Subsistence
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Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 1 Class Notes A104 Cultural Anthropology Dr. Ken Barger Department of Anthropology IUPUI, Cavenaugh 413 274-3788 Office 274-8207 Dept kbarger@iupui.edu ©2003 SUBSISTENCE AND ECONOMIC SYSTEMS 1. Economic Anthropology a. Economic Anthropology Economic Anthropology The cross-cultural study of patterns and influences in the production, distribution, and consumption of material goods Humans are social animals Production, distribution, and consumption are social activities Cultural meanings and functions Not just subsistence and technology Culture is an? Material goods/economics integrated with other aspects of culture Cultures are? Economic values vary widely Diversity is? Why? Material Culture: Physical artifacts produced by a cultural group b. Cultural Ecology: A group's cultural responses to its ecological setting Environmental challenges include ? Assumption: The environment has its major impacts on a culture through its subsistence style (system model) This view sees an ecological and economic basis to culture Ecological conditions impact directly on subsistence And indirectly on other aspects of culture through subsistence I do not fully agree Ecozones of the world (Nanda) Ecozones (% of the world's population): Each ecozone has set challenges for groups within its area Ecological variations are also important The world constitutes a larger ecosystem Culture Area: An ecological region where different groups have developed similar cultural adaptations The cultural ecology concept on a regional level Similar adaptations created and diffused within a region Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 2 2. Production, Distribution, and Consumption of Goods a. Production of Goods How societies produce the material goods to sustain their life styles Principles that can influence the production of goods (1) Resources - the materials with which goods are produced Availability of materials to produce goods Abundance - how much of a resource is there Accessibility - usually a big factor in TRADE Desirability Transportation - moving goods and materials involved in production (2) Technology - the means for producing goods Knowledge and skills - conceptual understanding of how to produce goods Group knowledge is most critical Tools (3) Energy - the power to produce goods Use of inanimate energy used to measure technological development But efficiency in use is important in sustaining a society (4) Organization of Work - assigning tasks in production Division of labor in economic production Universals in division of labor in every society: ! Sex - every society divides work on the basis of sex Universals in division of labor by sex: Determined by secondary activities - pregnancy and nursing Other division of tasks by sex varies widely ! Age - every society also divides work on the basis of age Physical labor Otherwise, the specific tasks can vary widely Other principles of organizing work vary widely (5) Economic Units - how people are organized to produce goods Economic production is a group activity Universal: Household (family/extended family) Otherwise economic units vary widely The production of goods is closely related to subsistence style And is also related to the distribution and consumption of goods Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 3 b. Distribution of Goods Principles in how material goods are distributed in a society (1) Reciprocity - the direct exchange of goods between people/groups Infers equal/autonomous status - decision of what/how much ! Generalized reciprocity - giving without obligations No immediate returns expected - everyone has general obligation Exists in all societies - small scale, kinship groups ! Balanced reciprocity - accountable equal giving Giving with expectation of specific return and relative value Exists in many societies... though less in HG, Horticultural, and Herding societies Reinforces social obligations and ties ! Also, Negative reciprocity - structured imbalance in exchange Attempt to build own economic position at others' expense (2) Redistribution - central collection and distribution of goods Distribution is unequal ! Social exchange - exchange of goods across groups for social purposes A universal in all societies For many functions ! Economic leveling - redistribution for socioeconomic equality Social values of equality/harmony between members Strong trait in H/G and horticultural societies Also in some pastoral and agricultural societies ! Trade - indirect exchange of goods between individuals/groups In most societies, trade is important in subsistence Supplements those goods produced for own consumption Barter - the direct exchange of goods for other goods Market exchange - goods exchanged for set medium value Standardized medium of exchange - money, impersonal Prices set by supply/demand Well developed in agriculture and industrial societies Trade exchange is generally not equal Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 4 c. Consumption Principles in the use of a society's material goods (1) Property - rights of possession and use of goods ! Individual - personal right of possession Mostly in peasant agricultural and industrial societies Not common in H/G societies Knowledge and labor is also a commodity in industrial societies ! Household/Family - goods held by family members to use as need Common in all societies- though not many items involved in H/G societies ! Group - joint ownership by whole group Widespread - though not necessarily as "business" ! Common/Public - available for general use as need/desire Most universal concept Nature to be used as needed - cannot "own" Relative emphasis varies from culture to culture Often hard for us to comprehend (2) Consumers ! Individuals - personal items Universal - but relative emphasis varies ! Households - shared living items Universal - but relative emphasis varies ! Social groups (beyond households) Widespread - but relative emphasis varies ! Socioeconomic institutions Widespread - but varies, particularly at societal levels (3) Bases for Consumption ! Basic needs Universal - but relative emphasis varies ! Other economic processes Universal - but relative emphasis varies ! Social Universal - but relative emphasis varies ! Psychological Universal - but relative emphasis varies widely Also ecological and biological considerations in consumption Adaptive functions ? Impacts on adaptation ? Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 5 3. Subsistence Styles a. Subsistence: The means for providing for the primary and secondary needs in life Clear cross-cultural patterns of cultural traits that go along with subsistence styles Assumption of underlying primary influence of ecological/economic factors Each basic subsistence style has a cluster of cultural features: ! General traits ! Economic traits Production Distribution Consumption ! Social organization Demographics Social structure Status and Leadership Political structure Social control ! World View Ideology Values Religion Psychological patterns ! Maintenance of life style Security Leisureness Energy-efficiency A principle that can be applied to all societies A "window" to understand cultural experience Review examples in textbook Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 6 b. Types of subsistence patterns: (1) HUNTING and GATHERING Hunting/Gathering: Full utilization of natural resources in a particular econiche Foraging or harvesting of what Nature has to offer ! Hunting - acquiring animal products ! Gathering - acquiring vegetable products SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES: ! General Traits Small, mobile groups utilizing seasonal resources in regional niches Seasonal nomadism ! Subsistence Production of goods Full utilization of available natural resources Shared technological knowledge/skills Animate/individual energy Division of work by sex - men H over wide range, women local G Immediate relatives form basic economic unit Distribution of goods Social exchange very important - sharing of resources Generalized reciprocity Economic leveling Limited trade Consumption Group and common property Household/kinship consumption Emphasis on basic needs ! Social Organization Demographics Small social groups 15-40 ... in rare cases up to 12,000 (Lakota-Cheyenne at Little Big Horn) Nomadic Some regional interaction with other groups Social structure Extended family Status and Leadership Achieved - individual proven abilities Temporary - occasion and need Political structure Band - small kin-related groups Social control Internalized norms Social bonds/shame ! World View Ideology Oneness with Nature - all life connected Values Equality/cooperation Religion Individual relations with supernatural Small-group rites - shamans, healing/hunting/etc. Psychological patterns Primary identity is group - well-being, etc. Self-sufficiency Self-control Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 7 ! Maintenance of life style Most secure subsistence Most leisurely means of subsistence Most energy-efficient life style NOTE: One notable exception is NW Coast stratified chiefdoms (Kwakiutl) Few remaining HG groups mostly in marginal areas Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 8 (2) HORTICULTURE Horticulture: The care of semi-wild plants for food Enhanced utilization of natural resources in a particular econiche Foraging/harvesting of natural products Plus provides continuous production of some foods naturally existing in ecosetting Also called "extensive cultivation" and sometimes involves swidden/slash-burn agriculture ! Gardening ! Combined with H/G Produces moderate surpluses Generally provides good nutrition Exists mostly in tropical forests SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES: ! General traits Small groups in one local area utilizing garden crops, supplemented by hunting and gathering Semi-sedentary ! Economic traits Production of goods + Enhanced utilization of available natural resources Shared technological knowledge/skills Animate/individual energy Division of work by sex Immediate relatives form basic economic unit Distribution of goods Social exchange very important + Balanced reciprocity Economic leveling Limited trade Consumption Group and common property Household/kinship consumption Emphasis on basic needs ! Social organization Demographics Semi-sedentary villages Moderate social groups 50-500 Regional interaction with other groups Social structure Polygyny Extended family Unilineal descent beyond extended family Status and Leadership Achieved Temporary Political structure Macroband - sometimes chiefdoms Social control Internalized norms and social bonds/shame Sorcery Sustained warfare Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 9 ! ! World View Ideology Oneness with Nature - all life connected Values Equality/cooperation Religion Individual relations with supernatural Small-group rites Psychological patterns Primary identity is group Self-sufficiency Maintenance of life style Also a secure subsistence Semi-leisurely means of subsistence Also an energy-efficient life style Still some horticultural groups around the world (tropical forests) Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 10 (3) HERDING Herding (pastoralism): The care of herds of domesticated animals Extension of natural resources Production of non-natural resources that never existed in Nature in that form ! Domesticated animals ! Also combined with some H/G Also produces moderate surpluses Generally provides sufficient nutrition Exists mostly in marginal areas SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES: ! General Traits Migratory groups moving seasonally with herds of animals Types of nomadism: Transhumance - permanent base with seasonal niches True Nomadism - year-around movement with seasonal resources Large range - seasonal variations ! Subsistence Production of goods Production of non-natural resources Shared technological knowledge/skills, and some labor Animate/individual energy Immediate relatives form basic economic unit Distribution of goods Social exchange important Balanced reciprocity Trade often important Consumption Individual and household property emphasized Household/kinship consumption Emphasis on basic needs ! Social Organization Demographics Larger social groups 50-1,000 Nomadic Some regional interaction with other groups Social structure Extended family Unilineal descent Status and Leadership Ascribed and achieved leadership Some stratification - wealth in stock Political structure Varies from macroband to tribe Social control Internalized norms Social bonds/shame Often strict standards of conduct (Navajos more of an exception) Authority of leaders Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 11 ! ! World View Ideology Generally a oneness with Nature - but some variations Values Equality/cooperation Hard work and achievement Responsibility to group/family Religion Organized group religion Specialist religious leaders Psychological patterns Primary identity is group Self-sufficiency Self-control Maintenance of life style Fairly secure subsistence A fairly demanding means of subsistence Fairly energy-efficient life style Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 12 (4) AGRICULTURE Agriculture: Production of foods with domesticated plants Intensive production of resources that never existed in Nature in that form Also called intensive cultivation, subsistence agriculture, slash-and-burn agriculture ! Domesticated plants ! Usually combined with some herding Also produces substantial surpluses Generally provides sufficient nutrition Substantial expansion of environmental carrying capacity Also substantial impacts on population growth Exists mostly in temperate areas Subsistence peasant agriculture is emphasized here Self-sufficient village-farming groups - produce for own consumption Exist within larger sociopolitical states that are supported by agricultural surpluses SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES: ! General Traits Sedentary communities with higher population density based on production of non-natural resources ! Subsistence Production of goods Production of non-natural resources Specialized technological knowledge/skills Both animate and inanimate energy Strong division of work by sex Immediate relatives form basic economic unit Distribution of goods Social exchange important Balanced reciprocity Trade and market economy very important Consumption Individual and household property emphasized Household/kinship consumption Status also important Surpluses support state structures and urban populations Emphasis on basic and social needs ! Social Organization Demographics Higher population density 1,000-10,000 Sedentary villages/towns Sustained regional interactions with other groups Social structure Extended family Usually unilineal descent Strong separation of sexes Status and Leadership Social stratification Achieved leadership at local level Political structure More centralized political structures Social control Internalized norms Social bonds/shame Formal means of social control Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 13 ! ! World View Ideology Some sense of separation from Nature Values Hard work and achievement Religion Institutionalized religions Psychological patterns Self-sufficiency Self-control Maintenance of life style A somewhat insecure subsistence A very demanding means of subsistence Somewhat energy-efficient life style NOTE: Contemporary emphasis on cash cropping can have dramatic impacts on peasant communities Shift from producing for selves to producing for markets "Poverty", which only exists primarily in cash economies A major focus in "economic development" Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 14 (5) INDUSTRIALISM Industrialism: Mechanical mass production and mass consumption of material goods Intensive production of a wide range of materials that never existed in Nature in that form ! Mass production ! Mass consumption Substantial expansion of environmental carrying capacity Also substantial impacts on population growth Exists in all areas of the World SOCIOCULTURAL FEATURES: ! General Traits Centralized/urbanized states based on mass production and consumption Dense and sedentary settlement patterns High rate of socioeconomic changes ! Subsistence Production of goods Mass production of goods - substantial surpluses Substantial extension of non-natural material resources Insulation from direct ecological influences - but not independent Occupational specialization Developed inanimate energy Large-scale institutionalized economic units Distribution of goods Social exchange important Strong balanced reciprocity Institutionalized trade and market economy Consumption Strong sense of personal property Mass consumption of goods Emphasis on social and status needs ! Social Organization Demographics Large populations Dense/sedentary settlement patterns Individual mobility Social structure Nuclear family Weak bilateral kinship bonds Social bonds based on personal/social characteristics Social stratification National institutions Status and Leadership Achieved Political structure Centralized state political structures Authoritative leadership Complex bureaucracy Social control Internalized norms Social bonds/shame Formal/impersonal means of social control Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 15 ! ! World View Ideology Man against Nature Individualism/independence Values Status, achievement Religion Individual relations with supernatural Institutionalized religions Psychological patterns Primary identity is self Self-sufficiency Expressiveness Maintenance of life style Least secure subsistence Least leisurely means of subsistence Least energy-efficient life style High rate of cultural changes Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 16 c. Principles in Subsistence Styles ! Clear correlations between subsistence style and other cultural features ! Group's interaction with environmental demands/opportunities important Increase in production of unnatural foods/materials Greater surpluses of goods produced But always limits ! As subsistence is more removed from primary ecological resources: Greater effort is invested in maintaining the group's life style And more energy necessary to maintain the group's life style Increasing interdependence - within and across groups ! A world economic system Most societies are economically interdependent We are bound with other societies in larger economic networks Mutually interdependent on each other Useful to understand the principles of cultural systems - including subsistence styles and economic values Meanings and functions We do not have to agree with others' emphases But we do need to understand them For effective mutual relations Barger, A104: Subsistence, Page 17 4. Functions of Subsistence Subsistence is an important part of the adaptation of human groups Types of functions ? Biological functions ? Economic functions ? Social functions ? Psychological functions ? Ecological functions ? Should help maintain balance with environmental conditions Which subsistence style does this the most ? Which subsistence style does this the least ?
