major Nigerian languages (i.e.
Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba), A knowledge of a foreign language like Arabic or French as
well as a flair for languages in general will be an added advantage.
Upon graduation from the University, qualified linguists have the opportunity
of being gainfully employed in many sectors of the economy.
JOB OPPORTUNITIES
Achievement in learning linguistics as a career is many -sided while some
qualified linguists may wish to remain within the teaching profession, others may
search for other prestigious jobs. A qualified and competent linguist can work in any
of the media houses, like the radio, television, newspapers, ere. He/she can also serve
in any of the advertising agencies, either as a secretary or public relations officer
(P.R.O.)
As an expert in language-related issues, the linguist has the opportunity of
being employed as a lexicographer - one who compiles dictionaries, or as a translator
or interpreter.
A professional linguist may be appointed by the government to serve on a
language planning committee ( i.e. a committe charged with the responsibility of
choosing and developing language(s) that will serve as national or official language(s)
in a given country.
The services of a professional linguist are also required in other allied
government projects like the Language Development Centre in Abuja, -the National
Institute for Nigerian Languages, Aba (Abia State), e.t.c.
Apart from being a language teacher, the linguist is in a better position to
prepare language materials for teaching either first or second language. Such materials
44
include orthographies, phonetics manuals, primers, supplementary readers, text-books,
e.t.c.
Since the use of language is involved in almost all human activities, qualified
and competent linguists have the opportunity of being gainfully employed in both the
public and private sectors of the economy.
CONCLUSION
Many people, who do not know, want to know what linguistics is ail about and
who the linguist is. Our aim in this short book is to define linguistics as a course of
study and introduce the linguist as an expert in language-related issues, rather than
being a fluent speaker of many languages.
Effort has been made in this book to highlight the major functions of human
language as a medium of communication The importance of linguistics in the
development of languages and its usefulness in various aspects of human endeavour
have also been stressed- On this note, linguistics is considered as a means to an end.
We are also of the opinion that, considering the relevance of linguistics to
language teaching and learning, language teachers should possess a basic knowledge
of linguistics and (or) applied linguistics in order to have a proper understanding of
both the nature and structure of human languages. This will afford such language
teachers the opportunity of adequate grasp of the grammar of any human language.
• A brief summary of the theories of grammar (formal and pedagogic), that are
used in analysing human languages, is presented in this book. The book has also
examined and classified some of the major levels of linguistics under two main
headings: micro - and macro-linguistics.
Finally, in this concluding chapter, we have tried to present linguistics as a
career- and discuss some job opportunities available to any qualified professional
linguist.
45
NOTES
1
The Rivers Readers Project is a project funded by the Rivers State government
in conjunction with some external agency or agencies. Directed by Professor Kay
Williamson, the project aims at producing primers and other teaching materials that
will make children in the Rivers state of Nigeria literate in their own language before
they proceed to seek literacy in English.
2
Like the Rivers Readers Project, the Itsekiri language project aims at ensuring
initial literacy in the mother tongue for the Itsekiri pupils and effective functional
literacy for the adults. The project is directed by Professor Ayo Bamgbose, a
renowned professional linguist and Nigerian National Merit Award Winner. Unlike
the Rivers Readers Project, the Itsekiri Language Project derives its funds exclusively
from voluntary contribution by the community.
3
For effective teaching and learning of the three aspects of phonetics, there is a
practical need to have a well -equipped standard Ianguage«lab oratory. Some of the
relevant apparatus required in a standard phonetics laboratory include, Camera,
Electro - aerometer, Mingograph, Oscilloscope, Sound spectograph. Tuning fork, e.t.c.
(i)
Cameras - are usually of various sizes. They are used in the language
laboratory to produce both still and moving images along the vocal tract.
(ii)
Electro - aerometer - is a device used for measuring air flow during speech or
breathing. That is, it registers both inspiratory and expiratory air - flow through
the nose and mouth.
(iii)
Mingograph - is otherwise known as ink - recorder. It is a device graphically
representing different speech movements. It can record timing of the muscular
parts of speech organ like the larynx.
(iv) Oscilloscope is an instrument
used
for
observing Oscillation. It helps to
show the graph of 'wave form'
(v)
Sound spectograph -is a device that translate a-
46
sound into a visual
representation of its component frequencies.
(vi) Tuning Fork -is an instrument used for producing sound with perfect uniform
wave from. It has various sizes. Each tuning fork is specially constructed to
vibrate at a specific frequency.
47
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50
RECOMMENDED FURTHER READING
The following recommended books are not necessarily the most significant
publications in linguistics, especially in recent years, however, it is hoped that they
will provide our readers with sufficient background information on different
aspects of linguistics.
Alien, J.P.B. and S. Pit Corder 1975 The Edinburgh Course in Applied Linguistics.
Vol. 2. Oxford. Oxford University Press.
Bach, E.I 974.
Syntactic Theory. New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Inc.
Crystal, D. 1968.
What is Linguistics? London. Arnold.
Crystal, D. 1987.
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge.
Cambridge University Press.
Fishman J. A. 1972. The Sociology of Language. Rowley Mass Newbury House
Fromkin. V. And R. Rod man 1983. An Introduction to Language. New York, Holt.
Rinehart and Winston.
Hyman, L. M. 1975, Phonology: Theory and Analysis. New York, Holt Rinehart
Winston.
Lado, R. 1964. Language Teaching:
- Hill Inc.
A Scientific Approach. New York, Me Grau
Lyons, J 1968. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
Lyons, J. (ed.) 1970. New Horizons in Linguistics. England, Penguin Books Ltd.
Schane, S.A. 1973. Generative Phonology
- Hall. Inc.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, Prentice
Stockwell, R. P. 1977. Foundations of Syntactic Theory. New Jersey,
Cliffs, Prentice - Hall.
Englewood,.
Tomori, S. H. 1977. The Morphology and Syntax
of Present Day_English
An Introduction. London, Ibadan Heinemann Educational B
Englishqoks Ltd.
Trudgill, P. 1974. Sociolinguistics.- England.
51
Penguin Books Ltd.
Wallwork, J. F. 1967 Language and Lingustics. London, Heinemann Educational
Books Ltd.
Wlkins, D. A. 1972.
Linguistics in Language
(Publishers) Ltd.
Yusuf, O. 1992.
Syntactic Analysis. Ilorin. University of llorin. Press.
Yusuf, O. (ed.) 1992. Introduction
Press. 4.
to
Teaching London. Edward Arnold
Linguistics, llorin. University of llorin
52