Chapter 5
Denotative meaning and translation studies
Lexical items have both denotative and connotative meanings. The denotative
meaning, also known as the cognitive, propositional, conceptual or literal meaning, is
“that kind of meaning which is fully supported by ordinary semantic conventions”
(Dickins et al, 2002: 52). For example, the denotative meaning of the word ‘window’
refers to a particular kind of aperture in a wall or roof. It would be inaccurate to use
‘window’ to refer to other things than the particular references of the relevant sense of
the word.
1. The use of dictionaries to define meaning
Dictionaries seek to define meaning. However, dictionaries have their own problems.
One of these is that “they impose, by abstraction and crystallization of one or more
core senses, a rigidity of meaning that words do not often show in reality, and partly
because, once words are put into a context, their denotative meanings become more
flexible” (ibid: 52). These two reasons - the rigidity of meaning and the flexibility of
words in contexts - make it difficult for the translator to determine the exact
denotative meaning in any text including the most soberly informative texts.
Intralingually, English shows some forms of semantic equivalence including full
synonymy. For example, ‘my mother’s father’ and ‘my maternal grandfather’ are
synonyms of one another. In other words, in every specific instance of use, ‘my
mother’s father’ and ‘my maternal grandfather’ include and exclude exactly the same
referents (Dickins et al, 2002: 53). However, full synonymy is exceptional, both
intralingually and interlingually.
In his/her attempt to find the closest equivalent to translate the denotative meaning of
a source language item, the translator usually faces difficulty in finding a full target
language synonym. An example which illustrates the difficulty the translator may face
in finding an appropriate equivalent is the English term ‘uncle’ as compared to the
Arabic terms ‫ خال‬and ‫عم‬. In English the term ‘uncle’ has a greater range of meanings
than the Arabic terms ‫ خال‬and ‫عم‬, as ‘uncle’ refers both to a father’s brother and
mother’s brother. The relationship between ‘uncle’ and ‫ خال‬and between ‘uncle’ and ‫عم‬
is known as hyperonymy and hyponymy. According to Dickins et al, hyperonymy or
superordination refers to an expression with a wider, less specific, range of denotative
meaning. Hyponymy on the other hand refers to an expression with a narrow, more
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specific range of denotative meaning. Therefore ‫ خال‬or ‫ عم‬are both hyponyms of the
English term ‘uncle’ (ibid: 55).
2. Translating by a hyponym/ particularizing translation
Translating by a hyponym implies that the target language expression has a
narrower and a more specific denotative meaning than the source language word.
Dickins et al (2002: 56) call translation which involves the use of TT hyponym
particularizing translation or particularization. In translating from English to
Arabic, the target word ‫ خال‬or ‫ عم‬is more specific than the source word ‘uncle’,
adding the particulars not present in the source language expression.
3. Translating by a hyperonym/ generalizing translation
Translating by a hyperonym implies that the target language expression has a
wider and a less specific denotative meaning than the source language word.
Dickins et al (2002: 56) call translation which involves the use of TT hyperonym
generalizing translation or generalization. In translating from Arabic to English,
the target word 'uncle' is more general than the source word ‫ خال‬or ‫ عم‬,omitting the
particulars given by the source language expression.
Another example which shows lexical differences between English and Arabic and
may therefore create lexical translation problems is the lexical item ‘cousin’. In
English ‘cousin’ can have eight different Arabic equivalents:
1. Cousin:
‫ابن العم‬
‘the son of the father’s brother’
2. Cousin: ‫ابنة العم‬
‘the daughter of the father’s brother’
3. Cousin: ‫ابن العمة‬
‘the son of the father’s sister’
4. Cousin: ‫ابنة العمة‬
‘the daughter of the father’s sister’
5. Cousin: ‫‘ ابن الخال‬the son of the mother’s brother’
6. Cousin: ‫ابنة الخال‬
‘the daughter of the mother’s brother’
7. Cousin: ‫ابن الخالة‬
‘the son of the mother’s sister’
8. Cousin: ‫‘ ابنة الخالة‬the daughter of the mother’s sister’
All of the above eight Arabic terms are hyponyms of English ‘cousin’.
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4. Partially overlapping translation
Here the meaning of the ST expression overlaps with that of the TT expression. For
example, if in a given context ‫ أستاذة‬is translated as 'lecturer' not 'teacher', the TT
certainly keeps the reference to someone who instructs. But it also particularizes,
because it adds the specific detail that she works in a university and not in a school; at
the same time it generalizes, because it omits detail of her gender, i.e. the English
word refers to male and female lecturers.
5. Semantic repetition in Arabic
Arabic frequently makes use of repetition of synonyms or near- synonyms, in a way
which is not normally found in English. This kind of repetition is sometimes called
semantic repetition.
A number of techniques can be used to translate Arabic semantic repetition into
English.
a. Merging: The two words in Arabic are merged into one word in English. This
strategy is used when the two Arabic words show no difference in meaning. An
example of merging involves the translation of the Arabic ‫ تدابير صارمة و قاسية‬into
'severe measures'. Here ‫ صارمة و قاسية‬are translated by the English 'severe' (For more
examples, see page 59).
b. Partial grammatical transposition
The phrase ‫ تحلل القيم و األخالقيات‬might be translated as 'the collapse of all moral
values'. Here the two nouns in Arabic have been transposed (replaced) by an
adjective-noun phrase in English. (For more examples, see page 60).
c. Semantic distancing
This technique takes into account the emphatic aspect of semantic repetition.
However, the translator uses words that are slightly different in meaning from those
used in the ST. For example, ‫ كان منظرها يذهشه ويذهله‬can be translated as 'her appearance
had both astonished and alarmed him'. Here the semantic difference between 'astonish'
and 'alarm' is greater than that between ‫ أذهش وأذهل‬. This semantic distancing makes
sure that English prefers using words that are different in meaning rather than having
words with virtually the same meaning. (For more examples, see page 60)
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d. Maintaining the same form of repetition
Like semantic distancing this technique also takes into account the emphatic aspect of
semantic repetition. The repetition in English carries the same emphatic and emotive
force as it does in Arabic. This can be seen in texts that are of legal and religious
nature. For example,
‫ان من حقك علينا الطاعة والثقة الكاملة والطمأنينة الشاملة وعلى هدا بايعنا وعاهدنا‬
'You have the right to our unquestioning obedience, complete trust and total
confidence. This is the oath which we have taken and the pledge which we have
made'.
Here the semantic repetition of ‫ بايعنا‬and ‫ عاهدنا‬is retained in the English , and even
expanded as 'the oath which we have taken' and 'the pledge which we have made'.
(For more examples, see page 61)
The previous discussion has shown that there are semantic differences between
English and Arabic that the translator should be familiar with. The translator should
look for the appropriate target language hyperonym or hyponym when there is no full
target language synonym for a certain language expression.
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