UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA
Module Title:
INTEGRATED COASTAL ZONE
MANAGEMENT
Code:
NRF 3471
Sub-Module 6:
Biodiversity
April 14
2008
Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Sub-Module: Biodiversity
Table of Contents
1
BIODIVERSITY ........................................................................................................ 4
Introduction .................................................................................................................. 4
1.1
International legislative background on biodiversity conservation ...................... 6
1.1.1
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)... 6
1.1.2
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).................................................... 6
1.1.3
Other legal framework of biodiversity conservation ..................................... 7
1.2
Definitions .......................................................................................................... 9
1.2.1
Genetic diversity ........................................................................................ 10
1.2.2
Species diversity ........................................................................................ 10
1.2.3
Phyletic diversity ........................................................................................ 12
1.2.4
Functional diversity .................................................................................... 12
1.2.5
Community or ecosystem diversity ............................................................ 13
1.2.6
Habitat diversity ......................................................................................... 13
1.3
Biodiversity measurement ................................................................................ 15
1.3.1
Measures of biodiversity ............................................................................ 15
1.3.2
Diversity indices ......................................................................................... 18
1.3.3
Endemism.................................................................................................. 19
1.4
Patterns of biodiversity ..................................................................................... 20
1.4.1
Temporal patterns ..................................................................................... 20
1.4.2
Spatial patterns .......................................................................................... 21
1.4.3
Disturbance ............................................................................................... 23
1.5
Importance of biodiversity ................................................................................ 24
1.5.1
Products from coastal and marine realm ................................................... 24
1.5.2
Ecosystem services ................................................................................... 26
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1.5.3
Marine and coastal areas as sources of information ................................. 26
1.5.4
Aesthetic and recreational resources ........................................................ 27
1.5.5
Marine and coastal areas of high biological importance ............................ 27
1.6
Threats to biodiversity ...................................................................................... 33
1.6.1
Overexploitation ......................................................................................... 33
1.6.2
Physical alteration ..................................................................................... 34
1.6.3
Pollution ..................................................................................................... 35
1.6.4
Species invasions (alien species) or introductions .................................... 37
1.6.5
Global atmospheric change ....................................................................... 38
1.7
Root causes of biodiversity of threats .............................................................. 41
1.8
Conservation of biodiversity ............................................................................. 43
1.8.1
Political advocacy ...................................................................................... 43
1.8.2
Expanding knowledge base ....................................................................... 43
1.8.3
Science ...................................................................................................... 44
1.8.4
Planning..................................................................................................... 46
1.8.5
Regulating threats ..................................................................................... 49
1.8.6
Economic tools .......................................................................................... 52
1.8.7
Marine Protected Areas ............................................................................. 56
1.8.8
Active manipulation: .................................................................................. 56
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1 BIODIVERSITY
Introduction
The previous units introduced you to the very unique coastal zone, an interface between
freshwater and marine ecosystems, the most productive and richest habitats on earth.
The previous units also introduced you to the conflicts of uses that exist in coastal
zones, emanating from migration and consequent urbanization of the coastal zones.
We should also understand that activities in the coastal zone expanded from the
traditional navigation and fishing which exert pressure on the natural resources, putting
productivity and biodiversity at risk through habitat destruction and fragmentation.
These multiple coastal zone activities affect each other and have recently triggered a
paradigm shift from a fragmented sector-by-sector approach to an integrated and
holistic management or Integrated Coastal Management (ICM). The prominence of
the ICM concept emerged during the preparation for the United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) towards the Earth Summit held in Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil in June 1992. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
formed by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) also endorsed the ICM concept as a tool to respond
to various potential dangers to biodiversity arising from climate change such as sealevel rise.
Integrated Coastal Management aims to achieve sustainable development to maintain
or preserve, amongst others, biological diversity in coastal and marine ecosystems. The
notion of biological diversity emerged from concerns coupled with the realization that
our knowledge on the diversity and variability of plants, animals, micro organisms and
the ecosystems in which they occur is incomplete. Concerns that awaken us to take
stock and preserve our biological diversity include:
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
Rapid acceleration of loss of species, populations, domesticated varieties and
natural habitats such as wetlands,

Alteration of half of the habitable earth by human activities, and

Mass extinction threats.
Only few are aware of the loss of diversity at all levels and there are obstacles to
understand the extent to which we have reduced biological diversity:

Ignorance to the scale and rate of loss pre-modern and even modern times; and

Huge decline in scholarly work in systematic, natural history, and the
biogeography of invertebrates, algae, and microorganisms.
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1.1 International legislative background on biodiversity conservation
1.1.1 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED)
The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Brazil,
June 1992 culminated from a number of concerns:

Poverty and increasing populations in the developing world together with
unsustainable production and consumption in developed countries;

The damage by the industrialized world to the earth’s climate and life support
systems; and
The “window of opportunity” provided by the collapse of the cold war shifted the
international community’s focus to environmental concerns. UNCED emphasized on (i)
interdependence, (ii) integrated management and (iii) sustainable development to
eradicate these imbalances.
1.1.2 Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is one of the five major outputs of
UNCED together with the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development; the
Convention on Climate Change; Agenda 21; and Statement of Forest Principles prelude
to convention on forests.
Namibia signed and ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity and is by virtue of
this ratification committed to adhering to the Jakarta Mandate. The Jakarta Mandate is
the second Conference of Parties (CoP), held in Jakarta, Indonesia in 1995 were
Decision II/10 on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Marine and Coastal
Biological Diversity was taken.
The Jakarta Mandate encourages:
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
integrated marine and coastal area management to address human impacts on
biological diversity and conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity

the establishment or strengthening of institutional and legislative framework for
integrated management of marine and coastal areas cognizant to national
development plans.
1.1.3 Other legal framework of biodiversity conservation
International Agreements:

1992 Framework Convention on Climate Change, In force 21 March 1994.

1992 Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage, In force 3 May 1996.

1992 Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for
Compensation for Oil Pollution Damage, Amended by Protocol 2000, in force 1
November 2003.

1993 FAO Agreement to Promote Compliance with Conservation Measures on
the High Seas,

1995 UN Agreement Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling
Fish Stocks and Migratory Fish Stocks.

1995 FAO International Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.

1995 Declaration on the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based
Activities (Washington).

1996 Protocol to the London Dumping Convention, 36 ILM (1997), 7. Not in
force.

1997 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of
International Watercourses

1997 Protocol to the Framework Convention on Climate Change (Kyoto)
Angola and Namibia and came into force on 13 April 2003)

2003 International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’
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Ballast Water and Sediments (not yet in force)

The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS III 1982)

The 1971 Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl habitat, Ramsar (1971), and (1982) Protocol (Ramsar)

Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage, Paris 1972, which includes the Great Barrier Reef and the Galapagos
Islands.

The 1973 Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES).

The 1979 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animal
(CMS).
Regional Agreements:

1997 SADC Protocol on Mining

1998 The Cape Town Declaration on an African Process for the Development
and
Protection of the Coastal and marine Environment, particularly in Sub-Saharan
Africa

2001 SADC Protocol on Fisheries (signed 14 August 2001)

2001 Convention on the Conservation and Management of Fishery Resources in
the South East Atlantic Ocean (“SEAFO”) (Signed on 20 April 2001 by South
Africa,
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1.2 Definitions
In the notion biological diversity –the total variability of life on earth- emerged from the
need to divide the diversity of plants, animals and micro organisms on land and in the
oceans for recognition and simplified communication.
The convention on biological diversity, biological diversity is defined as ‘the variability
among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part; this
includes diversity within species and of ecosystems’.
Biological diversity, in short ‘biodiversity’, is also defined as the total diversity and
variability of living things and of systems of they are apart.
Biodiversity covers a range of variation and variability:

Among systems and organisms,

At the bioregional, landscape, ecosystem and habitat levels,

At the various organismal levels down to species, populations and individuals
and

At the level of populations and genes.
Biodiversity also covers the complex sets of structural and functional relationships within
and between the different levels of organization, including human action, and their
origins and evolution.
The multifaceted nature of biodiversity is reflected in the many definitions at use today,
ranging from genetic diversity, species diversity, phyletic diversity, functional diversity,
community and ecosystem diversity, and habitat diversity.
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1.2.1 Genetic diversity
The most basic level of biological diversity is that diversity found within species. Genetic
diversity encompasses the variation among individuals within a population in their
genetic make-up and genetic variation among populations. It represents the heritable
variation within and between populations of organisms
A population is described as group of individuals that can interbreed and interchange
genetic material during sexual reproduction.

High genetic diversity in a population is desirable to withstand environmental
change and in so doing passing on genetic material to the next generations.

High genetic diversity is encountered in species subjected to unstable, stresses
environments compared to species in stable environments over many
generations (evolutional time scale).

Genetic diversity is reduced by species subjected to stress over few generations
or ecological time scale

Higher genetic diversity is found in marine species than terrestrial species
1.2.2 Species diversity
Species diversity or ‘species richness’ is most commonly used synonym for biodiversity
and refers to the number of species found in a given area or habitat. A community
comprising of 50 individuals of species A and 50 species B is more diverse than a
community comprising of 99 individuals of species A and 1 individual of species B.
Thus, diversity indices take into account the distribution of individuals among species in
addition to the number of species in a given area.
There has been a large change in the ratios of orders of families to genera to species
over geological time. All life was marine prior to 425 million years ago and coastal and
marine ecosystems provide a large proportion of services we need today.
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Table 1: Geological time scale
Epoch
Era
Period
Quaternary
2 Ma
Tertiary
65 Ma
Cretaceous
144 Ma
Jurassic
213 ma
Triassic
248 Ma
Permian
286 Ma
Carboniferous
360 Ma
Devonian
408 Ma
Silurian
438 Ma
Ordovician
505 Ma
Cambrian
543 Ma
Cenozoic
Phanerozoic
Mesozoic
Number of species has
increased
more
than
double
50%
of
marine
families
became extinct
Precambrian
Palaeozoic
Higher diversity (orders and
families) increased rapidly
Proterozoic
2.5 Ba
Archaean
4.5 Ba
Diversity is higher in the benthic realm than the pelagic as marine fauna originated from
benthic habitats. There are 1200 oceanic fish species against 13000 coastal species
and diversity is higher in coastal rather than oceanic areas and our conservation efforts
should be rather increased in coastal areas.
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Endemism, species occurring in a restricted locality, poses severe problems in the
development of conservation strategies.
Considering our definitions of species diversity, knowledge of biodiversity and the
importance thereof, is there a need to answer certain towards the development of
conservation strategies, which include:

Whether all species are equal for conservation purposes?

Whether some endemic species are more significant in the structuring or
functioning of the habitat concerned?
1.2.3 Phyletic diversity
Phyletic diversity is the variation in the working body plans (phyla) of organisms.
It is a useful measure of diversity, where diversity is higher at the taxonomic level of
phylum than at the level of species.

The marine environments are highly phyletic or taxonomically diverse as 32 out
of the 33 animal phyla are present in the marine domain.
1.2.4 Functional diversity
Functional diversity is the range of functions that are performed by organisms in a
system or grouping of organisms on how similar their functions are.
Organisms within a habitat or community can be divided into different functional types
such as feeding guilds or plant growth forms or into functionality similar taxa such as
suspension feeders or deposit feeders.
According to Steele (1991) functional diversity is the variety of differential responses to
environmental change, given the diverse spatial and temporal scales within which
organisms react to each other and to the environment
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1.2.5 Community or ecosystem diversity
Ecosystem diversity is the variety of plants, animals and micro organisms communities,
assemblages and habitats within a region.
Recently, community and ecosystem diversity terms are used interchangeably as an
ecological system, whether individual, population or community, which cannot be
studied in isolation to the environment.

The study of ecology and ecosystems in the oceans are not straightforward as
boundaries of ecosystems in the ocean are loosely defined e.g. ‘estuarine
ecosystem’ or ‘coral reef ecosystem’ and very difficult to demarcate, which
renders quantitative measurements difficult.
1.2.6 Habitat diversity
Habitat diversity is the variety of plants, animals and micro organisms or biotic
components within a given physical area.

Habitats are more useful for the quantification of biodiversity compared to
ecosystems as boundaries are clearly defined and easy to envisage, e.g.
mangrove forest, estuary or coral reef.
Interactions, relationships of species and processes that affect diversity in habitats
traverses through different scales.
Small scales of species interact with each other and compete for the same resources in
a particular habitat and are called within- habitat (area) diversity or (α) alpha diversity.
Interactions can also be at larger scales across several habitats or community
boundaries and are called between-habitat (area) or beta (β) diversity.
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Diversity at regional scales where evolutionary rather than ecological processes operate
is called landscape or gamma (λ) diversity and spans over mosaic of habitats at
hundreds of kilometers.
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1.3 Biodiversity measurement
The definition of biodiversity is so dynamic to imply any simplicity with which it can be
measured. The differences in biodiversity with respect to biochemistry, biogeography,
evolutional history, genetics, morphology or physiology or the ecological roles can be
expressed in a variety of ways. Different ways exist of measuring variation in
biodiversity with not any being an all embracing estimate. However, measures of
biodiversity should desirably aim at identifying the processes that regulate variation in
biodiversity and species composition in the respective communities. Explanation of
processes that regulate biodiversity is obtained through data collection that maximizes
the detection of biodiversity variation and minimizing the number of potential processes
that influence biodiversity.
1.3.1 Measures of biodiversity
Biodiversity within a certain bounded area is measured in three ways, namely:
i.
Species richness, number of species in a sample, whether habitat, biotope,
community or assemblage or species density if the sample size is expressed in
terms of area;
ii.
Abundance, the numbers of individuals of a species within a sample, whether
habitat, biotope, community or assemblage or species density if the sample size
is expressed in terms of area; and
iii.
Evenness, the relative distribution of individual species among each of the
different objects or conversely the degree of dominance by a particular species.
These three measures may be applied across the three geographical areas of alpha,
beta and gamma diversity.
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Amongst all numerous approaches existing to measure biodiversity, species richness is
the most common measure due to practical reasons:

Practical application: it is measurable in practice and is a common estimation for
comparisons of different biodiversity measurements,

Existing information: Information of already measured species richness exists
and
available in literature;

Surrogacy: it acts as a surrogate or a proxy for various other measures of
biodiversity; and

Wide application: commonly used unit in management, legislation and for political
discourse.
Limitations of using species richness as biodiversity proxy exist:

Definition of species: there is no clear agreement on the common definition of the
species concept. For instance cryptic species may arise if a population with
coherent morpho-species may actually exhibit genetically divergent different
species based on the latter alternative basis of defining the species concept. A
biological species concept might exhibit a lower number of a particular species,
while the phylogenetic species concept will elevate the previous low figure;

Different kinds of diversity: variation between two distant species might be shown
in the variation of morphology and evolutional history, while number of species in
an assemblage is the same; and

Scale dependence: the interaction between numbers and area is strong at microand meso-scales, while very weaker at large sizes of bio-geographical or global
areas. Standardization of sizes of areas for comparative reasons is also
complicated, as only few studies have documented within-region species area
relationships.
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
The interaction between number of species and time or species-time relationship
has been explored very little. It is difficult to distinguish between the species-time
relationships as differentiating between ecological or evolutional time-span is not
simple. Complete records of species numbers exists only in brief time periods
and the number of species present at a specific time changes due to:
o regular movements of species over time on daily, ontogenetic seasonal
and annual bases. Sampling between periods will underestimate the
number of species present;
o Changes over time due to colonization or extinction events, due to
stochastic or deterministic changes in conditions; and
o Chance occurrence of species in an area

Species status: species occurring in an area are not all of an equivalent status as
they may occur for brief periods, may not breed or not have self-sustaining
populations. These species tend to be accidentals, transients, vagrants, casuals,
immigrants, incidentals, strays, tourists, and waifs.

Recorder effect: incompleteness of species inventories.

Relative or absolute measures: the question remains whether we need to base
our studies on relative species numbers or estimates of overall (absolute)
species richness.

Sample strategies: we should determine species richness in conjunction with
information on levels and distribution of sampling effort. We as ecologists believe
that statistical estimates are based on the assumption of random sampling
designs, whereas stratified sampling designs are also advantageous when
environmental gradients (oceanographic transect sampling) for obtaining
representative samples and cost-effectiveness.
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1.3.2 Diversity indices
For each of
the different measures of
biodiversity, indices are calculated
mathematically. Diversity indices rarely include all or even most taxa in a community or
species inventories can never be complete due to natural variation, mobility and
logistics. These indices, therefore tend to be statistical generalizations.
Shannon’s (H') (Shannon-Weaver, 1949) and the Simpson’s (D) (Simpson, 1949)
diversity indices are the most common statistical measurements. These indices are
denoted by the following equations:
H' = - ∑(pi log pi)
where pi is the proportion of the total sample, whether habitat, biotope, community or
assemblage (i.e., of the total number of individuals or total biomass) composed of
species i.
The Simpson’s diversity index is denoted by the equation:
λ = ∑ p2i
Simpson’s index is an index of dominance and is inversely related to evenness and
richness and can be expressed as:
D=1–λ
Diversity indices differ in the degree to which they emphasize species richness against
species evenness. In some instances one index might reflect no significant changes
while the other can show statistically significant difference (i.e., the number of species
might not change while the relative abundance does). If the changes in relative
abundance indicate an effect by a process, it is appropriate to use an index that
emphasizes evenness more than richness, such as the Simpson’s D. An ecological
process in such a situation would for an example be the process of competitive
displacement prior to competitive exclusion and extinction.
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
It is crucial to include several indices or statistics in a particular ecological
research to represent the collection wholly.

We should be able to provide several diversity indices together with their
variance, when the diversity of a habitat, community or biotope is described.

It is also critical to employ a statistical measure that will allow a reliable estimate
of community properties relevant to the diversity question studied.
1.3.3 Endemism
Endemism expresses the minimum range for a species that occurs nowhere else,
defined by scale. It is normally the assumption that local endemics are of highest
conservation priority as they are vulnerable to local disturbances. Wide-ranging species
can be equally vulnerable when one life-history function is restricted to a small area,
such as nursery grounds of fishes, sea turtles, albatrosses and seals.
The Rapoport’s Rule, which expresses species ranges at high or low latitudes, assumes
that the mean size of species ranges decrease toward lower latitudes. This trend results
in fewer species of high latitudes with large ranges and is ascribed to:
 Less long-term environmental change for higher latitudes; and
 Species that evolved to favour lower temperatures since the last glacial period
are few.
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1.4 Patterns of biodiversity
1.4.1 Temporal patterns
Diversity changes at any temporal scale, by hour or season, through environmental
succession, or in response to climate change. Community composition changes when
species enter or exit a certain habitat:

some species are active at night;

some in daylight;

others during twilight hours of morning or evening; and

other seasonally.
Succession of time has differential biogeographic effect:

In polar regions, diversity increases with springtime;

In tropical regions, lunar and weather cycles change species richness;

On decadal time-scale, El Niño and La Niña cycles causes major shifts in
distributions of sea life;

On evolutional time-scale Pleistocene periods of glaciations throughout all
latitudes, environmental shifts changed species diversity and abundance.
Succession of time has differential functional effect, i.e. community’s form and function
progress over time when one species or species guild is replaced by another. Certain
species colonizes an area first and set condition for others to follow, where the
succession of communities is progression to a mature, stable and more complex
association , which function differently than the predecessors.

E.g. phytoplankton undergo changes in mid- to high latitudes of high productivity
during an upwelling season from small diatoms to larger diatoms as species
richness increases. The decline of nutrients, during maturation of upwelled water,
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diatom stock decreases producing sinking resting stages and the community of
diatoms is replaced by small, dinoflagellate species.

The decline of oxygen concentration causes a change from complex
heterotrophic organisms to simple communities of bacteria that withstand anoxic
conditions.
1.4.2 Spatial patterns
1.4.2.1 The latitudinal pattern of diversity
Diversity increases from poles to the tropics in terrestrial ecosystems and is highest in
tropical rain forests. Marine ecosystems epifauna diversity increases from the Arctic to
the tropics. The Arctic is evolutionary younger and has low biodiversity and endemism
compared to the Antarctic. The difference in latitudinal pattern occurring in the Arctic
and the Antarctic is ascribed to:

the geographic isolation of the Antarctic for biodiversity generation,

differential production processes; the Arctic is dominated by commercial fish
species, whereas the high biodiversity pattern in the Antarctic is attributed by
invertebrates supporting upper trophic levels constituted by birds and mammals,
and lastly

the glaciations as recently glaciated latitudes are low in diversity
Higher diversity patterns towards the tropics are noticeable through an increase in
species, genus and family levels of bivalve molluscs.
Clines of biodiversity with latitude are always not clear, as:

seaweed (macroalgal) diversity is higher in intermediate latitudes at the
temperate than at tropics and lowest at the poles.
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
The Southern Hemisphere is also devoid of an incline pattern from the poles to
tropics as the Antarctic is diverse in numerous taxa.
1.4.2.2 The longitudinal pattern of biodiversity
The Indo-Pacific region (Indonesian archipelago) is longitudinally regarded as the
epicenter of diversity shown in the coral genera and species (Fig.1 ).
Fig.
Longitudinal
marine
biogeography
or
species
diversity
contours.
(http://globallast.imo.org/index.asp?page=problem.htm&menu=true)
Diversity values fall westwards through the Pacific, but irregular across the Indian
Ocean from the Indo-Pacific epicenter, declining and then rising in the Red Sea and
Africa but low in the Caribbean.
Species radiate from the epicenter and this diversity pattern is ascribed by:

A long period of evolutional stability, and

the large diversity of types of islands and archipelagos, which differ in size,
geological history and their radius from sources of colonizing species.
Speciation during periods of isolation or formation of islands is called allopathic
speciation, which occurs when physical boundaries between populations are created.
Speciation also occurs during subsequent reunification of separated populations and is
called sympatric speciation. The succession of allopatric and sympatric speciation
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occurred during periods of massive extinctions followed by rapid evolution and
speciation.
1.4.3 Disturbance
Biotic communities flourish under optimum conditions and fluctuate between highs and
lows in patterns of species dominance and production.
Disturbance is a normal feature of communities and environments, determines
colonization, species diversity, and ecological function. Disturbance ranges from:

Storms, dredging, bioturbation, pollution or arrival of new species that disrupts
spatial structures, temporal oscillations, species’ behavior, and community
interactions;

Intermediate levels of disturbance that creates space for colonization by species
and maximizing biodiversity, the “intermediate disturbance hypothesis”.

Absence of disturbance that explains the uniform, relative stability, and low
biodiversity in deep-water environments.
Other patterns of biodiversity include reverse latitudinal gradients, altitudinal gradients
and radial gradients.
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1.5 Importance of biodiversity
We as humans have developed a relationship with biodiversity, hence the entrenched
responsibility to protect all living things. We depend on living things for a variety of
reasons and essential services such as food, medicines and raw materials. We are also
like the beauty that surrounds and therefore the willingness to sacrifice in order to
preserve the beauty that surrounds us. Biodiversity, including coastal and marine
biodiversity, if consumed sustainable is preserved as a guarantee for the future or for
consumption and appreciation by future generations.
1.5.1 Products from coastal and marine realm
Foods produced by the coastal and marine realm, which include marine fish,
invertebrates and algae, are directly consumed by us. We alter the marine food web
and therefore are part of the trophic cycle. The current population growth coupled with
demand for food is not commensurate to the potential produce, and the dilemma
remains with the maintenance of viable populations of finfish and shellfish. Effective
management and enforcement in coastal and marine habitats is crucial to reverse
biodiversity threats hampering current and future sustainable harvesting.
Medicines and tools for biomedical research have evolved over time, but humans were
depended on herbal medicine before the advancement of modern science. Herbal
medicine evolved from the knowledge that terrestrial, sessile plants acquired through
evolution defensive mechanisms to deter predators, parasites and competition, hence
exploitation of the underlying chemical properties of these herbal defense mechanisms
by the pharmaceutical industry. The discovery of pharmaceutical potential of coastal
and marine realm has been enhanced by the recent development of scuba gear
technology.

Cod and shark liver oils are used as sources of vitamin D and A,

Compounds of arabinosodes in extracts of sponges are used to treat herpes
infections,
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
antitumor agents have marine bryozoans origins while tunicate ascidians are
being harvested for active agents, didemnins, used as anticancer medicines,

indirect use include sources of chemicals whose pharmacology permits the
studying cellular communication in nerve cells,

coral reefs are being used in cosmetic surgery as bone grafts for people requiring
maxillofacial and cranial surgery
Raw materials are products used without modification and include:
Primary producers, algae and cyanobacteria, are found at the base of the trophic
pyramid and are used for polysaccharides. Seaweeds for example kelp Macrocystis
pyrifera, Ascophyllum nodosum and various types of Laminaria spp. are important for
alginate. Alginate or alginic acid is a viscous gum useful for food, technological and
medical applications. Cultivation of agar weeds such as Gracillaria spp. and Gelidium
spp. is becoming economically important in countries such as Brazil, Chile and other
South American and Asian countries.
Mangrove trees are used to extract tannin used in leather industry and as wood for
construction, fuel and charcoal. Unsustainable use increasingly threatens mangrove
ecosystems and in addition to destruction for agriculture, housing and mariculture.
Marine animals are sources of raw materials through lime or lime products obtained
from corals. Marine crustaceans are currently being used for derivation of chitin, a
polysaccharide used in medicine as a surgical thread, in water purification units and in
agriculture as a fertilizer that helps build immune systems in plants.
Biochemical diversity of coastal and marine animals, plants and microorganisms is only
being explored and the expansion or more discoveries of uses is inevitable, hence the
need to conserve coastal ecosystems
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1.5.2 Ecosystem services
Marine ecosystems benefit coastal areas given that mangrove forests and coral reefs
protect the coastal areas against storms and waves along low-lying tropical areas. This
protection renders human settlements less prone to cyclones and tsunamis ad other
climatic disasters.
1.5.3 Marine and coastal areas as sources of information
The biodiversity has supplied the humankind with information far beyond the knowledge
biology could offer.
We have acquired knowledge on the ecology of unknown species and the evolution of
predation and anti-predation mechanisms by studying biodiversity as a discipline.
The concept of keystone species is important for conservation. Uncommon species are
vital in the ecosystems in which they are found and removal of uncommon species
might not be noticeable, but the effect on the ecosystem composition, structure and
function is profound.
The fossil record of marine organisms such as the foraminifera’s is more complete for
the study of climatic history. The co-evolution of predators and prey is observed through
differential development of shell characteristics of molluscs and feeding appendages of
the co-occurring crustaceans. These features vary from being most developed in the
Indo-West Pacific, moderately developed in the Eastern Pacific and least developed in
the Atlantic. This evidence of predator-prey records let to the understanding by
evolutionary biologists to understand the conditions under which adaptations and
counter-adaptations took place.
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1.5.4 Aesthetic and recreational resources
Diverse cultures have a special connection with biodiversity and aesthetic appreciation
of biodiversity motivates conservation.

Coastal and marine biodiversity has inspired artistic works in the form paintings,
poetry, stories and music.

Populations worldwide enjoy whale watching, scuba diving, sport fishing, and
shell collecting, aquarium keeping and visiting public aquaria to indicate the
appreciation of biodiversity.

The Mediterranean, France, and Greece are very popular tourist destinations and
stewardship for coastal areas inspires the need to eliminate sources of marine
pollution.
Conversely, aesthetic appreciation has become a mixed feeling as trafficking of species
such as turtles, corals have become rare and endangered through their aesthetic
appeal. Whereas aesthetic feelings have also stimulated the formation of conservation
groups for species nearest and dearest to humans, such as marine mammals whales,
dolphins and seals.
1.5.5 Marine and coastal areas of high biological importance
1.5.5.1 Areas of high diversity
The concept of species diversity is simple and easy to map and is used to rank areas or
pinpoint biodiversity hotspots. This ranking function is long in use terrestrially, while
marine and coastal conservationists have recently started using it for mapping and
identifying Marine Protected Areas.

Caution should be applied when using it solely as a measure of conservation
priority.
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Example:
It will be regarded as better to conserve an area with 500 species than
one with 300, if the 300 are included in the 500. It might be that the 300
are not among the 500 species. The smaller assemblage might also have
important species that the community would want to conserve for
economic importance, ecological importance or endangerment
An area that inhabits the only remaining coelacanth species merit special
conservation priority even if the area is less diverse than adjacent areas.

Species diversity differs on both ecological and biogeographical spatial scales.
Example:
Is it very important to conserve a coral reef with 60 fish species or a
mangrove forest with 40 fish species. The coral reef in this case is species
poor, while the mangrove forest is unusually species-rich.

Using high species diversity as a sole criterion on a biogeographic scale
simplifies decision making.
Example:
Indo-West Pacific especially the area between Indonesia, the Philippines,
and northeastern Australia is richer than any other area and this will
render the conservation of the rest of world unprecedented.

The importance of high species diversity as a measure of conservation priority
should be used within but not among different biogeographic regions. Similarly
within biogeographic regions, it should be used within ecosystems types but not
among them.

Depending on what is regarded as importance to conserve a particular area, high
diversity areas may not be critical for various reasons:
o Certain areas may be lower in diversity than other, but serve a significant
ecological role such as being nursery grounds or productivity supports the
food webs.
o May provide important seasonal biodiversity roles such as courtship or
spawning areas, nursery grounds, migration corridors, and stop over
points.
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1.5.5.2 Areas of high endemism
Species with small geographic ranges have small populations and are prone to
extinction than species with large ones. A small biogeographic range renders an entire
small population overwhelmed by an adverse condition.

Endemism is common in temperate and tropical regions where latitudinal
temperature gradients are steep and where species have found refuge from
environmental fluctuations. Southwestern Cape of South Africa, and temperate
Australia are but one of the examples of such regions.

Pockets of endemism are also characterized by areas that reflect the isolation of
island or ocean basins, such as the South Atlantic oceanic islands, especially St.
Helena, Ascension; and the Galápagos Islands.

Endemism is also found in some ecological groups such as the high intertidal
invertebrates.

Many species have undergone range contractions according to fossil records and
refuges of this species are areas of high productivity or proximal to continents.
These areas are the eastern Pacific areas and eastern Atlantic or areas also
bounded by eastern boundary upwelling ecosystems.

Although there is limited knowledge, conservation of areas of endemic species
and areas that provide refuge for previously wide-ranging species is
recommended.

It is fundamental that no population persist if constituents thereof are
overexploited or the resource base throughout the range of distribution is
destroyed, irrespective of the size of the range
1.5.5.3 Areas of high productivity
It is not only important to conserve components of areas (populations, species and
ecosystems), but critical ecological processes that maintain and are maintained by
these components such as primary production
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
Shallow estuaries and coral reefs has a high gross productivity and harbours
highest populations of fish-eating marine mammals and birds
Two key factors affect coastal and marine productivity:

The rate of nutrient renewal; and

The amount of light available to plants.
Nutrient and light availability is not uniform in space and time
Example:
Productivity decreases as you move offshore as nutrients-rich materials
sink below the photic zone with limited replacement of their nutrients.
Contrary, nutrient levels are high under polar ice with limited light which
limits productivity. Nutrient concentrations are higher on continental
shelves and slopes, because of nutrient availability, vigorous vertical
mixing and in upwelling areas.
Upwelling occurs mainly on the western coasts of continents and is usually driven by
persistent upwelling favourable winds that drives the surface away from the coast and
the consequent replenishment by cold, nutrient-rich water from depths. These upwelling
areas of high productivity sustain major fisheries as their short, efficient food chains
yield more fish per unit of primary production to the benefit of humans, seabirds and
mammals.
Alteration of wind and weather patterns every few years is caused by a change in the
ocean-atmosphere system called the Southern Oscillation of tropical Pacific. This
causes the weakening of upwelling off Peru, a phenomenon called El Niño, and the
reduction in primary productivity.
Coastal and upwelling areas constitute a small fraction of the coastal or marine realm,
but with high primary production, hence prioritization for conservation.
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1.5.5.4 Spawning areas that serve as sources of recruits
Most coastal and marine animals have a planktonic larval phase, which is variable in
duration from weeks, months and even years. This planktonic phase is dispersed over
the progression of development at long distances owing to their incapability to resist or
withstand currents. Coastal and marine species adapt their maintenance strategies to
ensure retention of dispersed larval phases within the ecological range of the adults
through spawning a t strategic distance from their habitat, preventing the progression of
species’ further downcurrent. Adults migrate for spawning to a location that ensures,
under normal conditions, the dispersal to favourable juvenile and adult habitat, which is
called life-cycle closure.
Example:
Salmonid species migrate from the ocean to streams to spawn. Several
species of tunas have wider ranges that extend from tropical to temperate
waters. The bluefin tuna (Thunnus maccoyi) is distributed between 30°S
and 50°S and spawns in small area between northwestern Australia and
Java.
This concept of life-cycle closure is very important for protection and management of
biodiversity:
 Spawning areas are not similar and no less crucial to conservationists
assemblages during spawning can be prone to overexploitation, hence
management practices such as closed seasons during spawning times.
1.5.5.5 Nursery grounds
All life history developmental stages occupy similar grounds or habitats, but juvenile
stages have elevated requirements than adults. Juvenile stages need habitats in which
they can avoid competition and predation. Estuaries are the most important nursery
habitats. Three quarters of fisheries landings in the United States are estuarine
dependent species. Estuaries are highly productive owing to persistent mixing of water
by winds, riverine inflow, and tidal flow which resuspends nutrients from the bottom
sediments for surface photosynthesis.
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Example:
The warm temperate, subtropical, and tropical commercial shrimps,
lobsters depend on the inshore nursery habitats in bays and estuaries.
Though nursery habitats are not aesthetically appealing, their ecological and economic
importance is great and their vulnerability to anthropogenic disturbance merit high
priority for protection.
1.5.5.6 Migration stopover point and bottlenecks
Many coastal and marine species are highly sedentary and sessile and are fed by
currents, while others are highly migratory covering hundreds or thousands of
kilometers in the journeys within their breeding or life-cycle. Marine animals have
predictable migration patterns in response to predictable availability of food at different
places at different times. Birds and whales have stopover points on their energy
demanding migrations and coupled with low productive rates are at risk of exploitation
at stopover points, such as beaches and wetlands. Wetlands are altered rapidly from
anthropogenic effects, while migrations routes are prone to be subjected to accidents,
such as oil spills.
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1.6 Threats to biodiversity
1.6.1 Overexploitation
Commercially valuable populations are overexploited in their ranges or accidentally as
by-catches. Fish stocks have collapsed since 1970’s and the collapse of the Namibian
pilchard industry is testimony to an overexploited resource.

Overexploitation of commercial target fish species leads to changes in size
distribution, local extinctions and consequent loss of genetic diversity.

The decline in commercial species (cod, hake, herring and pilchard) also leads to
the prominence of less valuable species (sand eels and sharks).

Changes in fish composition affects trophic dynamics as other species
dependant on overharvested fish species such as sea birds and mammals are
adversely affected.

Poorly discriminating fishing gear such as gill netting and deep-sea trawling
cause incidental intake and destruction of the habitat for species other than
target species, which escalate the loss of biodiversity and ecosystem functions.
Long-lived species such as molluscs and echinoderms are destroyed leading to
the loss of ecological function of biogeochemical cycling.

Harvesting of predatory invertebrates, such as snails, sought as souvenirs in
tropical areas changes biodiversity. The control function of the prey population in
the population dynamics is removed.
Other detrimental or destructive harvesting techniques include the use of explosives
and cyanide in coral reefs. Accidental harvesting through by-catches affects the already
dwindling coelacanth populations in the Comoro islands to near extinctions.
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1.6.2 Physical alteration
Physical conditions determine the community of species that live in that ecosystem. The
change of physical conditions of a certain habitat or biotope will change the composition
and functioning of the biological community. Several habitats add to landscape diversity
and the preservation of habitats maintains biodiversity.
Intentional alteration of coastal ecosystems through changing the structure of seabed
and characteristics of the overlying waters cause fragmentation and removal of habitats,
hence altering ecosystem function. Intentional alterations vary from:

Logging of mangrove forests and destruction of coral reefs or by eliminating
species and altering ecosystem productivity. The large tracts of mangroves in
Indonesia have been lost and these purposeful eradications in countries such as
Philippines and Ecuador are done in favour of shrimp farming.

South East Asia contains 30% of the coral reefs and it’s believed that without
drastic conservation measures coral reefs will be lost in the next four decades.

Wetlands, estuaries and sea grass beds are key nursery areas for fish and are
lost through coastal development, estates, jetties, and pipelines.

Sand mining is also a physical disturbance that resuspends sediments, stressing
ecosystems for long distances down current

Dredging and filling through navigation channels cut through marshes, forest
fragments and wetlands. Dredging alters the bottom topography and causes
massive sediment resuspension, which harm filter-feeders. Resuspended
particles take up oxygen causing localized incidences of hypoxia and anoxia.

Dumping of dredged material in coastal and marine environments harms benthic
organisms by burial, clogging feeding apparatus of organisms and changing the
average grain size of the seabed that alter the benthic community. Dredged
material has toxic chemicals and spreads pollution from dredged sites to
dumping sites.
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
Mining and oil and gas development has entered estuaries and continental
slopes which smother biodiversity through oil spills, construction of associated
pipelines, disposal of drilling mud etc.

Anchoring, trampling and visitation cause long-term damage to the substrate and
increase sedimentation.

Watershed
alteration
construction
of
hydroelectricity
the
through
dams
and
Eastern
Mediterranean.
for
irrigation
significantly changes nutrient and
sediment transport to coasts. The
Nile
Delta
is
sinking
at
an
alarming rate due to the lack of
sediment input and erosion. The
Nile
Delta
empties
into
the
Eastern Mediterranean Sea and
the reduction of nutrient loads
discharged by the Nile Delta led
(from
source/artsci.wustl.edu/~anthro/
to the collapse of the fisheries in
courses/306/geography.htm)
1.6.3 Pollution
Coastal areas have become ideal repositories for by-products of industries. Pollution
through heavy metals in areas of mining waste run-off and industrialized estuaries or
fjords causes threats to marine or coastal biodiversity.

Organic chemicals such as PCBs and dioxins mimic the hormonal reproductive
changes in terrestrial species, but their effects on marine life are uncertain.

Eutrophication through excess nutrients and sewage discharge alters species
compositions both in pelagic water columns and benthic communities and
eventual changes in biodiversity. Eutrophication also affects dissolved oxygen
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concentrations and the encourage occurrence of harmful algal blooms, which is
linked to mass mortalities. Human consumption of tropical fish fed on bioaccumulated toxins in algae leads to a nerve and cardiovascular condition called
ciguatera.

Chemical pollution through toxic chemicals and radionuclides enter coastal
environments through air, fresh water, land and sea. The entry of these
pollutants are from non-point source pollution of emissions from vehicles and
power plants; water run-off into drainage channels, streams, rivers and estuaries
from agricultural activities, urban areas or through improper disposal. Chemical
pollutants might also enter the coastal areas through point sources, readily
defined points, discharged into groundwater, streams, and rivers, liquid industrial
wastes, sewage sludge and contaminated dredged materials
Oil spills are traditionally regarded as the detrimental form of pollution until recent
findings that chronic oil pollution from land and shipping exceeds oil spills. Half of the
crude oil is transported by sea and chronic spills from tankers are devastating. Chronic
oil pollution contributes more than half the oil entering the sea from marine terminals,
through:

Disposal of drilling mud in exploration of oil, municipal and industrial wastes,

and atmospheric fall-out from incomplete combustion of oil in motor vehicles.
Animals are damaged through coating, asphyxiation, and poisoning by direct contact or
ingestion.
Solid waste by marine litter decreases the aesthetic value of our coast to the detriment
of the national tourism potential. Litter has been from three main sources, namely”

Drainage sources from land

Beach littering by tourist

Discards from ships/vessels in the form of fishing nets and other processing and
packaging materials from fishing vessels.
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Fig. The composition of different material as shown in the pie-chart below:
Discards are potentially harmful or fatal to turtles and seals as they become entangled
or ingest debris.
1.6.4 Species invasions (alien species) or introductions
Alien species are regarded as organisms that have been transported by human
activities, intentionally or accidentally, into regions they have not occurred historically.
These invasions have clear, often devastating impact in their new locations, or might
have no apparent effect, or can be viewed as positive addition to the ecosystem
The introduction of ctenophores or comb jellies through ballast water from the east
coast of the United States has led to the alteration of the trophic web in the Black Sea.
The presence of a planktonic phase in most of the marine species makes transportation
through ballast water almost possible (Fig.).
Fig. The life cycle of prawns and clams respectively both displaying the crucial
planktonic
stage
necessary
for
transport
with
ballast
water.
(from
http://globallast.imo.org/images/).
This irreversible dispersal of species across the oceans changed the ecosystems
around the world:
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
The European Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) has infested internal
waterways in the USA;

The Asian kelp (Undaria pinnatifida) has invaded southern Australia displacing
native seabed communities;

The filter-feeding North American jelly fish (Meiopsis leidyi) has led to the
collapse of the entire Black Sea commercial fisheries; and

The toxic, microscopic dinoflagellates responsible for ‘red tides’ contaminates
shellfish (oyster).
1.6.5 Global atmospheric change
UV-B radiation: Our earth is shielded by the stratospheric ozone layer, but it is damaged
by human produced and upward migrating compounds such as chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs). Ozone depletion causes the exposure to UV-B radiation and damage to coastal
and marine biodiversity through:

Reduction of productivity in phytoplankton, zooplankton and juvenile stages of
some pelagic species in the surface waters, both in coastal and oceanic water
bodies.

UV-B radiation has detrimental effects on the symbiotic zoozanthelae in corals.
Climate change: the distribution of the earth’s heat is determined by the presence of
atmospheric gasses such as CO2 and methane. The diminishing levels of these gasses
lower their greenhouse effect and consequently Earth’s surface becoming warmer or
colder.
Global climate change will cause an alteration of circulation and consequent disruption
of heat distribution to areas where climate depends on heat carried by ocean currents.
Large shifts in ecosystems associated with alteration of circulation will be displayed by:

change in ecosystem composition, structure, and functions, including nutrient
cycling and productivity and carbon storage,
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
reduced transportation of organisms (planktonic phases), dissolved gasses,
nutrients, and pollutants,

the formation of saline water bound for the deep sea of the equator will be
disrupted at Greenland, Antarctica and subsequent disruption deep sea ecology,

changes in primary production at the surface in upwelling dominated eastern
boundary current systems will be affected and the subsequent reduction in
detritus falling from the surface areas.
Global climate change will also cause an increase in average temperatures of 1°C to
3°C bringing about stresses to biodiversity in coastal and marine ecosystems, through:

Coral bleaching that occurs in the Caribbean, Panama and Indonesia leading to
the death of the highly diverse coral systems,

Sea-ice ecosystems of the Arctic and Southern Oceans will shrink considerably
and subsequent reduction of the polar species,

The physiology, behaviour and reproduction depend on temperature and
determination of sex in species such as sea turtles during embryonic
development will be lost.
Sea level rise is one of the phenomenal consequences of climate change. Countries
such as Maldives and Tuvalu with few meters (2 – 5 m) above sea level will be harshly
affected, whereas it is expected that Bangladesh will lose ± 12 to 28% of the total land
coverage. Wetlands will be damaged irreparably, as their rates of recovery from sea
level rise will be slower than their subsistence and recovery. Sea level rise to coastal
wetland habitats will be tantamount to:

Losses of species diversity contained therein;

Losses of ecological functions provided by wetlands as nursery areas; and

Losses of stabilization and protection of coastlines against hurricanes and
storms.
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Storm events and rainfall patterns are also likely to be affected by climate change as
storms occurring at 100 year intervals will be shortened to 10 years. These anomalies of
storm events and rainfall patterns coastal areas will be tantamount:

High nutrient transport; and

Alteration of mixing process and frontal and current systems.
The effect of climate change on biodiversity depends on how rapid it occurs;
proportionate increase of climate change and related phenomena will not be detrimental
to biodiversity, than a sudden change to another climatic regime.
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1.7 Root causes of biodiversity of threats
Life or biodiversity in coastal ecosystems is threatened by five fundamental reasons:

There are too many people that can be maintained by this life:
o The current demographic trend is catastrophic to the elimination of
products and services needed,
o Increased consumption of non-renewable resources and inequitable
distribution of resources, and
o
consumption, diversion or destruction of primary production that fuels all
terrestrial life:

The benefits of international trading, resulting from the liquidation of nonrenewable resources by developing countries, are one way. Developing countries
are increasingly using their resources for debt commitments, while sharing of
proceeds at national level is skewed, with only few benefiting at the expense of
the local communities.

Degradation of our institutions and neglecting the primary duty of conserving
biodiversity:
o Interconnected ecosystems and economies calls for a cross-sectoral
approach, while many countries, institutions are deploying an overcentralized approach;
o Biodiversity conservation institutions are weak, with limited human capital
and financial resources.
o Environmental legislation is inadequate to protect nature and sustainable
use of biodiversity. On the contrary, if laws exist, the enforcement thereof
is challenging.
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
Insufficient knowledge about the complex functioning of ecosystems, especially
the interaction among species and ecosystems, and the temporal functioning of
coastal and marine biodiversity.

Developed policies tend to lack the reflection of scientific, economic, social, and
ethical values of biodiversity. Decisions are less often communicated to local
communities who are depended on biological resources and who are directly
affected by development projects. The general public does not know enough of
contribution by biodiversity to become advocates of policies that reduces
unsustainable use of resources

Insufficient value we attach to biodiversity:
o Natural ecosystems are undervalued at the expense of mariculture,
justified by urgent needs of food and earning hard currency.
Undervaluation of natural ecosystems occurs due to improper records of artisanal
fishery (direct consumption) compared to commercial harvests creating incentives
to impoverish coastal ecosystems. Benefits of biodiversity are diffuse, e.g. wetland
protection, creating no incentives for conservation and justifying wetland
conversion for uses with great market value.
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1.8 Conservation of biodiversity
The complex coastal and marine ecosystems can be protected and sustainably used
through several tools that decision makers should use, which include:
1.8.1 Political advocacy
Knowledgeable individuals and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) in democratic
countries are active partners of legislators and government officials in biodiversity
conservation programmes.
Advocates should be involved in drafting of policies, passing legislation, creating
regulations and the implementation of biodiversity conservation programmes. Advocacy
of biodiversity conservation is dependent on:

An enabling political environment for the availability of information about
government and private activities and decisions render conservation efforts
effective.

Accountability of the government to the public with respect to biodiversity and
threats.
1.8.2 Expanding knowledge base
Education of the public to value resources that are not seen and are little known makes
biodiversity conservation easier. Knowledge is power and withholding information to the
general public is denying power. Education of the public is an empowerment tool and a
defense tool against biodiversity degradation.
Emphases on biodiversity ecology matters are crucial and reward reaping as unpacking
of all integral components of ecology will motivate and increase the ability of actions by
the general public.
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Individuals of electronic and print media are people who are needed for the coverage of
biodiversity conservation issues and raising their awareness through teaching values of
biodiversity is imperative.
Decision makers should possess up-to-date information and education targeting
decision makers is one inexpensive way of conserving biodiversity.
1.8.3 Science
1.8.3.1 Inventory and research
Scientific research is the sine qua non for sustainable use and protection of biodiversity,
without undermining traditional knowledge for biodiversity conservation.

We need information on various disciplines of coastal and marine ecosystems to
understand issues such as species and ecosystems occurring in our habitats,
feeding ecology, reproductive strategies and distribution, the effects of pollutants
on biodiversity. This information is encompassed in conventional natural science
subject-matters such as taxonomy, physical oceanography, fisheries biology,
ecology, and eco-toxicology.

Social studies are equally important to understand how people make choices,
deal with ownership and use of resources, and how nations structure themselves
in response to foreign influence.

Sciences evolve and it is amusing to realize how the non-essential subjectmatters such as taxonomy are resurfacing as critical components for inventorying
and subsequent biodiversity conservation Other upcoming subject-matters for
biodiversity are marine conservation, biology, marine landscape ecology, and
marine restoration ecology

The strength of science, which determines information given by scientists, is
reliant on the training of researchers, training of trainers, facilities and funding.
These are irrespective of needs of the respective disciplines, i.e. taxonomy
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needs fewer individuals and financing than oceanography, as disciplines are
complementary. Large projects are established and funded at the expense of
equally vital ‘small science’. slush

Scientific research also assembles countries who are otherwise not allowed to
cooperate in areas of politics. Cuba and United States of America (USA)
cooperate on diversity issues, whereas Gulf Arab nations such as Iran cooperate
with the USA on pollution through oil spills in the Persian Sea.
1.8.3.2 Monitoring
The continuous ongoing observation of conditions over time, is crucial for the provision
of important information to reveal trends in ecosystems and for forecasts of their
potential, for earlier warning of either natural or man-imposed catastrophes. There are
very few monitoring programmes geared for biodiversity observation and if they exist
provide only ‘snapshots’ of the situation on the ground. An ideal biodiversity monitoring
programme for error free decisions of conservation should encompass:

The study of dynamic processes, in the genetics of populations and interactions
among ecosystems

Temporal and spatial distribution of biota and their reaction to change, interact
and affect ecosystem processes. Monitoring over a wide geographical area of
interconnected ecosystems and over a long term to provide a contextualized
picture.
1.8.3.3 Information transfer
The management and distribution of existing information contribute greatly to
conservation of biodiversity through the achievement of:

Of providing accessible source of knowledge,

And for providing a platform to identify gaps in the knowledge base to improve
current research, inventory and monitoring.
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1.8.3.4 Training
Training to improve the capacity of biodiversity expertise through formal and informal
education especially in the developing countries is crucial. Subject-matters specialists in
disciplines of taxonomy or systematics are scarce. Training in emerging sciences such
as coastal and marine conservation biology, marine landscape ecology, marine
restoration ecology, and ecological economics will provide needed information to
decision makers. Trained individuals are advocates of conservation in situations where
people are unconvinced about the value of biodiversity. A trained individual who is a
well-respected academic, government official or representative of a conservation
organization with a good understanding of biodiversity can be the difference between
environmentally damaging and environmental sound activities.
1.8.4 Planning
Planning is important in the event of reaction before the event, or as it occurs or after,
and there are at least four effective types or tools of planning:
1.8.4.1 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
Evaluates environmental consequences of proposed developmental projects and
programmes on humans, fauna and flora and entire ecosystems. An effective EIA::

is conducted a priori the implementation and thus early in the planning of the
developmental project or programme,

is holistic, interdisciplinary approach that considers impacts that are both natural
and man-imposed,

Has an a postiori analyses to determine the impacts that occurred for prediction
of future EIAs, and

Does not consider only the least environmentally harmful alternative, but one that
is comprehensive in the analyses of all alternatives of impacts and has
satisfactory public participation for enhanced decisions
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1.8.4.2 Strategic Action Plans (SAP)
SAPs Catalyzes and coordinate actions by presenting priorities for action and by calling
attention to the most critical problems. Action plans should possess:

Representative
consensus
of
scientists,
resource
managers,
and
conservationists,

They should be prepared in collaboration with organizations and individuals who
will be involved in the actual implementation (bottom-up approach) thereof, and

Should have sufficient background information to elucidate most important
actions.
1.8.4.3 Large Marine Ecosystem Management (LME)
Large Marine Ecosystem Management is an answer to the earlier ad hoc management
of biodiversity threats, which treated symptoms while undermining the underlying
causes. Large Marine Ecosystem (LME) approach is a holistic and proactive manner by
which countries with the same functional ecological unit, i.e. with similar bathymetry,
hydrography, and productivity; and to which similar biological populations have adapted
population
maintenance
strategies
(reproduction,
feeding
and
growth),
are
comprehensively managed. A functional ecological unit includes viable stocks, their
prey, predators, and the physical factors that affect their survival. The LME approach
can be strengthened in several ways:

LME approach should be desirably be conducted over a large regions with EEZs
(200 000 km2), but not all important ecosystems are large. There are isolated
banks, seamounts, atoll lagoons, and bays that can be managed effectively and
efficiently as functional ecological units.

LME barely coincides with political borders and this compromise the
implementation of this comprehensive management approach.

LMEs are focus on biomass yields, fisheries production, neglecting many other
components and services biological diversity.

Spatial coverage of EEZs for studies and management is not sufficient.
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1.8.4.4 Integrated Area Management (IAM)
IAM or ICM or ICZM is a solution for the government’s sectoral approach to the
damages incurred in coastal areas. Economic and social sectors within the coastal
areas have been treated separately and this lead to uncoordinated legislation and
regulations resulting in jurisdictional overlaps.
The concept IAM or Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) or Integrated Coastal Zone
Management (ICZM) are approaches that instill coherent set of coastal resources
management policies across sectors in order to achieve coordinated and integrated
management of coastal uses by a coordinating agency. Multiple purposes or uses in a
coastal area include inter alia the following:
 Scientific research;
 Baseline and continuous monitoring of the effect of human activities on the
ecology
 The Establishment of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) for the protection of
nursery grounds of commercially and ecologically important fish and shellfish;
 Coastal development activities such as housing, tourism and fishing; and
 Aesthetic appreciation of the pristine and virtually undisturbed coastal
environments.
An IAM is undertaken as a national coastal zone management (CZM) programme by a
coordinating agency, which can be an inter-ministerial council or commission, an
existing national agency, a local government under the mandate of the national
government, or a special authority with representation from the national, regional and
local governments, community stakeholders.
It is difficult for an IAM agency to achieve multiple goals, making certain that sustainable
development and ecological protection is achieved simultaneously. Specialist ministries
should continue the detail management of individual sectoral or ministerial activities,
such as tourism and fishing, while the coordinating body or agency is responsible for the
following functions:
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 Development of a strategic plan for the coastal zone;
 Oversee sustainable coastal zone development,
 Design of baseline and continuous monitoring activities and biodiversity inventory
studies towards the formulation of the State of coastal and marine Environments
(SoEs) and trends in the essential environmental parameters;
 Design and managing multidisciplinary ecological research programmes aimed at
solving the identified ecological problems;
 Design and implementation of public or stakeholder participation
and public
awareness or education programmes, in order to have informed decisions on
the policy, programmes and actions for sustainable coastal development.
Therefore specific programme are executed by the specific ministries or agencies while
this coordinating body or agency concentrates on policy, strategy, design and
supervision of research programmes. The enabling legislation should be of such that
the conflicts and gaps within the existing legislation are not overriding.
A good IAM approach should be of such that inter-sectoral conflicts, incompatible
activities and a failure to meet the human needs are eradicated or dissipated.
1.8.5 Regulating threats
Conflicts of uses in coastal areas among different sectors of society or government
agencies are resolved through regulations drafted by the national government.
Principles of conducting coastal activities without harming the coastal areas was first
expressed in 1941 by the International Court of Justice and codified by the United
Nations Stockholm Declaration on the Human Environment. The World Charter of
Nature added conservation of biological diversity to the world conservation agenda,
emphasizing the sustainable use of species and ecosystems.
International agreements to which a national government has acceded and ratified are
followed by specific national and local regulatory agreements, which emphasizes on:
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 the equitable use of shared resources;
 responsibility to safeguard harm to another’s environment;
 the obligation to prevent transboundary pollution;
 duty to compensate for transboundary harm caused by authorized coastal or
marine activities;
 and limits to ship-based pollution and protection of the zone layer
In so far as management of the coastal zone is desirably conducted holistically and not
sectorally, regulation is carried out by regulatory agencies that coordinate coastal
activities minimizing the infringement on each other and subsequently diminishing the
effectiveness in conserving biodiversity.
Achieving the objectives of regulations are dependent on:

The diligent and consistent implementation of regulations; and

public education on the need for regulations.
1.8.5.1 Taking and trade controls
Transboundary, national and local controls on takings are used to impose bans on the
direct and incidental kills of listed species as stipulated for adherence in CITES.
Example:
The US has created an InterAmerican Tropical Tuna Commission (IATTC
that monitors the incidental killings of dolphins as by-catches through
purse seine nets.
1.8.5.2 Control alien species
Controls through national legislation on invasive or alien or non-indigenous species
strive to achieve:

Preventing intentional introductions, such as importing species used in
mariculture, and accidental introductions; and

Preventing the dispersal of ecologically harmful introductions, such as zebra
mussels and harmful ctenophores, through ballast water
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Example:
Regulatory attempts to ensure the dumping of ballast water in the open
sea or ocean instead of bays or estuaries.
1.8.5.3 Pollution controls
International obligations to protect and preserve the integrity of the coastal and marine
environment is affirmed UNCLOS III of 1983. This control is reinforced in the London
Dumping Convention and the Oslo Convention that ensures dumping of wastes with a
permit from an appropriate authority. There are several regional agreements such as
the 1974 Helsinki Convention on the Baltic Sea and the 1983 Caribbean Convention
that strives for the health of shared waters as a result of reducing and controlling
pollution from ships, dumping, coastal disposal, and discharges from internal waters.
Example:
1.8.5.4 Shipping safety and transport controls
Shipping safety was one of the initial international measures aimed protecting the
coastal waters through vessel design specifications (double hull and tankers). The UN
1973 MARPOL Convention governs the dumping of garbage, sewage, oil, chemical,
and hazardous waste.
Example:
The earlier oil disasters or spills in the US prompted for the formulation of
tight pollution law on liability for damages caused by oil spills, the polluterpays principle which are in effect incentives than payments or levies.
1.8.5.5 Trade and tax authorities
Trade and taxation laws are increasingly being used as measures to control activities
that threaten the biological diversity through.

Linking the cost of conducting business in an environmentally sound manner by
trade and tax controls is one indirect measure of preventing pollution; an

Incentives for “clean products”;
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
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) is a potential tool for reducing
threats on biodiversity, albeit its current ineffectiveness in countering the effects
of trade.
The GATT treaty should not be extended to national laws and
regulations, workplace safety standards, consumer labeling and environmental
safety standards.
The latter downward impositions will render international
standard for environmental protection the lowest common denominator and
portray national environmental policies as blockades to international trade.
1.8.6 Economic tools
The world today is driven by the economy at all levels governance, being for
international, national or business decision making. Economics are of such that they
devalue the integrity and diversity of the coastal areas and should be devise in the way
that they promote sustainable development
1.8.6.1 Usage rights
The viability of coastal ecosystems are dependent on the ownership and jurisdiction of
coastal and marine resources, which evolved and change over time (Fig).
Fig. Evolution of ownership and jurisdiction of the sea.
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The Law of the Sea distinguishes between territorial seas (12 nautical miles) and
Economic Exclusive Zones, EEZs (200 nautical miles), but controversy remains in the
claims of territorial seas and EEZs by nations. Claims extend far beyond them and
instability of UNCLOS boundaries will placed the entire ocean under the control of
coastal nations. The EEZs have been regarded as a solution to the tragedy of the
commons, but are not devoid of flaws:

The open access of the ocean has become access to anyone of the coastal
nations;

Distant-water fishing vessels overexploit the coastal or marine resources without
any fee of usage; and

Developing countries that receive fees for the usage of resources under their
jurisdiction, rarely use that for environmental protection.
Nations are coming up with measures to dampen the effects of common usage of
resources by use of limited entry, gear restrictions, seasonal closures and licensing. All
of these measures are good, but fails to address the issue of incentives for
conservation. Usage rights or “owning” of resources rights, whether rights or privileges,
are increasingly being used and include:

Ownership;

Property rights;

Harvest privilege; and

Harvest rights.
Example: The individual fishing quota (IFQ) system give the individual fisher indefinite
or periodic exclusive right to a portion of fish stock.
Resources might also be placed under the authority of individual owner, a village or a
spiritual power that control the exploitation of bays, estuaries, lagoons or any other
semi-enclosed bodies
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Artisinal fishers or resource users can be destructive to if operations are in nursery or
breeding grounds and are controlled in some countries by the introduction of
fisherchiefs.
Some usage rights are at odds with customary ownership and resource rights that
causes conflicts of autonomy and equitable distribution of wealth. In such cases,
bottom-up approaches of public participation are more desirable than the top-down
impositions by multilateral aid or donor programmes.
1.8.6.2 Assigning value to non-market resources
Species that do not enter the consumer market have been undervalued and valuation
the attachment of monetary value to non-market resources is also a recent powerful tool
in conservation of biodiversity. This is found very useful in cases of oil spill litigation and
wetland mitigation
Valuation commences with biological inventory of species in a community, the validation
of their worth for services offered:
(i) tourism,
(ii) subsistence,
(iii) commercial,
(iv) recreational fisheries, and
(v) species as crucial components of ecosystems of whose services are of human
benefit.
Ecological economists use various methods to evaluate the worth for services provided
by biological diversity through

travel cost models, the costs a tourist pay to visit a recreational site and based on
the location can calculate travel costs and use that estimate to value the
popularity of the site;

hedonic models, valuation of facilities or services tied with the purchase of
coastal properties, being it air and water quality of the location, pristine beaches
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or dunes, and proximity to
good
recreational
fishing.
Therefore, the
environmental value of the location allows for elevation to the total price; and

contingent valuation method, estimate the value people or concerned groups
consign on the protection of endangered species.
Valuation of resources is followed by the assessment of a particular activity on that
resource, e.g. how discharges affect a semi-enclosed waterbody which supports market
resources.
1.8.6.3 Using market sources
Regulation by incentives or disincentives in the event that prohibition or bans fail. A
producer of a certain market resource is obligated to limit or control pollution by virtue of
decreased demands associated with the negative cost of associated externalities from
the factory. Externalities that prompt for pollution control may include:
(i) the total costs of pollution to the society, and
(ii) including costs to the generations to come, in the form of health problems,
decreased fishing or tourism caused by contaminated resources in the
receiver waterbody, .
The control of pollution by producers is not simple as in most cases economic grounds,
the fear for job losses and higher prices, outweigh the need for biodiversity protection.
Regulation control sometimes failed, whereas economic incentive systems awarded for
the lowering of environmental impacts is proving to be effective
Example:
Users who are able to reduce their emissions or catches below the total
allowable catch can sell the right to sell to others for whom lowering
pollution costs is expensive. Economic incentives in developing countries
include debt-for-nature swap, where debts are written-off in return of
conserving biological diversity, for economic progress in countries such as
Costa Rica, Bolivia, Poland and Madagascar
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1.8.7 Marine Protected Areas
Marine Protected Areas and its conceptual framework is in existence for the past 20
years in the marine realm, trailing the terrestrial counterpart system. Several hundreds
of MPAs have been established over this years and with that a change in their attributes
and effectiveness. It is a standard to integrate MPAs with other management
approaches to protect and maintain coastal and marine biodiversity. The relationship of
MPAs with other management approaches is not clear, MPAs can be broadly defined as
an array of small and highly protected areas, to large multi-use reserves areas and
biosphere reserves in which larger management approaches such as IAM or ICM and
LME can be accommodated. The success of MPAs over the larger management
approaches are dependent on the extent to which the ecological and socioeconomic
factors are taken into account:

Public participation (understanding, involvement and support from indigenous
communities) in the design and objectives of MPAs is essential;

Zonation of MPAs to strike a balance between protection and consumptive uses
is also essential for achieving objectives; and

Integration of MPAs in the broader area management approaches is essential for
controlling inputs from adjacent inland areas that affects species and ecosystems
within areas.
1.8.8 Active manipulation:
Biodiversity losses are inevitable, but there are techniques that help to restore depleted
populations and degraded ecosystems. We should in the same breath understand that
too little is known to put our hopes in restoration or mitigation efforts.
Restoration of areas is growing from our realization on how species depend on their
habitats and how these ecosystems are being destroyed through chemical
contamination and physical degradation. Efforts of manipulation are mostly geared
towards enhancing habitat value for a particular species than restoration, the return of
an area to original composition, structure, and function.
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Example:
The excavation of a salt marsh to provide the depth needed for optimal
feeding for ducks and to other species that need similar conditions.
Contrary, this habitat augmentation results in the elimination of a
shallower habitat needed by wading or diving birds
Ecosystem manipulation is in its infantry phase and experimental and lessons learnt
include:
(i) the need to improve our knowledge of restoration ecology, as much have been
lost already; and
(ii) not over relying on ecosystem manipulation to compensate for losses.
Recovering populations through active manipulation remains an option through a variety
of ex situ and in situ methods. Ex situ conservation in coastal and marine water bodies
is elusive, because maintenance and breeding of species in captivity is impossible,
proved during the recovery of sea turtle populations by the US. Difficulties in rearing
species in captivity, include:
(i) There is no assurance that species bred in captivity will be able to exist
successfully in nature, e.g. feeding itself, migrating and avoiding predators;
(ii) The sex ratios in controlled incubation programmes produce skewed sex ratio’s
and captivity programmes don’t expose species to breeding habitats for imprints,
which preclude the future natural reproduction; and
(iii) Enhancing one life history stage to compensate for losses in the other does little
do population restoration.
Manipulation of populations is not simple, even with those marine species, such as sea
turtles, whose biology is far known than most of the marine species. Active manipulation
should be applied with caution and only when reduction of threats and in situ protection
methods has failed.
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