Introduction
Genetic Engineering (GE) is one branch of biotechnology and
can be applied to animals, fish, trees and plants and other main
techniques include plant genomics and cloning. 1 Biotechnology
uses series of biological processes or enabling technologies involving the practical applications of living organisms or their subcellular components to make or modify commercially important
products, to improve plants and animals or to develop microorganisms for specific uses and services.
Scientists today are applying GE to alter the salient traits of living
organisms, by relocating the basic building blocks of life to create
new varieties of living organisms. The architects of genetically
modified organisms (GMOs) or living modified organisms (LMOs)
argue that the potential of GE would benefit society by, for example, increasing crop yields or improving food quality. Many
scientists, however, warn that GMOs could pose a threat to human health and the environment and many have voiced concern
about the ethical and social implications of GE.2
Humans, for ages, have taken advantage of naturally occurring
genetic variation within a species to selectively breed organisms
with desirable traits. GE, as such, is not the first effort to influence the characteristics of living organisms. Many of the characteristics of domestic animals and agricultural crops have been
developed through such selective breeding. Humans have also
influenced the reproductive behaviours or opportunities of closely
related species that did not cross breed in the wild because of
reproductive or geographic barriers. Cross breeding between
distinct species, either naturally or through human influence, is
1
2
Genomics is the study of gene sequences in living organisms and being able to read and
interpret them. The study of genomics originated in the 1930s and essentially involves
the investigation of structures and functions of various genomes from humans, animals
and plants. Incidentally, DNA was not identified as the genetic material of all living
organisms until 1944.
A total of 449 scientists from 56 countries issued an open letter in September 1999
expressing concerns about GMOs and urging governments to take actions on it. For
details see Annex 1.
known as hybridisation. Humans, for example, have bred two
different species of the grass family, wheat and rye, resulting in
hybrid offspring that have the ruggedness of rye and the high
yield of wheat. Because breeding can only take place between
individuals of the same or closely related species, such breeding
programs confront limits in the genetic combinations they can
make and, therefore, the results they can achieve.
A GMO is created when the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) from
one species is taken and merged into the DNA of another life
form. This is completely different from the age-old cycle of plant
breeding where farmers save seed from plants that exhibit desired traits. Genetic information programmed in DNA determines
an organism's biochemical, anatomical, physiological and, to
some extent, behavioural traits. DNA forms a hereditary code
that is carried in each cell of an organism. The process of genetic modification involves identifying the portions of DNA that are
responsible for a particular trait in one organism, extracting or
copying these DNA sequences, and then introducing them into a
different organism.3 The aim is to change the traits or functions
of the recipient organism, and the result is a GMO.
Scientists have placed genetic information from humans into
mice, and scorpion genes into corn. This genetic mixing is possible because the genetic information of all organisms is carried in
the same DNA codes. If a DNA sequence in a pig is responsible
for the production of a particular animal protein, that sequence
can be introduced into a plant cell's DNA, and the plant cell will
produce the same protein. There are around 100,000 genes in a
mammal. GE can involve moving genes both within and between
species. It is the movement of genes between species which is
of the greatest concern. GMO technology thus gives the ability to
add, subtract, alter or exchange an individual gene or a group of
genes known to influence an individual characteristic. 4
3
4
Either directly or using vectors such as parts of a bacteria or viruses.
The first genetically modified food was approved by the FDA to go to market in 1994.
Calgene, a biotechnology company, modified Flavr Savr, the tomato, using antisense
technology resulting in altered ripening. Traditional tomatoes must be picked from the
GE has produced some successful results in medical and agricultural applications.5 Human DNA sequences have been transplanted into mice, causing the mice to produce components for
human blood needed in medicine. Crop plant strains that have
been developed carry genetic information from bacteria making
plants resistant to herbicides. But these techniques also pose
great ethical and biological dangers, risks, and uncertainties. For
instance, in Mexico GM maize found its way into farms growing
traditional varieties, despite the fact that since 1999, it has been
illegal to plant GM maize. Starlink, a variety of maize not approved for human consumption in the United States, contaminated the food products and maize seeds three years ago. It is still
found in 1 percent of maize samples tested by the US government. Two cases of crops contaminated with maize engineered
to produce pig vaccine were reported by the US Department of
Agriculture in December 2002. In one case, 500,000 bushels of
soybeans worth US$2 million had to be destroyed. In the other
incident, 63 hectares of contaminated maize field had to be
burned.
5
vine while still green in order to maintain their firmness during transport to the supermarket. The tomatoes are then sprayed with ethylene, their natural ripening agent, in
order to turn the tomatoes red. Flavr Savr tomatoes are designed so they can ripen on
the vine longer while maintaining firmer skin, thus producing a fuller flavoured tomato on the supermarket shelves. Public concern surrounded Flavr Savr’s introduction to
the market. Debate raged across North America. How would this change the tomato?
Question raised, had Calgene created a “Frankenfood”? In 1997, the tomato was
pulled from the market. Supporters of the tomato claimed that the company required
specialized transportation equipment, which was not economically feasible for
Calgene. Those opposed to genetically modified foods hailed it as a victory.
Data compiled by the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America show
that of the 371 biotech medicines now undergoing commercial tests, 116 have reached
Phase III clinical trials -- the last step before the U.S. Food and Drug Administration
decides whether they are safe and effective enough to sell to consumers. A record
number of biotech medicines has reached the final stage of clinical trials, positioning
the industry to produce as many products in the next few years as it has during the past
20.