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Augustus’ marble city: Fact or Fiction?
An essay about the significance of Augustus’ statement by Suetonius, that he found a
Rome of brick and left it in marble.
Nowadays when thinking about Augustus there is a particularly positive image of him. Not
only in popular literature or even movies1, but also in academic publications. A clear example
of this is the introduction in David Shotter his book: History sees Augustus Caesar as the first
emperor of Rome, who brought the city and the Empire from the chaos of civil war to a
system of ordered government. Of this overall achievement there is no doubt, for Augustus
provided a firm and stable basis from which sprang the expansion and prosperity of the next
two centuries, and which enabled Rome and the Empire to withstand they waywardness of
many of the emperors who came after Augustus.”2 This is a view that’s for a great deal
influenced by our knowledge of what happened afterwards. Augustus is seen as a breakpoint
in Roman history, not only politically but also culturally. The whole image of Romanitas,
what it means to be Roman, changed just like the manners of visualising this. A excellent
example of this positive image of Augustus is mentioned by art historians N & A Ramage:
“His style and approach became a model for subsequent emperors because he had been able to
create a visual means of demonstrating the benefits he had brought to the Roman populace.
He had also managed to associate himself with great movements and historical figures of the
past and to use the aura attached to them for his own advantage. […] The charisma of
Augustus served as the model and example not only for the Julio-Claudian emperors who
followed him, but, indeed, for centuries to come.”3 However, his contemporaries were also
quite positive about Augustus as a restorer and rebuilder of Rome. Suetonius writes: “aware
that the City was architecturally unworthy of her position as capital of the Roman Empire,
besides being vulnerable to fire and river floods, Augustus so improved her appearance that
he could justifiably boast: ‘I found a Rome of sun-dried bricks; I leave her clothed in marble.’
He also used as much foresight as could have been expected in guarding against future
disasters”.4 This was clearly the how Augustus wanted to be represented as it is quite similar
to the image in the Res Gestae he himself wrote, as a new founder, rebuilder and restorer of
Rome based on the old traditions. However to what extent is this image of Augustus an
1
For example the TV-show Rome of the BBC by B. Heller, J. Milius, and W. J. MacDonald (2005- 2007).
Shotter, D. Augustus Ceasar (Londen 1991) 1.
3
(Roman Art (1995)) 113
4
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (2.28) translated by R. Graves (Londen 1962) 53.
2
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accurate one? Did he really find a Rome in brick and left it in marble? Or was this just an
exaggeration that fitted into his imperial ‘propaganda’5? The goal of this essay is therefore to
examine the significance of Augustus’ statement about finding a Rome of brick and leaving it
in marble. First Suetonius arguments and their accuracy will be discussed together with some
building projects of Augustus. Secondly the context in which we should explain Augustus’
statement will be looked at, and wether this statement is actually related with the reality of
Rome.
Rome’s transformation into a marble city
As stated, the image of Augustus as a builder and restorer of Rome is mentioned everywhere
in his contemporary authors work. After Suetonius made Augustus’ famous statement he
gives a list of buildings and restorations in which he concludes: “He restored ruined or burned
temples, beautifying these and others with the most lavish gifts”.6 In addition the
infrastructure, roads and aqueducts, received special attention: “He improved the approaches
of the City […] at his own expense, and called upon men who had won triumphs to spend
their price money on putting the other main roads in good condition”.7 Furthermore Augustus
himself mentions in the Res Gestae his building program, together with his military victories,
public offices and other positive activities he undertook.8 About the Res Gestae Shotter
writes: “The objective of the Res Gestae was to portray Augustus as a wise, modest and firm
statesman and general under whose protection Rome, Italy and the Empire prospered”.9
Augustus boasted in the Res Gestae: “I rebuilt without any inscription of my own name. I
restored the channels of the aqueducts […] I rebuilt eighty-two temples of the gods, omitting
none which at that time stood in need for repair […] On my own ground I built the temple of
Mars Ultor and the Augustan Forum from the spoils of war.”10 These are just some examples
because he goes on with naming many of his new buildings and restorations. Therefore it
seems clear that his building project was an essential central element in his reign.11 All these
sources endorse the significance of Augustus his statement about his grand scale building
projects, and if they are true there should be several reasons for believing them.
5
With propaganda I mean a neutral word, not the associations we have from it with WWII and the Nazi regime.
Therefore it would be best the see it just like M.P. Charlesworth defined it as “creating of belief.”
6
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (2.29) translated by R. Graves (Londen 1962) 54
7
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (2.30) translated by R. Graves (Londen 1962) 54.
8
Res Gestae Augusti (19-21)
9
Shotter, D. Augustus Ceasar (Londen 1991) 88.
10
Res Gestae Augusti (20-21)
11
Guven, S. ‘Displaying the Res Gestae of Augustus: A Monument of Imperial Image for All’, The Journal of
the Society of Architectural Historians 57 (1998), 30-45.
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The first argument that supports Augustus’ statement is the importance of tradition. In
republican times there was a tradition of building public works by the powerful and rich
Romans, many of them senators or equites. When Augustus became the sole ruler of the
empire, as primus inter pares,
he became the richest and most powerful of them all.
According to tradition he became for that reason responsible for the public space in Rome. In
addition he was also the one that should maintain it. Horace supports this need for rebuilding
by writing: “O Roman, though you do not deserve it, you will pay for the sins of your
ancestors until you restore the temples ad decaying shrines of the gods, and statues ugly with
black smoke.”12 The scale of Augustus’ projects could then simply be explained by the
destruction and chaos the century before had left. Many public buildings, temples and the
infrastructure were partly destroyed or were left unmaintained, as a result of which Augustus
had to play a prominent role in restoring and rebuilding the city. Building the Forum
Augustus was part of this according Suetonius: “He built the forum because the two already in
existence could not deal with the recent great increase in the number of law-suits caused by a
corresponding increase in the population”.13 It seemed to be no more then the duty of
Augustus to restore Rome as the capital of the world.
Except the burden of building all these buildings it also brought an opportunity for
Augustus. The second argument therefore would be his ideological program of Romanitas.
New buildings were a perfect way to get the attention of every Roman citizen and it was an
ideal manner to project the prosperity of Rome as centre of the world. The earlier mentioned
expansion of the forum, by building the Forum of Augustus, is a good example as something
that was described necessary, but actually also had ideological advantages. An extra element
for choosing buildings and images instead of texts was the fact that most Romans were
illiterate and couldn’t read. Therefore the whole experience in a city was for the most Romans
not textual, but visual. S. Güven describes this too: “In the ancient world the process of
remembering words, ideas, or objects was actually a visual one”.14 This would be an extra
reason why especially buildings had a central role in Augustus’ ‘imperial’ policy. 15
Some old republican traditions also conflicted with the image Augustus wanted to
create of himself and the Roman empire and therefore they became less common. An example
of one of these traditions is the triumph, usually granted by the senate after a successful battle.
12
Horace Book 3 no.6 in: Reinhoud M, The Golden Age of Augustus (1978) 120.
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (2.29) translated by R. Graves (Londen 1962) 54.
14
Guven, S. ‘Displaying the Res Gestae of Augustus: A Monument of Imperial Image for All’, The Journal of
the Society of Architectural Historians 57 (1998) 38.
15
Favro, D. G. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (Cambridge, 1996) 1-24.
Hekster, O. ´Romeinse keizers. De macht van het imago´ (Amsterdam, 2010).
13
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Augustus knew that the triumph was an important part of Roman society, because it was an
unbroken series of successful Roman battles from the mythical foundation under Romulus to
his own time. For that reason he could not let successful generals have triumphs. Their
popularity was a threat for himself, and so the frequency of the triumph changed dramatically.
Only the emperor, or in some cases his closest family, could get a triumph, but even they
didn’t get a triumph often.16 Mary Beard explains this by writing that the refusal of a triumph
could give more appreciating of the people than accepting the triumph did. Moreover a
triumph also had its negative side: “There was also an ambivalence of the triumph because
there ceremonials courted humiliation and danger as much as glory and success.” 17 Therefore
Beard argues that: “It was far safer to keep triumphical performance on the streets to a
minimum while monumentalizing the ritual in marble, bronze and ink”.18 So therefore it
would be safer to display power and influence on building projects.
The last argument that underscores the image of Augustus is the fact that in the age of
Augustus, for the first time in history, marble became available in larger quantities and high
quality near the city itself. According to Diana Kleiner: “Augustus builds Rome as a marble
city in the model of ancient Greece. It's a rhetorical exaggeration, but he wasn't far off the
mark, he really created a city of marble”.19 Kleiner argues that in earlier periods the Romans
made buildings of materials that looked like marble, because real marble was too expensive.20
When the marble quarries at Luna, on the northwest coast of Italy, were opened, the
production of marble became cheaper. The main reason for this was the unproblematic and
cheap transport by boat from Luna to Ostia. Therefore more marble could be used and it also
became more common in building projects.21
It becomes understandable why building became just so important in the policy of Augustus.
To get a grip on all his new buildings and restorations they are all mentioned on map 1. It is
an impressive list of which two examples will be mentioned to discuss their importance and to
look at the reality in Rome.
16
Beard, M. The Roman Triumph (Cambridge, Mass. & London, 2007).
Beard, M. The Roman Triumph (Cambridge, Mass. & London, 2007) 301.
18
Beard, M. The Roman Triumph (Cambridge, Mass. & London, 2007) 301.
19
Lecture of Yale by prof.dr. Diana Kleiner: http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/from-brick-tomarble-augustus-assembles-rome-6777/ (15-02-2011)
20
Romans created fake marble by making faux marble walls, also know as the First Pompeian Style, that were
basically made out of tufa or travertine and then stuccoed them over with white to let them look like marble.
Real marble could be imported from other parts of the empire, for example Greece, however this was very
expensive and not possible for large scale building projects.
21
Lecture of Yale University by prof.dr. Diana Kleiner: http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/frombrick-to-marble-augustus-assembles-rome-6777/ (15-02-2011)
17
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The first example, the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Avenging Mars that
illustrates the grandeur of his building projects. According to the sources it was built because
“Augustus had vowed to build the Temple of Mars during the Philippi campaign of vengeance
against Julius Caesar’s assassins”22 but he could only built it after Mark Antony was defeated.
It was built on Augustus’ own land and was next to the Forum of Julius Caesar. It follows the
general plan of a forum, as can be seen in the attachment. It was one of the greatest complexes
produced in this period and therefore it also illustrates the main points of Augustan ideology,
and according to N. Hannestad it “moreover shows how Augustus stands out in this area, too,
as the great innovator.”23 This is mainly done by the images of Venus, Mars, Romulus that all
have to do with the decent of Augustus himself and his virtus, pietas and iustitia. It is
therefore also a monument of his victories, that moreover serves as proof for his Golden Age
were all could live in concordia. This is all reinforced by the use of Greek models of the fifth
century BCE when Athens was in her Golden Age. By constructing the forum in this way it
really looked like a new age had begun, all under Augustus reign. 24
The second example of Augustus’ marble buildings is the Ara Pacis Augustae. It was
built on the Campus Martius and can be seen as a mix of Greek and Roman art fully built out
of the marble of Luna just outside the pomerium. The whole building itself gives a clear
message of peace that is achieved under Augustus reign. All the iconography supports this.
The plants, Tellus as god of fertility, Roma seated on her weapons, Romulus, Remus, Aeneas
scarifying and the imperial family even with their children are all symbols of the
consequences of the peace, a new era of prosperity. On the images of the Ara Pacis Augustus
is portrayed as humble and he is scarifying, it therefore showed the virtues pietas and pius.
However the surroundings especially emphasise the cause of the peace and prosperity,
Augustus himself. On the images of the Ara Pacis in the attachment its position in the larger
complex becomes clear. The marble sundial works as a unifying element in the whole
complex with Augustus’ Mausoleum and an Egyptian obelisk. The whole complex was an
ideological one of time. A new prosperous time had begun, one that would last.25
22
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (2.29) translated by R. Graves (Londen 1962) 54.
Hannestad, N. Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Århus, 1986) 83.
24
Hannestad, N. Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Århus, 1986) 82-90.
25
Castriota, D. The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Imagery of Abundance in later Greek and Early Roman
Imperial Art (Princeton, 1995) 3-12, 125-174.
Hannestad, N. Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Århus, 1986) 62-74.
Zanker, P. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Ann Arbor, 1988) 1-4, 167-183.
23
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Seeing the image of the city of marble in it’s context
It is clear that the statement of Augustus wasn’t based on pure fantasy but that it had a
realistic background. Nevertheless it is important to see the quotation of Suetonius in its
context. Augustus wanted to create an image of himself as the saviour of the Roman people
and a new founder of Rome that was the cause of a new Golden Age of peace. In this contexts
a city of marble refers to several things that are far more ideological then just building
something. Therefore his statement should be seen more like ‘propaganda’.26 This was all
reinforced through the different styles used by Augustus for his building projects. He made a
mix of Hellenistic and Greek art and architecture that changed the city. A lot of it was based
on the old Hellenistic palaces that were all made from marble and on Greek buildings,
especially temples.27 With the incorporation of these styles Rome changed profoundly. The
question however still is: did Rome look as bad as Augustus stated? Or does he exaggerate
this to emphasise all his deeds so it would support his ideological ‘propaganda’?
In map 2 all the important buildings before Augustus’ reign are mentioned and it is
clear that Augustus made it look far worse then it was in reality. Augustus his main building
projects were in Campus Martius and the centre of Rome was only restored. Several important
works were already there that challenge his view of the city of Rome he found in brick. Firstly
several republican temples and buildings were already in the main centre of Rome as can be
seen on the map of the Capitoline hill, for example the Temple of Jupiter Maximus. Secondly
the great general Pompey Magnus also built many building including his famous theatre. This
was the first theatre of stone because he managed to built it as the stairs to a temple.28 Julius
Caesar is a third example of someone that created great buildings before the Augustan era. He
also had many plans for building projects however he couldn’t complete most of them
because he was murdered. Still his Forum Iulium is a work that can’t be ignored, with already
some Greek influences. He was also the first that made such a large temple for his family, the
Temple of Venus Genetrix. R.B. Ulrich writes: “The Forum of Julius Caesar stands as a
unique monument of a unique period in Roman history.”29 Furthermore the building projects
of Augustus have to be seen in perspective of the emperors that came after him. He really
didn’t leave the whole city in marble and, just like Augustus, several emperors restored the
26
27
28
Zanker, P. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Ann Arbor, 1988) 1-4.
D’Ambra, E. Roman Art (Cambridge, 1998) 21-37.
Favro, D. G. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (Cambridge, 1996).
Ulrich, R. B. ‘Julius Caesar and the Creation of the Forum Iulium’, American Journal of Archaeology 97
(1993) 80.
29
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city after conflicts and built grandiose new buildings. An example of this is the Forum of
Trajan that is even larger then Augustus his own forum.30
Conclusion
Concluding one could say that the answer to the questions in the introduction should be in
twofold. First Augustus’ statement recorded by Suetonius is certainly significant. It was
clearly important for Augustus to build and restore buildings. The people of Rome expected it
from him, but also because Augustus could use these buildings for his own interests. What's
more, through the new marble quarries marble could be used more than ever before, which
also makes his statement realistic as is shown by some examples of his building projects.
Secondly Augustus’ statement should be seen in its context and therefore it also should be
seen as an ideological and propagandist statement. He wanted to be pictured as the savoir and
restorer of Roman moral and rebuilding the city itself was necessary to create this picture. An
important part that supported this images was the incorporation of new Greek/Hellenistic art
models that transformed the whole city. Therefore Augustus statement should be nuanced.
Rome was already a world leading city full of massive buildings before his reign, and also
after Augustus the city would be improved by later emperors. However because of the
memory most people still have of him, I can only say that he achieved his goal. Augustus still
remains the person that is remembered as the one that ‘found a Rome of sun-dried bricks; and
left her clothed in marble’ despite of the marginal comments that can be made on his
statement.
30
Packer, J. E. The Forum of Trajan in Rome: A Study of the Monuments in Brief (Berkeley and London, 2001)
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Attachments
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Map 1: Map of Rome AD 14 31
31
Favro, D. G. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (Cambridge, 1996) 278.
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Map 2: Map of Rome 52 BCE 32
32
Favro, D. G. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (Cambridge, 1996) 26.
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Map 3: Plan of Capitoline Hill33
33
Favro, D. G. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (Cambridge, 1996) 27.
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Forum Augustus 34
34
http://augustanrome.pbworks.com/f/1208023517/forum%20augustus.jpg (25-02-2011)
http://cloacamaxima1.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/foro_di_augusto_large.jpg (25-02-2011)
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Ara Pacis 35
35
Pictures on Moodle (25-02-2011)
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Theatre of Pompey36
36
http://3dvisa.cch.kcl.ac.uk/project81_fig1.jpg (25-02-2011)
http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/acans/caesar/images-coins/3DVisualisation-theatre-of-Pompey.jpg
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Forum Julii37
Ulrich, R.B, ‘Julius Caesar and the Creation of the Forum Iulium’ in: American Journal of Archeology (1993)
52,63.
37
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Imperial Fora:38
38
http://en.mercatiditraiano.it/var/museicivici/storage/images/musei/mercati_di_traiano/sede/area_archeologica/6
66-3-ita-IT/area_archeologica_large.jpg (25-02-2011)
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Bibliography:
Beard, M. The Roman Triumph (Cambridge, Mass. & London, 2007)
Castriota, D. The Ara Pacis Augustae and the Imagery of Abundance in later Greek and Early
Roman Imperial Art (Princeton, 1995).
D’Ambra, E. Roman Art (Cambridge, 1998)
Elsner, J. Imperial Rome and Christian Triumph: The Art of the Roman Empire 100-450
(Oxford, 1998)
Favro, D. G. The Urban Image of Augustan Rome (Cambridge, 1996)
Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, De vita Caesarum (2.29) translated by R. Graves (Londen 1962)
Guven, S. ‘Displaying the Res Gestae of Augustus: A Monument of Imperial Image for All’,
The Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 57 (1998), 30-45.
Hannestad, N. Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Århus, 1986)
Hekster, O. ´Romeinse keizers. De macht van het imago´ (Amsterdam, 2010).
Packer, J. E. The Forum of Trajan in Rome: A Study of the Monuments in Brief (Berkeley and
London, 2001)
Reinhoud M, The Golden Age of Augustus (1978)
Res Gestae Augusti
Shotter, D. Augustus Ceasar (Londen 1991).
Ulrich, R. B. ‘Julius Caesar and the Creation of the Forum Iulium’, American Journal of
Archaeology 97 (1993), 49-80.
Zanker, P. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Ann Arbor, 1988)
Websites:
http://www.cosmolearning.com/video-lectures/from-brick-to-marble-augustus-assemblesrome-6777/ (15-02-2011)
http://augustanrome.pbworks.com/f/1208023517/forum%20augustus.jpg (25-02-2011)
http://cloacamaxima1.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/foro_di_augusto_large.jpg (25-02-2011)
http://3dvisa.cch.kcl.ac.uk/project81_fig1.jpg (25-02-2011)
http://www.humanities.mq.edu.au/acans/caesar/images-coins/3DVisualisation-theatre-ofPompey.jpg (25-02-2011)
http://en.mercatiditraiano.it/var/museicivici/storage/images/musei/mercati_di_traiano/sede/are
a_archeologica/666-3-ita-IT/area_archeologica_large.jpg (25-02-2011)