Marja Kallasmaa (Tallinn, Estonia)
Name Studies in Estonia
Although there are already two surveys beginning with the early days of Estonian onomastic studies (J. SIMM 1975, M. KALLASMAA 1995b), it seems
proper not to miss the period here either.
1. First studies
1.1. The Learned Estonian Society
The Baltic countries witnessed a considerable interest in place names in the
first half of the 19th century. Before that a few lists of Estonian place names
had been compiled and published by AUGUST WILHELM HUPEL in “Topographische Nachrichten I–III”, Riga 1774–1782. In 1841 the Learned Estonian Society invited pastors to put down place names and send them to the
Society. The appeal was repeated in 1868, 1876 and 1879. The pastors remained passive, but in 1888 a list of Estonian estate and parsonage names
was submitted by K. KÜGELGEN. At their meetings the Baltic-German historians belonging to the Society discussed the possible etymologies of some
Estonian place names, also touching upon their origin.
In 1907 W. SCHLÜTER suggested that a full inventory be compiled of the
place names used in the territory inhabited by Estonians. Although the collections of the Learned Estonian Society are not significant, the Society
served as a hotbed for two predecessors of the Estonian toponymy. Those
were MIHKEL WESKE and JAKOB HURT. M. WESKE discussed the names on
-vere (1877), J. HURT dealt with those on -st (1876) and their possible genesis. Their conclusions sound quite acceptable. According to HURT, the origin
of the Estonian names on -ste lies in tribal names on -ne, which in place
names appear in the genitive plural form.
Toponymic studies proper did not, however, start in Estonia until the early
20th century.
1.2. Danish Taxation list
For Northern Estonia we have lists of village names compiled by the monks
who baptised Estonians during the 13th century Danish conquests. The Estonian place names reported in the so-called Liber Census Daniae (LCD) have
constantly served material for research and discussion for both toponymists
and historians ever since the Baltic Germans (G. M. KNÜPPFER, C. PAUCKER,
J. A. SCHIRREN. W. SCHLÜTER, Fr. G. V. BUNGE). The place names of LCD
are also addressed in the first longer study of Estonian place names, pro-
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duced by JAAN JÕGEVER in 1913: “Mis kõnelevad Liber Census Daniae
(Daani hindamise raamatu) kohanimed Eesti rahva minevikust” (What can
the place names in Liber Census Daniae [Danish Taxation List] tell us about
the history of the Estonian people). The pastor and folklorist MATTIAS JOHANN EISEN discussed the same subject (the eloquence of LCD place names
of the Estonian people’s history) in his book “Daani hindamise raamat. Liber Census Daniae” (Danish Taxation List. Liber Census Daniae) published
in 1920, and the historian A. WESTRÉN-DOLL touched upon it in the issue
1921: “Die nordestnishe Siedlung” (North-Estonian settlement), as well as
did some other authors. In 1933 a fundamental study called “Die Estlandliste
der Liber Census Daniae” (The Estonian lists of Liber Census Daniae) was
published. Its author PAUL JOHANSEN was the Head of Tallinn City Archives. For him place names served as basis for a whole historical hypothesis. But he also presents a phonetic analysis of the names, their alternative
spellings as well as modern forms, and if possible, also their etymologies.
As a result his book is rich enough in linguistic information to serve as a
welcome handbook for every Estonian toponymist.
In addition, toponymy was one of the interests of the above-mentioned historian A. WESTRÉN-DOLL. His articles “Beiträge zur estnischen Ortsnamenund Sprachforschung” (Contributions to Estonian toponymy and linguistics;
1921), WESTRÉN-DOLL 1922 on the place names on -vere, and “Grundwörter in estnishen Siedlungsnamen” (Base words in Estonian place names;
1927) on the base words of the Estonian place names lay the foundation to
the studying of the non-initial components of those names.
1.3. The contribution of M. J. Eisen
During the first period of Estonian independence (1918–1940) attention was
paid mainly to some individual names. At the same time foundation was laid
to place-name collection. The Academic Mother Tongue Society provided
grants for students to collect place names all over the country. Their “harvest” makes up the kernel of the present-day collection of place names kept
at the Dialect Archives of the Institute of the Estonian Language. M. J. EISEN collected a considerable number of place names, which, however, he
could not thoroughly analyse himself. His collection is kept at the Estonian
Literary Museum in Tartu. M. J. EISEN has offered some etymologies: Lalli
(1917), Laiuse (1919), Põldsamaa (1921b), Pedja (1923), Pilkuse (1924a),
Türi (1927), Uderna (1929), Norra (1931) etc., and reviewed a few types of
names, like the Lapi-names (lapi ‘Lappish’): “Lapi Eestis” (Lapi in Estonia;
1913), Soome-names (soome ‘Finnish’): “Soome Eestis” (Soome in Estonia;
1914), Läti-names (läti ‘Latvian, Lettish’): “Läti jäljed Eestis” (Traces of
Läti in Estonia; 1921a) in Estonia. The work was carried on by Paul Ariste
(1969).
Name Studies in Estonia
M. J. EISEN has also studied some German names transferred to Estonia:
“Saksamaalised kohanimed Eestis” (Place names transferred from Germany
to Estonia; 1926, added to by PRANTS 1927), and even some such place
names of Estonian origin that have survived in the German form, yet are not
to be found in Estonian any more: “Eesti keeles kadunud, saksa keeles
püsinud eestikeelsed kohanimed” (The Estonian place names disappeared
from Estonian, but surviving in German; EISEN 1924b). Notably, from the
13th up to the early 20th century most of the upper class in Estonia was German-speaking. The German names they used for the local estates and townships were not in use among the Estonians. Those names could of course, be
of a German origin, but it could also happen that they had absorbed an old
Estonian name of the place (the name of a village replaced by the estate, or
some other Estonian word). There was, for example, an estate at the parish
of Püha on the Isle of Saaremaa, the German name of which, Sall, originates
in the Estonian word salu ‘grove’. At the same time there is an estate called
Kaali in Estonian after its owner’s German family name Gahlen.
1.4. The Swedes in Estonia
M. J. EISEN introduced the subject of Swedish settlement and Swedish place
names into Estonian onomastics (EISEN 1922) by presenting names on Rootsi (rootsi ‘Swedish’). Thereby he started a line of research, which was developed later by Professors PAUL ARISTE and PER WIESELGREN from Tartu
University, and PAUL JOHANSEN. In his etymological article on the place
names of the Reigi and Pühalepa parishes on the Isle of Hiiumaa PAUL
ARISTE also deals with some Swedish place names pointing out the Estonian
substratum in them (1938). A few names are of Estonian-Swedish origin,
though, like Ankergrund. Although some of the etymologies suggested by
PAUL ARISTE have been called into question, the principal points of the article have not lost their value. Being a well-rounded linguist with an expert
knowledge of many languages, both cognate and others, PAUL ARISTE has
found likely etymologies for a few opaque Estonian place names, such as
Pandivere, Pandja, Pandju, cf. the Ersan pando or the Mokshan panda ‘hill’
(1957a), Mahtra (1957b) Cozzo (1960), yet for him place names remained a
side-line.
The two monographs by PER WIESELGREN, however, are exclusively dedicated to the Swedish settlement and Swedish place names in Estonia. One of
them discusses eastern Harjumaa together with Naissaar (later, HEINO GUSTAVSON [1978a] has added to the toponymy of the Isle of Naissaar in Northern Estonia), while the other addresses Vormsi, the fourth biggest WestEstonian island, which was inhabited by Swedes until World War II.
Abroad, PAUL JOHANSEN has published a study on the Swedish settlement in
Estonia with place names discussed as well: “Nordische Mission, Revals
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Gründung und die Schwedensiedlung in Estland” (The Nordic mission, the
foundation of Reval, and the Swedish settlement in Estonia; 1951).
1.5. Julius Mägiste
Place names have also inspired the great Estonian linguist JULIUS MÄGISTE
to produce such articles as “Eesti kubjas, sm kupjas, Lätimaa Henriku
Gubbesele” (The Estonian kubjas, Fin kupjas, the Gubbesele of Henry of
Livonia; 1966b), “Eesti väin ‘Sund, Meerenge’, soome väylä ja
Väinämöinen” (The Estonian väin ‘strait, sound’, Finnish väylä and
Väinämöinen; 1966a), “Über die ältesten Aufzeichnungen des Estnischen
und Livischen” (On the earliest written records of Estonian and Livonian;
1967), and “Viron paikannimistä Põlva ja 1200-luvun Walgatabalwe” (The
Estonian place name Põlva and the 1200-years-old Walgatabalwe; 1970). In
the last mentioned article J. MÄGISTE argues against LAURI KETTUNEN’s
opinion that the Walgatabalve occurring in the Heinrici Chronicon Lyvoniae
could be associated with the parish and township name Põlva. MÄGISTE
supports the guess that Walgatabalve could rather have been situated in the
parish of Vastseliina, where a village and mill called Valge(n)palo still existed in the 16th–17th centuries. The name has still remained a tricky one to
localise. Beside Põlva it has been suggested to have once belonged to the
town of Valga, or even to the whole parish. ENN ERNITS (1978) brings some
arguments for Valga.
***
For onomastic theory most Estonian linguists have hitherto been looking up
to Finland and Sweden, less to Germany and Russia. Most studies deal with
individual names. Until most recently the population of Estonian place
names has been addressed as a homogeneous set, as the collections available
deny any other approach. As for general theory, the principles have been
taken over from abroad rather than devised at home. One of the reasons is
the fact that the Estonian name collections have not been sufficiently studied
yet.
2. Monographs and articles addressing the whole Estonian territory
The book “Etymologishe Untersuchung über estnishe Ortsnamen” (An etymological study of Estonian place names) by LAURI KETTUNEN (1955) has
become a desktop manual for any student of Estonian toponymy. Despite the
fact that not all his etymologies are reliable, the book is a bulky source of
relevant information. The book is based on the place-name collection of M.
J. EISEN.
Name Studies in Estonia
2.1. Estate names
Good source material can be found in “Eesti ala mõisate nimestik” (List of
estates situated on the Estonian territory; 1981). This publication contains
Estonian estate names as used in different languages. The list was compiled
by The Estonian Historical Archives to provide a handy source of reference
to anybody interested either in the archive materials or in earlier German
and Russian publications. The old directories previously used either missed
the Estonian names of the estates, or gave them with numerous orthographic
mistakes. The name lists of the directories were also incomplete (particularly
as for dairy farms), as only those estates were included that existed at the
moment. “Eesti ala mõisate nimestik” (List of estates on the Estonian territory) contains a basic list with the German names of the estates presented in
alphabetical order and provided with some additional data on the estates, as
well as an Estonian-German name list. The basic list represents a table including the German name, Estonian name, country, parish, and notes. The
notes usually concern the year of estate foundation and name changes, if
any. Two revised editions of the book have hitherto been published: “Eesti
ala mõisate nimestik” (List of estates on the Estonian territory; 1984), “Eesti
mõisad” (Estonian estates; 1994).
2.2. Farm names
The Estonian farm names have been discussed in the monograph “Talunimed läbi aegade” (Farm names throughout ages; 1995) by the ethnographer
GEA TROSKA. Unlike village names that attracted the historians’ attention in
the 19th century, farm names have remained more in shadow. Both the Baltic-German and Estonian scholars have disputed, whether the surnames preceding the first names in historical documents should be treated as place
(farm) names or personal names. The concrete decision has depended on the
researcher’s opinion as well as on the results of analysis. J. SIMM, for example, has found the earliest information on farm names in the 17th-century materials. V. PALL has treated the names occurring in the 17th–18th-century
sources as personal names, whereas M. KALLASMAA prefers to regard them
as farm names ever since the 17th century, following the example of Evald
Blumfeldt’s approach to the historical names of Saaremaa. After all, even
some regional differences in the time of farm-name emergence should not be
excluded, as a possibility at least.
GEA TROSKA dedicates separate chapters to the names of isolated households, the relation of the -pere and -rahva components in the farm names,
the development of family names into farm names, name types and name
sets in villages, the relations of family names with lands and farmyards. Her
conclusion reads that the development of family names into farm names was
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a lengthy process with regional differences, while the oldest layer of farm
names still accessible are names of isolated households. GEA TROSKA supports her work by abundant maps. Nevertheless, the monograph has an ethnographic rather than linguistic bias. The farm names have not been subjected to any linguistic analysis. As for the -pere and -vere components, GEA
TROSKA argues that -pere belonged to the name of an older unit that could
later develop into the -vere component now known in village names. This
view is in harmony with an earlier theory released by PAUL ALVRE. An onomastic student with a linguistic background will certainly welcome the
book for its abundant background information as well as many an early
mention of farm names found in archive records. The book is also valuable
for its ability to inspire the reader to think more about the possible extralinguistic circumstances of name giving.
2.3. Historical names
PAUL ALVRE in his article “Eesti ja liivi aines Henriku Liivimaa kroonikas.
III. Kohanimed” (Estonian and Livonian material in the Heinrici Chronicon
Livoniae. Place names; 1985) discusses the place names occurring in a wellknown 13th-century chronicle, trying to identify and partly etymologise
them. The place names of the Estonian territory, which occur in the Heinrici
Chronicon Lyvoniae belong to the earliest written records of Estonian toponyms. P. ALVRE addresses them county by county, summarising the earlier
results and adding his own opinions.
A few articles have been written by MADIS NORVIK, concerning mainly the
place names of Järvamaa, the name typology and the methods of name collection (1962, 1963, 1967).
3. Regional studies
3.1. Valdek Pall
A real pathfinder in Estonian toponymy is VALDEK PALL who took up the
regional trend once started by PAUL ARISTE (1938). Considering the contemporary state of Estonian toponymy, V. PALL decided to start from regional studies the results of which could serve as source material for allEstonian generalisations. He says, “Not until we have concrete studies on
place names of various regions can we delve into the general rules of the
emergence and development of the Estonian place names, the common features characterising the whole Estonian-speaking territory as well as the mutual relations between the toponyms of different areas, their differences and
the relative age of the toponymic differences of dialects and dialect groups”
(PALL 1969a, p. 5). In addition, V. PALL has set a great value on the studying of place-name types and their areal distribution. This, in turn, requires a
detailed analysis of individual names to enable the researcher to determine
Name Studies in Estonia
the type of the name (e.g., Holstre, Valistre, Oara, Põhara, Võiera belong to
the names on -vere), to find out whether the name is a simple or compound
one, and to tell derivative suffixes from contracted words. Kurese and Vääna
(<*väγen + oja), for example, should be classified among compound names,
while Mäense and Peanse go together with such names as Sootaguse or
Jõetaguse. Langerma, Nedrema, Paadrema should be regarded as compound names the second component of which is -nurme (PALL 1969a). The
material V. PALL chose to analyse comes from his native region of Northern
Tartumaa. This is an area traversed by the present-day boundary between the
Eastern and North-Estonian Central dialects. After a couple of articles on the
state of the art, V. PALL published an article “Liitsõnalistest kohanimedest
põhisõnaga saar” (On compound place names with saar ‘isle’ as the base
word; 1960). This was dedicated to a special kind of place names with the
determinant saar ‘isle’, in dialects also ‘a higher spot in the swamp or a
marshy grassland’, or ‘a grove in a swamp or a meadow’. His approach in
the article “Veekogude nimedest endisel Põhja-Tartumaal” (On the names of
waterbodies in the former territory of Northern Tartumaa; 1961), was objectbased, attempting to clarify the origin of the names of water-bodies in the
area, by using archive records.
In numerous articles V. PALL has discussed the structure of place names
(incl. compound, simple, as well as suffixed ones). Doing that, he hardly ever confines himself exclusively to the material of Northern Tartumaa, finding examples to support his arguments from Western Estonia as well as from
Virumaa and elsewhere. In his article “Eesti kohanimede struktuurist” (On
the structure of Estonian place names; 1968a) V. PALL addresses some aspects of formal place-name structure, the proportion of simple and compound names, nominal and genitive compounding, the basic inflection of
place names etc. Although the author does not consider his treatise exhaustive, the article — being based on extensive data — has played a fundamental innovative role in the Estonian toponymy, which had previously approached place-name structure with traditional methods.
V. PALL has also produced a two-volume monograph on the place names of
Northern Tartumaa: I (1969a), II (1977), altogether over 600 pp. The first
part gives thousands of etymologies, representing a place-name lexicon with
the entries ordered alphabetically. Each name has been given an entry like in
a dictionary, containing a) the literary form of the name; b) simplified pronunciation, if necessary; c) location and short character of the object (if necessary); d) earlier mention in historical documents; e) comparative toponymic material from the same area as well as adjoining ones; f) earlier etymologies suggested; g) author’s etymology, anthroponymic and appellative
equivalents. The name list has been compiled mainly from the place-name
files of the Institute of Language and Literature (now Institute of the Estoni-
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an Language) and the Mother Tongue Society (cca 27,000 file cards). Most
of the names presented are farm names and village names, while names of
natural objects are in the minority. The work is part of a complex study including also “Peipsimaa etnilisest ajaloost” (On the ethnic history of the
Peipsi region) by A. MOORA, and the texts of the Eastern dialect published
in the series “Eesti murded” (Estonian dialects). As is typical of V. PALL,
the monograph is based on extensive material, including archive records,
which add historical background and more weight to the conclusions. Material of comparison has been drawn from various regions outside Northern
Tartumaa, including Southern Tartumaa, Viljandimaa, Järvamaa, and
Virumaa. The etymologies suggested by V. PALL reflect a brilliant
knowledge of language history and careful consideration of every aspect. He
has served toponymic research with abundant names linguistically elaborated. He has also repeatedly emphasised how important it is to analyse place
names linguistically before using them to support any argument. Part one of
the monograph is supplied with a German summary.
The second, analytic part provides a survey of the phonetic aspect of the
place names: Chapter I deals with the toponymic developments caused by
phonetic laws as well as irregular changes, especially by irregular contractions, e. g. -ma(a) > -võhma: Kassema, Kõssimaa; -mäe > -ma(a): Annamaa, Kuremaa; ?-oja > -a: Ruupa, Tiirika; ?-kõnnu > -ku: Adraku; -aseme
> -(a)sme: Kodasme; -Jüri > -ri: Ennuri, Jaaneri, Matseri; -Reinu > -ri: Pikari; -Jaani > -ni: Mõisani, Venneni; -Juhani > -ni: Vahini; -Mardi > -di:
Arudi; -Jaagu > -ku: Peebuku, -la > locative suffix -la: Karula, Rapla; -valla: Jägala; -küla: Uugla, -jala: Sadala, -vilja: Vetla etc. The conclusions are
based on the abundant archive material presented in Part One. V. PALL has
released a few models of the development of toponymic formants and certain name parts that are homogeneous with suffixes.
Chapter Two is dedicated to place-name structure. In connection with formal
structural aspects he discusses the relations of simple and compound names.
The latter subject includes a larger treatment of the names on -vere. Their
first components enable the author to classify at least part of them. He identifies the first components ending in -st (~ -s > -st) with place names ending
in -ste, in which -ste can be associated with the genitive plural form of the
so-called ne- and s-words. Another group of names ending in -vere have
their first component ending in -k, which should be a personal-name suffix.
The vere-names with two-syllable first components ending in a vowel are
classified phonetically into groups with a long or short first syllable. A separate discussion is given to the vere-names with the attributive component on
*i, discussed earlier by PAUL ARISTE and PAUL ALVRE. V. PALL addresses
the nominal and genitive compounding of name constituents, the basic inflection of place names, the occurrence of toponymic formants and suffixes
Name Studies in Estonia
in the names (a considerable part of the paragraph, again, deals with verenames).
Chapter Three on Principles of Name-Giving is divided into two parts, one
of them dealing with determinants and the other with attributes. Determinants are very important to study, as these are the constituents indicating
what places have been considered worth giving a name to. The determinants
are grouped semantically either according to similar notions or objects. The
determinants and their areal distribution are compared to the dialect word
underlying the name component and its areal distribution. Attribute-wise, V.
PALL divides place names into two genetic groups: a) names motivated by
the characteristic features of the object, and b) names motivated by the settler, his name, activity, result of the activity, or the way the object is used.
The motivating attributes are discussed in semantic groups based on the underlying appellatives. Attention is also paid to the attribute-determinant relations and the fact that some determinants require certain attributes. Another
interest of V. PALL lies in different layers and groups of names, and in the
alternation and areal distribution of the names. In general, the study follows
the diachronic principle, but the chapter devoted to areal distribution comprises some place names that are considered in their modern form only. Although the study is regionally bound, it sums up the whole toponymic research done in Estonia hitherto and its conclusions apply to a much wider
area than the title may suggest. Part Two of the monograph carries a comprehensive summary in Russian and German.
V. PALL has also published numerous articles on special problems, particularly on the toponyms of Northern Tartumaa, but also on the whole Estonian
territory. Separate articles have been dedicated to the names on -vere:
“Märkmeid vere-lõpuliste kohanimede käsitlemise kohta” (Some notes on
the treatment of place names ending -vere; 1965), “Kohanimede struktuurist
ja uurimisest” (On the structure and research of place names; 1966), “Eesti
kohanimede struktuurist” (On the structure of Estonian place names; 1968a);
some Russian loans in the toponyms of Northern Tartumaa: “Vene elemente
Põhja-Tartumaa toponüümikas” (Some Russian elements occurring in the
toponyms of Northern Tartumaa; 1970a); areal distribution of place names:
“Muutamien virolaisten paikannimityyppien levinnäisyydestä” (On the areal
distribution of some Estonian place name types; 1968b), “Toponüümide leviku vaatlusi” (An areal view of the distribution of certain toponyms; 1972).
The relations of place-name components and appellatives have been discussed in the articles “Looduslike objektide nimedest” (On names of natural
objects; 1970b), “Die geographischen Termini in der estnishen Mikrotoponymie” (Geographical terms in Estonian microtoponymy; 1991), “Maastikuesemete nimed ja nimetused” (Names and appellatives of lanscape ob-
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jects; 1992). Most of the Estonian place name studies are concentrated on
settlement names, particularly those that seem somewhat special or mysterious for whatever reason. V. PALL, however, emphasises the necessity to
study the names of most common natural objects, touching — in passing —
upon linguistic name models and providing some statistics. As for the comparative approach to appellatives and name constituents, V. PALL points out
that their areal distributions differ depending on the position of the constituent in the name.
The relations of settlement history and toponymy are also discussed in V.
PALL’s articles “Maahanmuuton jälkiä Pohjois-Tartumaan paikannimissä”
(Traces of immigration in the place names of Northern Tartumaa; 1970c), in
which place names are searched for traces of the onetime Finnish immigration, and “Asustusajaloo ja toponüümika seostest” (On the relations between
settlement history and toponymy; 1976b), as well as in the above-mentioned
treatise on the Russian element in the place names of Northern Tartumaa.
Part Two of the monograph also contains a chapter on settlement history,
which besides recapitulating the material of the articles presents some new
ideas. V. PALL points out that considering the present-day level of Estonian
toponymy the material for studying settlement history is relatively scarce. In
his opinion, the older layers of linguistic loans from the Baltic, Germanic,
and Slavic languages could well have included some name loans. He also
observes place names deriving from such ethnonyms as are connected with
migration (vadja ‘Votic’, soome ‘Finnish’, läti, lätlane ‘Latvian’, rootsi
‘Swedish’, poola ‘Polish’), and place names of Russian origin. (The singular
East-Estonian location of Northern Tartumaa has placed it in a unique position as far as name loans are concerned.) V. PALL also considers it possible
that some place names have travelled from one place to another with internal
migration. The names in question are toponyms inferring to another place of
origin, containing such constituents as Viru, Harju, and *Ugala, and the
farm names Kabala, Kunda, Narva, Saaremaa, and Tartu. He also points out
the necessity to interpret the areal distribution of some stems used in place
names in the light of settlement history. This may be the case if a household
word occurs only in the toponyms of a certain region, yet its semantic character does not explain its specific use in the place names (e.g., the -rahva
component at the end of farm names).
V. PALL’s third monograph on place names “L’em’tn’e” (Names; 1997) is
based on his own articles of the recent years. The study deals with plural
forms occurring in place names, the relation of -ste and -si in place names,
and the so-called plurale tantum used in Southern Estonia; represents the author’s linguistic model of place names K1 + K2 (+K3), where K is a declinable word; raises the problem of an extralinguistic name model, and de-
Name Studies in Estonia
fends the author’s earlier statements on the names ending in -vere. As for a
possible extralinguistic name-model, V. PALL considers the preparatory
work done still insufficient.
The names on -vere has constituted a problem ever since the beginning of
Estonian toponymy. Place names ending in this component frequently occur
in northern Viljandimaa and northern Tartumaa. V. PALL’s interest in them
began early: his article “Imukvere, Raigastvere, Vaidavere” (Place names
Imukvere, Raigastvere, Vaidavere) was published in 1963. PAUL ALVRE in
his survey has reached the conclusion that the element may have derived either from veer ‘brink, verge’ or pere ‘family, household’ (1963). This started a discussion where P. ALVRE’s sympathy towards the pere-etymology
(1963, 1965, 1966) was confronted by V. PALL’s Weske–Johansen-based
veere-etymology (1965, 1966b). PAUL ARISTE suggested a third option of vere < *vēri ‘deciduous forest’ (1963).
The historian A. VASSAR (1966) has criticised the Johansen-based hypothesis advanced by V. PALL, according to which the villages with vere-names
were smaller than the rest. Recently, P. ALVRE has given up his former conviction, offering a new etymology on the Finnish vierre ‘burnt-over clearing
for cultivation’ that might correspond to the Estonian veere > -vere (1986,
1992). That one meets effective criticism in the “L’em’tn’e” book, in which
V. PALL proves that the Estonian genitive particle -vere could by no means
originate in the Finnish nominal vierre. The reason for the difference of
opinion lies in that P. ALVRE — on the basis of some 13th-century records
— considers it possible that in those times the vere-names could have occurred in the nominative form (1985, 1986, 1992) — a belief that VALDEK
PALL refuses to subscribe to.
3.2. Jaak Simm
The regional approach was also pursued by JAAK SIMM. His etymologically
inclined study of the settlement toponymy of the Võnnu parish has been
published only partly (1975a). The studies of J. SIMM have yielded numerous articles. In “Märkmeid endise Satseri valla külanimedest” (Notes on the
village names of the former volost of Satseri; 1970) and “Piirissaare nimed”
(Names usage in Piirissaar; 1971a) he points out that the note Russ(e) or Reusz following a peasant’s name need not always indicate his ethnic origin,
referring, instead, to his previous place of living. (A similar conclusion was
reached by V. PALL [1970a], while studying the place names of Northern
Tartumaa). Even the Russian name of the peasant need not serve as an absolute criterion of his ethnic origin. Intensive immigration from Russia to the
Isle of Piirissaar did not begin until the 18th century after all. J. SIMM discusses such names as Želutško, Borka, Porka, Piirissaar, Meža, Selsar,
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Solsar, and Klitsaar. In his article “Slaavi geograafilised terminid Setumaa
kohanimedena” (Slavic geographical terms as place names in Setumaa;
1971b) J. SIMM addresses the following place names of Setumaa: Korski,
Lobotka, Lädina, Peresnika, Ostrova, Selise, Selisja, Selisje, and Tebrova.
More than one of his articles deal with microtoponyms: “Mõningaid märkmeid Setumaa mikrotoponüümidest” (Some notes on the microtoponys of
Setumaa; SIMM 1972c, 1973). Several articles address the earlier village
names of the former Satseri volost (1970), the alternation and decay of the
settlement names of the Võnnu parish (1971c), the Slavic and Russian element in the toponyms of Setumaa (1971b, 1972b, 1974), and the Russian element in the settlement names of the Võnnu parish (1971). Also, J. SIMM
has published on the farm names of the Võnnu parish and the microtoponyms of Setumaa.
Inspired by LEO TIIK’s article “Ühest kohanimest loodusteaduslikus aspektis” (On a place name in the natural-historical level; 1963) on the variants of
the name component pääks(es) and the Estonian meanings of the appellative, J. SIMM wrote a more generalising treatise “Veel pääks-, peeks- nimedest” (More on pääks-, peeks-names; 1972a). Another source of inspiration
to J. SIMM has been an article published by ADA AMBUS in 1960. In the article “Lõuna-eesti kohanimesid Pihkva kroonikais” (South-Estonian place
names in the Pskov Chronicles; 1960) A. AMBUS calls the reader’s attention
to some Old-Russian historical records, in which she has discovered four
different approaches to Estonian place names. Accordingly, the Estonian
place names could have been treated in any of the following ways: a) full citation, b) partial translation, c) dropping of the final component, d) full
translation. A separate discussion is given to the translation of Otepää and
Vastseliina. Altogether A. AMBUS has addressed 27 place names. J. SIMM
(1973) provides a few additions to the article.
Some articles by J. SIMM deal with more general problems: “Zur Geschichte
der estnischen Ortsnamenforschung” (On the history of Estonian place name
studies; 1975c) presents a brief history of toponymic studies in Estonia.
“Nimeteaduse põhimõisteid” (Some basic terms of name studies; 1976) introduces onomastic terminology. In addition, J. SIMM has produced numerous surveys and popular writings, particularly on South-Estonian place
names. In several appeals he has encouraged the Estonian people to collect
toponymy and personal names.
3.3. Heino Gustavson
HEINO GUSTAVSON has written two articles on the estate names based on
personal names: “Die von Personennamen abgeleiteten Gutsnamen im ehemaligen Kreise Harjumaa” (Personal-name based estate names from the
former district of Harjumaa; 1978b) and “Die von Personennamen abgelei-
Name Studies in Estonia
teten Gutsnamen im ehemaligen Kreise Järvamaa” (Person-based estate
names from the former district Järvamaa; 1980). Both articles follow a similar pattern consisting of name entries that provide the estate name in Modern
Estonian and in German, location of the estate (village and parish), the earliest record available to the author, and the period when the estate belonged to
the person whose name it now bears. The entries have been classified according to whether the name is still in use or not, whether the estate name
has been derived from a Christian name, surname, or nickname, and what is
its German equivalent. Conclusions are presented in a separate paragraph at
the end of each entry.
3.4. Koidu Uustalu and Southern Estonia
After the Knights of the Sword had conquered Estonia in the 13th century,
many places were given German names that were used in parallel with the
Estonian ones right into the 20th century. The German-based place names of
southern Estonia have been discussed in the partly published dissertation by
KOIDU UUSTALU “Lõuna-Eesti saksakeelne toponüümia” (German-language
toponyms in Southern Estonia; defended in 1972), which was dedicated
mainly to estate names. In the late 1960s and early 1970s she published several articles on that subject. “Mõisate ja mõisnike nimedest lähtunud kohanimesid Lõuna-Eestis” (Place names based on the names of estates and landlords, as used in Southern Estonia; 1968a), discusses a great number of
estate names, most of which were possessor’s names. Such names, indicating to whom the estate belonged, began to spread in Germany in the 12th–
13th centuries, when family names were introduced there. The German translation loans of Estonian estate names are addressed in her articles “Übersetzte Güternamen in der deutschsprachigen Toponymie Südestlands” (Translated estate names among the German-based toponyms used in Southern
Estonia; 1968b), “Eesti laene endisaegsete saksakeelsete kohanimede seas”
(Estonian loans among the former German-based place names; 1970), and
“Niederdeutsche Ortsnamen und Gewässernamen in Johann Renners Livländischen Historien” (Low German place names and hydronyms, occurring in the Livonian History by Johann Renner; 1975). The last mentioned
article deals with place names occurring in a Low-German chronicle of the
16th century.
In a short article “Namenkundliche Miszellen aus dem 17. Jh.” (Some onomastic miscellanies from the 17th century; 1978) K. UUSTALU takes another
look at the Estonian place names taken over into German. Stating that many
Estonian place names have travelled into High German via Middle Low
German that was used in the Baltic area up to the 16th–17th centuries (e.g.,
Est. Ümera [river], Low Germ. Ümer ah, Est. Karksi, High Germ. Karkus,
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Est. Maasi, High Germ. Sonneburg). The other route lies over Russian: either Est. > Russ. > High Germ., or Est. > Russ. > Low Germ. > High. Germ.
(e.g., Est. Jaama, High Germ. Jama). K. UUSTALU observes that the Estonian place names that arrived in High German via Low German have often
changed phonetically, less so semantically. Those Estonian names, however,
that have reached High German via Russian have retained something of their
Russianised form. It should be pointed out, though, that the author’s conclusions are based on rather little material.
In the article “Transpositionsphänomene und intersprachliche Interferenz in
der deutschsprachigen Toponymie Estlands” (Transpositional phenomena
and linguistic interference as manifested in the German-based toponymy of
Estonia; 1979) K. UUSTALU addresses problems connected with the fact that
the names occurring in the 12th–16th-century Low-German records, place
names included, have been transposed into High German later, which certainly has not spared the names from distortion. The article discusses the
lexico-semantic transposition of Estonian place names from Estonian into
Low German as well as High German, dwelling on name translation and
folk etymology.
3.5. Leo Tiik, Enn Koit, Marja Kallasmaa and Western Estonia
The unpublished thesis by MARJA KALLASMAA (defended 1981, abstract
Структура Эстонской микротопонимии [на материале западного диалекта]. Автореферат диссертации на соискание ученой степени кандидата наук. Тарту 1981) deals with the structure of the microtoponyms used
in the Western dialect of the Estonian language. Part of it has been published
in the form of articles in which the determinants and final constituents of the
microtoponyms are compared with appellatives (1978a, 1978c). The author
has also surveyed the use of the term mikrotoponüüm in the contemporary
Soviet and Estonian onomasiological literature (1978b).
LEO TIIK has confined his name studies to the western Estonian islands. His
series of articles on the personal and place names of Hiiumaa and Saaremaa
has served an important landmark for later name studies (1963), “Mehenimesid Hiiumaalt” (Some male names of Hiiumaa; 1969), “Hiiumaa Leiger”
(Leiger of Hiiumaa; 1982), Tiik (1970), “Nimesid Saaremaalt XVI ja XVII
sajandist” (Some names from the 16th–17th sentury Saaremaa; 1976b), “Saaremaa kontakte mehenimede alal” (Some contacts of Saaremaa as revealwd
in the field of male names; 1976a), “Isikunimede mugandid Saaremaal XVI
ja XVII sajandil” (Adaptations of male names from 16th–17 century; 1977).
As L. TIIK was one of the best specialists on archives, his articles carry a lot
of historical and archive material, helping to etymologise the place names of
the islands and Western Estonia. L. TIIK’s favourite subject was the settle-
Name Studies in Estonia
ment history of the Estonian second largest island Hiiumaa (see TIIK 1966),
“Perekonnanimesid Hiiumaalt” (Some family names from Hiiumaa; 1969),
in which family names entail some toponymic information; and “Kohanimesid Hiiumaalt. Emmaste” (Some place names from Hiiumaa. Emmaste;
1970) in which the author addresses 47 village names of the Emmaste parish
(coinciding with the Agabe or Sõru administrative district mentioned in records since the 16th century). The same region remained in the centre of his
interest even later in many articles that most of the earlier Estonian farm
names derive from personal names. Later on the author was specifically interested in the Emmaste parish, notably in his work entitled “Emmaste talust
kuni Emmaste kihelkonnani” (From Emmaste farm to Emmaste parish;
1995). Relying on archival data, L. TIIK has shown convincingly that Estonian village and farm names may well contain traces of old Germanic personal names. His conclusions are based on his extensive self-made files on
the villages, farms, households, estates, landlords etc.
ENN KOIT started a systematic study of the place names occurring the Isle of
Saaremaa, yet was able to publish but a few articles: “Valjala kohanimesid”
(Some place names of Valjala; 1962), “Mõningaid Saaremaa kohanimesid”
(Some place names of Saaremaa; 1966), “Salu ja selg Saaremaa liitsõnalistes
kohanimedes” (Salu and selg in the copound place names of Saaremaa;
1968), “Saaremaa jala-liitelistest kohanimedest” (On Saaremaa place names
with -jala as suffix; 1970; jalg : jala ‘foot’).
A short contribution to the subject “Saaremaa, Ösel ja Ojamaa” (Place
names Saaremaa, Ösel and Ojamaa; 1999) has been written by V. PALL who
demonstrates that Ojamaa, which is the name used by the Saaremaa people
to refer to Gotland, derives from the appellative åj (Pl. åjar) that means ‘island’ in the Gotland dialect.
A longer study “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I (Place names of the Isle of
Saaremaa; 1996), Vol. II (2000a) has been produced by MARJA KALLASMAA. The book “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I is an interim result of the ongoing regional studies of Estonian place names. The work is modeled after
“Põhja-Tartumaa kohanimed” (Place names of Northen Tartumaa), Vol. I by
V. PALL that, in its turn, brings a list of references to earlier studies of Estonian toponymy. Every place name making a headword of “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I is followed by its pronunciation in a simplified transcription
(if necessary), the villages (in a few cases just parishes) where the name occurs, archive dates (if available), comparative material from other regions, as
well as the most likely equivalent(s) among common or personal names, or a
phonetically close-sounding appellative or personal name that the toponym
may be related with, except if the latter is well known. “Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. I (528 pp) includes 11,129 full and reference entries. Unlike
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the above-mentioned volume by V. PALL, the study contains more microtoponyms, as most of them are primary names in the present-day
Saaremaa. Secondary names have been carefully selected to present only
those names that have a component of linguistic interest.
“Saaremaa kohanimed”, Vol. II (222 pp.) gives the phonetic changes that
might have affected the place names introduced in the first chapter. This
chapter is divided into two parts, one of which deals with phonology and
other with the rest of the changes, including, first and foremost, the irregular
shortening of the non-initial components, and the substitution of parts of the
toponyms.
The second chapter is about place-name systems and structure. Two placename associations are hypothesised to exist in Estonian. A place-name association can be defined as the whole set of names used within a village, which
is the longest list of names completely familiar to an ideal inhabitant of that
village. The first and older of the two kinds of associations is made up of
names for the village, farms and a great number of natural objects, esp. agricultural ones. The other and more recent kind consists mainly of a village
name and farm names, plus perhaps a couple of names for natural objects.
The first association found in Saaremaa still reflects the strip-farming system used until the mid-19th century, when the landholdings were consolidated. The other association, particularly flourishing today, is characterised by
most small objects being named after village or farm. Consequently, the difference between the place names of Saaremaa and those of the mainland lies
not in the structure of an individual name (attribute + determinative), but in
the type of name association. The second part of the chapter concentrates on
the plural forms in Saaremaa toponymy, especially those differing from the
literary Estonian standard. The occurrence of the de-, e-, a-, and i-plurals in
place names are analysed.
Chapter Three deals with place-name constituents under two headings: “Determinandid ja järelkomponendid” (Determinative and non-initial constituents) and “Atribuudid” (Attributes). The latter part is structured analogously
to the respective chapter in V. PALL’s monograph. In connection with attributes the so-called problem of German personal names in Estonian toponyms
has been raised once again, as in Saaremaa folk-etymological modifications
often depart from personal names of Low-German/Friesian origin. In this
study, names collected from Saaremaa are compared to Finnish toponyms of
Germanic origin as well as to Germanic personal names. For this study M.
KALLASMAA has analysed 40,000 name cards. Part One reflects the material
of abundant records from the Estonian Historical Archives.
M. KALLASMAA has also published numerous articles on the place names of
Western Estonia and Saaremaa (1978a, 1978b, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988a,
Name Studies in Estonia
1988b, 1989, 1990a, 1990b, 1991, 1992, 1995a, 1995c, 1996). Their gist has
been recapitulated in the above-mentioned monograph. Later, M. KALLASMAA has discussed the role of folk etymology in the history of Estonian
place names (1998a, 1998b), the names of other peoples in Estonian place
names (1997, 1999a), the Piur(u)-names in Saaremaa and Finland (1999b),
and the reflections of farmer identity in Estonian place names (2000b).
Now that we have two extensive studies, with a more or less similar methodological basis, covering different (eastern and western) parts of Estonia,
we can see that the toponymic populations of different Estonian regions differ more than has hitherto been believed. Hence the dire necessity for more
regional studies. There is still no comparable study, for example, on Southern Estonia (the thesis by J. SIMM is confined to just one parish of Southern
Tartumaa).
3.6. Evar Saar and Southern Estonia
After JAAK SIMM’s untimely departure the South-Estonian place names have
attracted the interest of EVAR SAAR. Hitherto he has written on corpus planning and published toponymic material: her articles “(S)orava(lõ) paiganimmist” (On the place names (S)orava(lõ); 1998) and “Eksitavaid kohanimesid
uuel Setomaa kaardil” (Some misleading place names occuring in the new
map of Setomaa; 1999) suggest corrections into some official place names;
the article “Laiast ilmast lainatuq võrdlõvaq kotussõnimeq Võrumaal” (Borrowed from the wide world: comparative place names occuring in Võrumaa;
2000) points out comparative place names (microtoponyms) borrowed to
Võrumaa from some other parts of the world. EVAR SAAR is compiler of the
data base of the place names from the parishes Räpina and Vastseliina in
Southern Estonia.
A short contribution called “Võrumaa kohanimekujudest” (On the shapes of
Võrumaa place names; 1998) has been published by REELIKA KIKKAS.
Based on the author’s diploma thesis “Rõuge kihelkona Krabi valla kohanimed” (Place names of Krabi volost in Rõugr parish), the publication discusses the literary and the dialectal elements in the place names of Võrumaa.
4. Publications on individual names or name types
Writings discussing just one or a few names are extremely numerous, even if
we leave out newspaper articles, which are often based on fantasy or opinions without any scientific ground.
4.1. -vere and Paul Alvre
As a sideline, toponymy has long been pursued by PAUL ALVRE. He has addressed both individual names as well as place name types. The same year
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as VALDEK PALL he began studying the vere-names. P. ALVRE’s article
“Kuidas on tekkinud vere-lõpulised kohanimed” (What is the origin of place
names ending -vere; 1963) provides a survey of the research history of those
names and their earlier etymologies. P. ALVRE suggests that the name component -vere derives from the word pere. The years 1965–1966 bring along
a dispute with V. PALL, reported earlier in this paper. In the articles “Veelgi
vere-lõpuliste kohanimede käsitlemisest” (Even more on the treatment of
place names ending -vere; 1965) and “Tehkem vahet olulise ja ebaolulise
vahel” (Let us make a difference between the relevant and the irrelevant;
1986) P. ALVRE argues for his own pere-etymology. In “Kohanimede -vere
loodusobjekti tähistajana” (The -vere component of place names as the signifier of a natural object; 1986), however, he launches a new etymology of
-vere: < vierre. The vierre etymology has been exposed to international discussion since the Finnish publication of ALVRE (1992).
In his article “Kas põranda ja põrmu kaudu Permi?” (To Perm via põrand
‘floor’ and põrm ‘dust’?; 1981) P. ALVRE gives a thorough analysis of the
semantics of the words põrand ‘floor’ and põrm ‘dust’ in the Finnic languages, hypothesising that Perm < põrm ‘earth’. The article “Veel kohanimest Ocrielae” (More on the place name Ocrielae; P. ALVRE 1984) addresses a toponym that occurs only once in historical records, yet has
inspired several earlier speculations: P. JOHANSEN: personal name < Oteri
(1933); A. VASSAR: Otsrävälä (1939); L. MERI considers Ocrielae a translation equivalent of Rävälä, as the latter is based on rebu ‘yolk’ referring to
yellow colour that, in turn, would translate into medieval Latin as ‘ochre’
(1976); J. PÕLDMÄE: < ochros ‘ochre, bog ore’ (1983). PAUL ALVRE proposes two Estonian-based etymologies, yet those seem less probable than the
version supported by MERI and PÕLDMÄE. P. ALVRE (2000a) regards Goldenbeck, which is the German name for the parish of Kullamaa, as an Estonian-based toponym bearing traces of the times when the Estonian -lδ- had
not yet been assimilated into -le- and the genitive ending -n was still in use.
Briefly, P. ALVRE has touched upon that issue earlier, too (2000b).
4.2. More on individual names
The name Lyndanise that occurs in the Livonian Chronicles and is usually
considered an old name of Tallinn has inspired numerous articles. The period in question has yielded SIMM (1975b), TIIK (1976b), and KAPLINSKI
(1976). J. SIMM just recapitulates earlier treatments. L. TIIK, relying on his
extensive experience, responds by correcting more than one erroneous interpretation. He recognises both the Estonian-based explanation Lindanise <
Lindanase < *Litnanasen ‘place of town’ suggested by Enn Roos and certain Germanic etymologies as likely. The latter find support by KÜLLIKE
KAPLINSKI (1976) who argues that Lyndanise is a compound name the final
Name Studies in Estonia
component of which is nise ~ nase Sw/LGerm ‘cape’, while the first component could be either linde Sw/Dan ‘shelter’, or Sw ‘lime-tree’; ‘marshy
ground’.
A few etymologies bounding on the fantastic have been launched by the historians LENNART MERI and VELLO LÕUGAS. V. LÕUGAS has, among else,
addressed the names Viru and Alutaguse, which are names of larger regions
(1978a, 1978b, 1997). ENN TARVEL and HERBERT LIGI have kept to more
realistic grounds. The article “Eesti toponüüme Skandinaavia ruunikirjades”
(Some Estonian toponyms occurring in Scandinavian runic writings;
TARVEL 1978) is dedicated to four names supposed to be of Estonian origin:
i. estlatum (Eesti), uirlanti (Virumaa), i silu (?Saaremaa, more likely Salo in
Finland), runo (?Ruhnu). The article is descriptive, containing numerous
quotations of earlier records of place names. In his article “Järvamaa alguloost” (On the origin of Järvamaa; 1979) E. TARVEL treads on the linguistic ground, suggesting that the järv-component of Järvamaa is a Baltic loanword *jarva that used to mean ‘sea’ (cf. Lit. jura ‘sea’; Lat. jūra ‘sea’; Prussian iuriay ‘sea’; and also Lit. jaura ‘wet, heavy, dead soil; marshy soil with
an admixture of mud and clay’. E. TARVEL believes that the word was
loaned into Estonian in the 3rd millennium BC during the advance of the
boat-axe culture. In a short note “Lihulinn ja Lihula” (Lihulinn and Lihula)
E. TARVEL (1999) derives both names Lihula and Lihulinn from the appellative liga: lea ‘dirt, filth’. In her response “Veel Lihulast ja Lihulinnast”
(More on Lihula and Lihulinn) M. KALLASMAA (1999c) has indicated that
the liga: lea etymology is not likely, considering the type and structure of
the la-final settlement name Lihula.
The article “Ühest toponüümist ja veidi ka toponüümikast” (On a toponym
and a little on toponymy as well; 1980) by the historian HERBERT LIGI deals
with the name of Lake Mõrtsuka, discussed earlier by several local researchers. The onomatologist JAAK SIMM surmises in his article of 1979 that Mõrtsuk(as) ‘murderer’ could have been a surname given to a farmer for a concrete murder committed in the 8th century. J. SIMM believes that the name
became a village name in the early 19th century. H. LIGI, however, proves
that Mõrtsuka was used as a village name as early as in the late 17th century,
and associates its emergence with the war between Poland and Sweden in
the first quarter of the 16th century. In his article “Kaali katastroof ja Püha
kihelkonna kohanimed” (The Kaali catastrophe and the place names of
Püha; 1984), which is based on extensive historical material, H. LIGI criticises L. MERI’s attempt to base the historical formation of the name of Lake
Kaali (a well-known meteor crater) as well as the family name Gahlen on
the Estonian language. H. LIGI’s articles and historical monographs are, indeed, of interest for an onomasiologist as all his arguments are based on ir-
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refutable logic, but sometimes there are orthographic mistakes in the place
names, which greatly reduces the value of the study from a linguist’s point
of view. The same applies to the toponymic attempts of other historians.
The historian and journalist RAIVO PALMARU has written an article “Eesti
vanimais kirjalikes allikais” (Eesti in the earliest written records; 1980) concentrating on whether the ethnonym aestii used by Tacitus stood for Balts or
Finno-Ugrians. Before him the subject had been dealt with by several authors, while the most recent writings belonging to KARL INNO (1981, 1983).
R. PALMARU also supports the opinion that both eesti and aesti derive from
the Germanic stem ost- (öst-, est-, ‘east’). In addition, the author touches
upon some other Estonian place names found in Scandinavian sources. Yet,
being written for enlightening purposes, the article mainly refers to the results of other authors, without adding anything new.
UNO LIIVAKU, whose main activities are translation and language planning,
has written an article “Eesti ja Eestimaa” (Eesti and Eestimaa; 1996) discussing the use of the names Eesti and Eestimaa from the historical, political
and language planning aspects. He concludes that Eesti is indeed one of the
names that may take -maa as the final constituent for stylistic reasons, but
this should happen as seldom as possible.
FELIX OINAS has published a couple of writings on individual names. His
discussion of Kastre (OINAS 1979, 1980) is a response to the article “Kastre
pole vene nimi” (Kastre is not a Russian name) by EDGAR SAKS (1978). In
his treatment of Kalev (Kolõvan) (OINAS 1993) he deals with Kolõvan as a
hero of Russian legends, and his name in the Finnic languages and Russian
place names. ENDEL JAANUS has discussed the toponyms Suislepa and Lapetukme (1976, 1984). URMAS SUTROP (1996) has addressed colour terms in
Estonian place names found in Census Liber Daniae. A few place names he
has also touched upon in his article “Eesti keele vanimatest perioodidest”
(On the earliest periods of the Estonian language; 1999), effectively criticised by AGO KÜNNAP (1999). Some popular publications have also been
produced by ENN LUMET, AARE MÄEMETS, TIIT PETERSOO, HARALD REBANE, and TARMO TIMM.
5. Urban place names
It is only natural that people should get interested in collecting street and
other urban names, as those provide some hold-on concerning the original
landscape, bodies of water, buildings, institutions, artisans and the sites of
their workshops, historic and political figures.
Name Studies in Estonia
5.1. Tallinn
The monograph “Tallinna tänavad” (The streets of Tallinn; 1972) by ALEKSANDER KIVI is a reference book of 204 pages. Its introduction surveys the
emergence and growth of Tallinn and the development of its street system.
The names of all streets and squares in Tallinn at that time are presented in
alphabetical order and provided with commentaries on the location of the
street or square, the time of the emergence or assignment of the name, the
origin and derivation of the name, and the earlier names, if any. There is also
an index of earlier — Estonian as well as foreign — names of renamed
streets and squares.
One of the sources used by A. KIVI is the unpublished dissertation “Vana
Tallinn. Ajaloolis-geograafiline käsitelu linna tekkimisest ja kujunemisest”
(Old Tallinn. A historico-geographical treatise on the emergence and development of the city; defended in 1958), of which L. TIIK had published only a
few issues: “Keskaegsest mereliiklusest Balti merel ja Soome lahel” (On the
medieval sea transport on the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland; 1957) and
“Vanast Tallinnast ja tema liiklusteedest” (Old Tallinn and its transport
routes; 1959). Those are, indeed, of interest for a student of Tallinn street
names.
“Isikunimelised tänavad Tallinnas” (Tallinn streets named after persons;
1977) by A. KIVI is a popular reference book of 128 pp., explaining who
were the persons whose names were given to the streets of Tallinn, and what
were their relations to the city. Streets named after persons are introduced in
alphabetical order and provided, beside the information on the person, with a
short historical survey of the street, its earlier names and the reasons behind
renaming(s). The book is wound up by streets bearing the names of mythological and literary figures. This makes 71 streets altogether. The book also
includes an introductory article on street names and their studying.
5.2. Tartu
AILI RAENDI in her “Isikunimelised tänavad Tartus” (Tartu streets named after persons; 1987) deals with the streets of the second largest Estonian town
Tartu. She points out that the toponymic history of Tartu has been in a relatively neglected state, as the medieval city plans have not survived. The oldest plan of Tartu revealing the network and names of the streets dates from
the year 1636 and the oldest street list has survived since 1582. The bulk of
the book is structured analogously to A. KIVI’s book just mentioned, listing
streets named after prominent figures in alphabetical order. Literary, mythological and first names are left out, though. This leaves us with 42 streets on
84 pp. The author has concentrated on the life and deeds of the persons, their
relations with Tartu, and their services to the town. The previous name of
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68
the street may be mentioned, too, but not the whole history and development.
The historian NIINA RAID has published a monograph “Tartu tänavad aastani
1940” (The streets of Tartu to 1940; 1999) on Tartu street names up to 1940.
There are 10 names found in the town council records 1547–1555, as well as
those mentioned in the Audit Book by B. Wybers in 1582–1658, and the
names occurring on the earliest survived city plans (17th cent.). The Chapter
on the streets of the old part of the town deals with the streets within the
town wall, attempting to determine their location in modern terms as well as
their earlier names. It remains, however, unclear whether the Estonian
names are just the author’s translations of foreign originals, or whether those
forms have been in use as well. A short survey has been given of the condition of the town in the 18th century and the development of new quarters,
particularly the so-called 1st quarter (an extension of the old town), 2nd
quarter (Riia suburb along the Riga Road) and 3rd quarter (St. Petersburg
suburb across the bank of the river Emajõgi). The index of Tartu street
names, supplemented by M. Eimre contains more names than the text part of
the book. In general, N. RAID is more interested in the evolution of the street
network and the location of the historical streets than in street names as
such. She has also published articles on the street names of Tartu, incl. one
on the streets of the historical centre from the 16th century right into this day
(1985).
5.3. Small attitudes
The restitution of Estonian independence brought along a lively discussion
on street names as the carriers and perpetuators of the Soviet ideology. This
triggered a restoration of street names. Papers carry notes on the names of
streets and other urban objects, written by such authors as Helve Anton
(Otepää), Richard Blomerius (Tartu), Lembit Eelmäe (Tartu), Silvia Ehrenbusch (Tallinn), Jaan Ersto (Valga), Uno Hermann (Elva), Kalev Jaago
(Haapsalu), Olev Jõgi (Kuressaare), Marja Kallasmaa (Kärdla), Arnold Kask
(Tartu), Odette Kirs (Rakvere), Aleksander Kivi (Tallinn), Boris Kivi (Kuressaare), Viktor Korravits (Tartu), Ivar Kostabi (Tartu), Päivu Laipaik
(Tõrva), Pelle Lall & Ott Sandrak (Tallinn), Marko Mihkelson (Valga), Aili
Miks (Otepää), Aster Muinaste (Pärnu), Heino Mägi (Otepää), Ene Paaver
(Tartu), Tõnis Padu (Haapsalu), Hillar Palamets (Tartu), Tiia Pauska (Kärdla), Olev Prints (Tartu), Juhani Püttsepp (Mustvee), Henn Saari (Tallinn),
Heino Sikk (Võru), Jaak Simm (Tallinn), Enriko Talvistu (Tartu), Juhan
Teder (Viljandi), Leo Tiik (Tallinn), Hilja Treuberg (Pärnu), Ain Tähiste
(Kärdla), Helju Vals (Tartu). Most of those publications just argue for the
restoration or changing of the street names of this or that town, but some
Name Studies in Estonia
concrete information, esp. on the history of names used in small towns was
thus saved from the verge of oblivion.
5.4. Peeter Päll
The names of the streets of Tallinn and even some other towns have been studied by PEETER PÄLL, who has, by the way, made the current street names
of Tallinn available by the Internet (http://www.eki.ee/knab/tallinn1.htm). P.
PÄLL has also published the principles of urban naming: “Nimevaliku
põhimõtteid” (Principles of name selection; 1988): 1) old names should be
preserved, 2) a name should reflect the characteristics of the place, 3) the
history of the region should be considered, 4) in bigger settlements thematic
series of names have proved justified.
Previously, Estonian toponymic studies were dominated by a diachronic regional approach. Now, in connection with the re-emergence of an independent Estonian state, the focus has shifted to name legislation and planning,
especially stimulated by the possibility of publishing Estonian-made maps in
the vernacular. Under the Soviet rule, the Estonians were prevented from
mapping their own territory and, for the sake of secrecy, from even using
such maps. The number of Estonian place names on Soviet maps was limited by special prescriptions. The few names that were allowed to appear on
maps were written in the Cyrillic alphabet, which prevented the names from
being represented in their correct form. Now, attention is concentrated on
the drawing of precise maps and on providing them with correctly spelt
names. Engaged in consultation on practical naming (of streets etc.), in the
standardisation and orthography of place names, and developing the Name
Law was HENN SAARI and now is PEETER PÄLL. They did not have to start
from scratch, however. In 1923, an all-Estonian list of settlements “Üleriikline asumite nimestik” (All-Estonian settlement list) was published.
The year 1977 saw the publication of a list of the townships and villages of
the Estonian SSR “Eesti NSV alevike ja külade nimekiri” (List of the townships and villages of the Estonian SSR), which was followed in 1978 by
“Administrative division of the territory of the Estonian SSR and the rural
settlements / Eesti NSV territooriumi administratiivne jaotus ja maa-asulad”,
now outdated. The next (unpublished) list of settlement names was compiled
by J. SIMM and edited by M. KALLASMAA. Now, revised and rendered computer-readable by PEETER PÄLL, the list is available at the computers of the
Institute of the Estonian Language.
6. Name planning
Name orthography has been an issue of controversy for long. The spelling
rules for Estonian place names were fixed in 1932. A. KASK (1974) has sur-
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Marja Kallasmaa
veyed the early period of place-name planning. Most of the earlier sources
deal with individual names and their orthography. Standardisation is an issue
first raised by REIN KULL in 1958, who argues that place names should be
standardised typewise. Later, the problem has been addressed by V. PALL
(1971, 1976a) and J. SIMM (1976), in connection with the regulating of settlement names in Soviet Estonia. V. PALL emphasises that the use of place
names should be unified so as to become free of variants. Standardisation
should rely on the local dialect form of the place names, as well as the literary tradition and, to some extent, their etymology and class, plus the spelling
of Estonian compounds. In his article of 1971, V. PALL formulates the tasks
facing the systematic standardisation of the Estonian place names at that
moment: a) additional collection of material, b) fixation of general principles
of standardisation, c) elaboration of concrete cases on the basis of b). The final result was envisaged as a maximally comprehensive list of settlement
names and, by all means, the other place names fixed in a shape at least as
normative as the words in the Orthographic Dictionary.
In his article on place-name spelling (1976a) V. PALL sets forth the general
principles to standardise the Estonian place names. According to those, one
should take into consideration 1) the local dialect form of the name, 2) unity
of the literary language, 3) tradition of the name usage, 4) name structure,
and 5) name etymology. At that, V. PALL considers inevitable that a dialectal name should be adapted to the literary standard. He has also attempted to
find phonological as well as morphological equivalents to enable such transposition.
JAAK SIMM (1976) also discusses name problems in the framework of village merging in the 1970s (4000 villages were to be made out of 7000, while
the selection and linguistic surveillance of the names were given in charge
of the Toponymy Group at the Institute of Language and Literature). The
principle was to prefer names with a historical tradition while out of practical extralinguistic reasons it was attempted to avoid similar names. The attempt, however, caused massive local discontent leading to the restoration of
village names upon the restoration of Estonian independence.
The so-called pure theory of names has been one of the many interests of
HENN SAARI, who concentrated on the name planning aspect. At the name
planning seminar held in 1988 he gave a preliminary formulation of his
principles of name planning, using his own terms, that have since been
adopted into Estonian onomastic texts.
The spelling of foreign names has been a traditional point of controversy in
Estonia. The discussion has concerned names of Latin (ABEN 1954), Greek
(NURM 1958), and Russian (NURM 1959, 1965). T. ERELT (1976) has con-
Name Studies in Estonia
sidered the Estonian spelling of Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, and
Armenian names, as well as the Bulgarian and Serbo-Croatian (ERELT
1977), the Turko-tataric and Tadjik ones (ERELT 1978, 1983).
In 1993 Nimekirjutusraamat (Name Spelling Book) was published, edited by
TIIU ERELT and HENN SAARI. The introduction “Kirjutaja eelmärkus 1992”
(An author’s preliminary 1992) is by H. SAARI (1993). The book was meant
to introduce the reader to various national stock of names directly, i.e., without any Russian mediation. The basic principle of the book was the unity of
national and international spelling of names, first introduced by V. PALL
(1969b). The central problem was how should names of non-Latin origin be
handled with the least deformation caused. The introduction is informative
of those parts of theoretical onomastics that should form the basis for name
spelling. There is a short mention of writing and speech as the two aspects of
language, the primacy of writing in names, the linguistic identity of names,
the natural or deliberate adaptation of foreign names to the Estonian language, their norm and correctibility (the ideal of correctness should be
sought nowhere else but in the original form of the name), exonyms and
names of objects associated with several languages. In addition, the introduction contains recommendations for the spelling of international names
and loan names, a discussion of parallel names, the shortcomings of holding
on to the original spelling, on the one hand, and adaptive spelling on the
other hand; translation of names is also dealt with. A special section is dedicated to the rewriting of names, containing a short survey of different alphabets, transliteration and transscription. It is pointed out that in Estonian rewritten names are not subject to standardisation, only the re-writing tables
are. Suggested are some validity terms of orthographic recommendations. A
longer part of the text deals with the name (mostly proper name) situation in
the Soviet Union in general and the triple or even quadruple (Estonian, Russian, German) place name variants used on the territories of the Estonian and
Livonian Guberniyas (e.g., Tallinn, Revel, Reval; Tartu, Jurjev, Dorpat), the
former rules of Russian-Estonian transcription are criticised. A short survey
of other transcriptions is provided.
That introductory text by HENN SAARI is an essential manifesto of name
spelling principles. The bulk of the book consists of the Estonian spelling
rules of Russian, Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, Georgian, Armenian, Azerbaijani, Turkmen, Kazakh, Kirghiz, Tadjik, and Uzbek names, as well as lists
of those Ukrainian, Byelo-Russian, and Georgian first, family, and place
names that are relatively more frequently used in Estonian. The publication
of the book was preceded by a years long discussion on name spelling in the
press, participated by many linguists, cultural representatives, and other
people interested.
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Marja Kallasmaa
PEETER PÄLL has a long experience of name planning, concerning urban
names in the particular. In 1988 he organised a seminar on the treatment of
urban names. His bulkiest works hitherto published deal with the spelling of
foreign names. The book “Maailma maade nimed / Names of the Countries
of the World” (1994) is a standard presentation of the spelling of the names
of all countries and their capitals, as well as the equivalents of the names
used in English, French, Russian, and the official languages of each country
concerned, plus the ISO symbols and the names of major administrative
units. Every country’s name is presented in its short form (popular name) as
well as in its full form (official name). The list includes all independent
states and their separate parts, colonies etc. The structure of the book and the
notes to the names serve the sole purpose of providing linguistic information.
The other voluminous book by PEETER PÄLL is called “Maailma kohanimed
/ Place Names of the World” (1999). It lists over 4200 entries on nonEstonian places, with their equivalent names in Estonian, English, French,
German, Finnish, Russian, and the local language. Together with historical
names the book includes about 16,000 name variants. The basic names are
provided with notes on pronunciation, original forms and geographic references. There is also an index of foreign place names and a summary of the
principles of name spelling. P. PÄLL’s most recent specialty is name planning and the digitalisation of name collections. His articles on name planning are numerous (PÄLL 1987, 1993a, 1993b, 1998). He has also addressed
exonyms in his article “Eestikeelsed naabrusnimed / Exonyms on Neighbouring Territories” (1986). At the present moment, P. PÄLL is involved in
the preparation of the “Eesti kohanimeandmebaas” (Estonian Place Name
Database; KNAB). The database is designed to comprise the whole stock of
Estonian place names. Some of its lists have been made available in the Internet (http://www.eki.ee/knab/). Those include, for example, the administrative units of Estonia and their abbreviations, as well as the street names of
Tallinn. The database has been introduced in the article “Principles of Computer-Aided Namebank in Estonia” (PÄLL 1990). The List of Names of Estonian Lakes and Rivers has also been finished. As a UN expert on place
names P. PÄLL has published articles on name planning encompassing the
Baltic States as well as discussing the global aspect. The Baltic Division that
was founded at the UN Conference on Name Planning held in New York,
1992 now meets regularly thanks to P. PÄLL’s initiative.
For PEETER PÄLL, the nearest future includes the development of the onomastic database, storing the data on various name categories and consultation on the use and orthography of various names, checking place names on
Name Studies in Estonia
73
maps and preparatory work for national standardization of these names, participation in legislative initiatives concerning names, etc.
7. Place name collections
With the help of correspondents, MATTHIAS JOHANN EISEN, as well as
FRIEDRICH KUHLBARS, managed to collect a considerable number of place
names. Those collections (from the 19th century) are kept at the Estonian
Literary Museum in Tartu. In 1922, place names started to be collected systematically by the Academic Estonian Mother Tongue Society. In 1940, the
work was continued by the successor of the organization, the Mother
Tongue Society at the Academy of Sciences of the Estonian SSR. At present
the collection contains about half a million file cards and is kept at the Department of Dialectology, Institute of the Estonian Language.
There are no special periodicals in Estonia dealing with onomastic studies.
Articles on the subject are received by the journals “Keel ja Kirjandus”,
“Linguistica Uralica” and “Akadeemia”, as well as by the Annals of the
Mother Tongue Society (Emakeele Seltsi Aastaraamat).
A group for toponymic studies is active at the Institute of the Estonian Language (Tallinn 10119 Roosikrantsi 6).
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