HAP Final Exam Study Guide: Review old tests and quizzes!
Day 1 Test
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology?
Anatomy = Structure
Physiology = Function
Know directional terms and be able to use them properly
Medial/lateral = Toward the midline/Away from the midline
Proximal/distal = Arms and Legs ONLY Toward the point of attachment/Away from the point of attachment
Superior/inferior = Toward the top of the body/Toward the feet
Anterior/posterior = Toward the front of the body (ventral)/Toward the back of the body (dorsal)
Superficial/deep = Toward the surface/Away from the surface
What is homeostasis? Ability to maintain balance in the body as situations change.
What is a deficit or defect in homeostasis called? Disease
Negative and Positive Feedback
Negative Feedback reverses the initial stimulus
Positive Feedback exaggerates the initial stimulus
The chemical behavior of an atom is determined by:
The number of outer shell electrons
Structure of an atom including protons, neutrons, electrons
Protons have a positive charge and are found in the nucleus, Electrons have a negative charge and orbit the nucleus,
Neutrons have no charge and are found in the nucleus
Why do atoms make bonds?
To fill their outer shells
Provide examples of inorganic/organic compounds.
Inorganic compounds lack carbon and are relatively small; Example: Water, ions
Organic compounds contain carbon and are very large in comparison to inorganic compounds; Ex: Proteins, Carbs,
Lipids, Nucleic acids
What are the 4 main classification of organic macromolecules and their basic functions?
Carbohydrates: monomer – monosaccharides/glucose
Proteins: monomer – amino acids
Lipids: monomer – none
Nucleic acids: monomer – nucleotide
function – energy
function – variety
function – cell membrane structure, energy, hormones
function – DNA: code for proteins, RNA: make proteins,
ATP: energy conversion
What is a monomer/polymer? What is significant about monomers and polymers?
Monomer is a building block; Polymer is a long chain. The idea is that you break down polymers to get monomers to
make more polymers.
What are the biological functions of proteins?
STATEMENT: Enzymes speed up chemical reactions without being consumed during the reaction. All
enzymes are proteins and act as catalysts.
All enzymes are proteins, hormone function, structure, clot formation
Describe the segments of the Cell Cycle Clock and their functions in maintaining the cell life cycle.
G1 and G2 = growth and work; S = DNA replication; M = mitosis and cytokinesis; G0 = Quiescence = WORK
What are the four main tissue types and their functions? Be specific with muscles and some connective tissues.
Epithelial = lines internal and external body cavities
Connective = variety of functions/broadest category
Muscle = movement
Nervous = move electrical impulses
What are the 4 main structural categories of bones? Provide an example of a bone in each category.
Long = femur, radius, phalanges
Short = carpals and tarsals
Flat = parietal and sternum
Irregular = vertebrae, mandible
Fontanels allow for what to occur to the skull?
Flexibility for childbirth and expansion for brain growth
What makes muscle fibers (cells) different from other body cells?
Multinucleated; undergoes mitosis but not cytokinesis; elongated
What ingredients are necessary for normal muscle contraction to occur?
Oxygen, glucose, electrolytes, water, and a good blood supply
What are the 3 main varieties of muscle tissue?
Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac
As muscles use energy reserves and begin to produce lactic acid, the muscle has entered a state of:
fatigue
The nervous system communicates with the muscle fiber at this location:
Neuromuscular junction
The functional unit of the skeletal muscle is known as the:
Sarcomere – from Z-line to Z-line
The collagen bundles at the end of the skeletal muscle that attaches to bone are the:
tendon
What are the origin and insertion of each muscle referring to?
Origin is the unmoving anchor
Insertion is on the moving bone
STATEMENT: Understand the rules for naming muscles that allow for ease in identification.
What is the basic functional unit of the nervous system?
Neuron
Know the basic structure of a typical neuron.
Dendrite, cell body, axon, synapse (gap)
Know the 4 main structural classification of neurons based on presence/absence of dendrite(s) and axon.
Unipolar – one continuous dendrite-axon extension and cell body off to the side
Bipolar – one dendrite and one axon with cell body in the center
Multipolar –several dendrites and one long axon with cell body in the center
Anaxonic – several dendrites and one axon that all look the same around a central cell body
location – senses for touch
location – sight, smell, hearing
location – brain for networks
location – brain for networks
Know where each type of neuron is most commonly found according to function. See above
What neuron type is most common in the CNS?
Multipolar – good at forming networks
What are the types of neuroglia found in the CNS?
Astrocytes – scaffolds
Microglia – white blood cells/phagocytes
Oligodendrocytes – insulators
Ependymal cells –make CSF
The most common neuroglia found in the CNS are:
astrocytes
What is the difference between the CNS and PNS?
CNS = Central nervous system – control center
PNS – Peripheral nervous system – receptors and effectors
What is the difference between the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system?
Sympathetic – flight or flight response
Parasympathetic – resting and digesting response
Know the main anatomical regions and structures of the eye.
The central opening in the eye that allows light to enter: pupil
The portion of the eye that contains pigment: iris
The cornea is the transparent outer covering of the eye.
How can we classify vision problems? Know the following terms:
Emmetropia: perfect vision
Myopia: near-sighted
Hyperopia: far-sighted
Presbyopia: aging eyes
Glaucoma: increased intraocular pressure
Astigmatism: abnormality of the cornea
Day 2 Test
What does endocrine mean? Exocrine?
Endocrine releases substance into blood or body fluid; stays inside the body
Exocrine release substance into structure that will exit the body
STATEMENT: Know the difference between the function of steroid and protein hormones.
Which can enter the cell and nuclear membrane? Which must use the second messenger system? Which directs
gene activation? Why is there a difference in their functions?
Describe the term hypersecretion and hyposecretion. Hyper = too much
Hypo = too little
How are hormones stimulated to be released?
Neural stimulation of a hormone? Release triggered by the nervous system
Humoral stimulation of a hormone? Release triggered by blood levels of substances
Hormonal stimulation of a hormone? Release triggered by the release of another (trophic) hormone
What 4 hormones are necessary for reproduction to occur?
FSH, LH, estrogen, and testosterone
What is/are the functions of the reproductive system?
To produce offspring
On average, how many eggs are found in the ovaries of a newborn female?
About 100,000 eggs total
What is the average sperm count/5 mL of fluid?
About 300 million sperm
How many chromosomes are found in somatic (body) cells of humans?/Gametes?
Somatic chromosome # = 23 pairs/46 total
Gamete = 23 single chromosomes
What structure transports the ovum to the uterus?
Fallopian tube
In what order of structures do the sperm travel to exit the male reproductive tract?
Epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra
Where should fertilization of an egg normally occur?
Fertilization should occur in the fallopian tube
What is an ectopic pregnancy?
Implantation of a fertilized egg outside of the uterus
Know the composition of whole blood.
Whole blood is made of plasma, buffy coat, and packed red cells
Know the functions of each formed element in blood.
Erythrocytes are red blood cells that transport oxygen
Thrombocytes are platelets that help form clots
Leukocytes are white blood cells that perform immune functions
What products can be found dissolved in plasma?
Water, nutrients, wastes, clotting factors, electrolytes, enzymes, hormones
What hormone regulates blood cell production?
erythropoetin
Describe how blood transfusions result in DIC (disseminated intravascular coagulation).
Antibodies in the patient plasma bind to antigens on the surface of the donates RBC’s causing the blood to form clots
Describe the appearance of A, B, and Rh antigens on the red cell surface.
A blood has A antigens on the RBC surface and B antibodies in the plasma
B blood has B antigens on the RBC surface and A antibodies in the plasma
AB blood has A and B antigens on the RBC surface and no antibodies in plasma
O blood lack A and B antigens on the RBC surface and both A and B antibodies in plasma
Where does blood cell production take place?
Bone marrow
Stem cell production pathway for blood cell lines
Hemocytoblast? Forms all blood cells
Lymphoid cell line? Forms lymphocytes and monocytes
Myeloid cell line? Forms Erythrocytes, platelets, neutrophils, Eosinophils, and Basophils
What is Hemostasis? Stoppage of blood flow
What are the phases of Hemostasis? Vascular spasm, platelets clot formation, fibrin clot formation
Be able to identify chambers of heart, including left vs. right and oxygen-rich vs. oxygen-poor.
Know valves between chambers (AV valves) and valves between ventricles and arteries (SLV’s) and where the
valves/arteries lead when exiting the ventricles.
Describe systemic and pulmonary circulation.
Systemic – left ventricle to body cells to right atrium
Pulmonary – right ventricle to lungs to left atrium
Differences between arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
Arteries leave the heart and are large, they get smaller and become arterioles, capillaries are the smallest and allow for
exchange of gases and nutrients, venules collect blood from capillaries and become large veins that enter the heart
Describe fetal circulation in relation to circulation after birth.
Important structures:
Foramen ovale: between L and R atrium; allows blood to bypass the lungs since non-functional
Ductus arteriosus: between pulmonary trunk and L atrium; allows blood to bypass the heart
What factors can influence heart rate and cardiac output?
Diet, age, exercise, genetics, environment
What factors influence blood pressure?
Same
What are the 2 main functions of the respiratory system?
Gas exchange and to warm, moisten, and filter air as it enters the lungs
What are tonsils? What is their function? Where are they located?
Tonsils are lymph nodes that filter impurities from the blood and protect/guard the sinuses and lungs
Explain the processes of breathing, external, and internal respiration.
Breathing is the movement of gases into and out of the lungs
External respiration is movement of gases between the lungs and the blood
Internal respiration is the movement of gases between the blood and body cells