THE INFORMATION SEEKING BEHAVIOR
OF ADOLESCENTS.
A Review of Literature
Michelle Joannides
Prepared for Info511:
Information Resources & Services II
College of Information Science & Technology
Drexel University
INFO 511
Review of Literature
2
Abstract
This review sought to examine the information seeking behavior of adolescents.
The adolescents focused on in these studies were middle to high school age,
approximately 11 to 17 years old, and were from the United States, United Kingdom, and
Canada. Interviews, observations, questionnaires, and group discussions were the
methods most employed by the researchers. Major themes, major author scholars, and
future areas of research are explored in this review.
Keywords
Information needs, information needs – evaluation, young adult, adolescents, information
retrieval, youth, adolescent behavior.
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
3
Introduction
“The foundation of every state is the education of its youth.”
Diogenes Laertius
Teenagers today have technology intertwined in their everyday life, but do they
understand the greatness of what is before them? Generation Y (born 1980-1994) is the
first generation to have such technological advances as the television, personal home
computers, gaming systems, and the internet readily available to them (Weiler, 2005).
Does having these technological devices introduced at an earlier age help when it comes
to finding information? Or have critical thinking and other cognitive skills declined
because of information being passively absorbed versus the old traditional method of
reading (Weiler, 2005)? This paper looks to explore the information seeking behavior of
adolescents as documented through prior research. The literature reviewed will look at
information seeking in the digital age, in the health and medical community, in the career
decision making process, and in everyday life information seeking.
Scope of Research Covered
Information seeking is not a new area of research, but the adolescent population
has only been studied in the past 20 years. This review will examine fourteen peerreviewed scholarly articles that were located using Dialog, LISA, and ERIC databases, as
well as the internet. Library and Information Science journals that were specifically
reviewed were Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, Library and
Information Science Research, School Libraries Worldwide, The Journal of Academic
Librarianship, and Library Trends. Social Science and Medicine was reviewed from the
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
4
Social Science field. For each article to be included in this review evidence of a
qualitative or substantive field study based on empirical research was necessary. Most
articles selected were published in the last 10 years, but referenced prior research when
articulating what method(s) was used.
Major Themes and Controversies
In the context of information seeking almost all research studies have found that
adolescents prefer to use other people as their primary information source. In the 1986
landmark survey conducted by the Hertfordshire Library Service participants were asked
how they would find information in eight different scenarios. In all but one response the
most preferred method was through an individual, usually a teacher, friend, or
parent/guardian (Shenton & Dixon, 2003b). Recent studies focusing primarily on urban
youth revealed the same results. Friends, then family, then teachers or librarians is the
preferred pecking order when adolescents seek out information (Agosto & HughesHassell, 2005).
What has not yet been determined is how effective the kinds of people consulted
are, to presenting the young adult with accurate answers. Traditionally researchers and
practitioners have viewed the use of other people for an information source as ‘inferior’
as compared to more traditional methods (i.e. books and scholarly literature). In the
research realm a student was thought ‘information illiterate’ if he or she sought
information from friends and relatives rather than a more authoritative source (Shenton &
Dixon, 2003b).
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
5
The next generation of research should look to explore the controversy over the
validity of the information being received by the adolescent, as well as the situational
context in which the information exchange took place. It should also be explored why
the adolescent chose that particular person to seek information from. Without
understanding this major theme in the adolescent search behavior, future programs and
informational needs cannot be geared toward the adolescent population.
Results
Career information seeking
Adolescents are at a critical age where decisions that affect their future are at an
all time high. Their decisions and information seeking about future plans are influenced
by attitudes that are instilled by societal beliefs, socialization in school, and information
provided by trusted peers and communication outlets (Julien, 1999). The studies of
Julien (1999) and Millar & Shevlin (2003) focus on the difficulties faced by adolescents
during the process of making career related decisions.
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) and Harren’s decision making barriers are
two models which were used to study information seeking in the context of career
decisions and future planning for young adults. Similarities in these studies strike a
resonate cord. Some of the most notable barriers found in these studies were the lack of
communication skills, lack of self confidence or ability, discouragement by sources
approached for information, information scatter, and inaccurate or inappropriate
information received (Julien, 1999). The role of self confidence is a serious barrier which
was explored, since lack of self confidence will lead to diminished feelings of self
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
6
efficacy which will make adolescents unsure to seek out help. In the long run a lack of
confidence could lead to a lack of ability to reach career related goals.
The theory of planned behavior (TPB) states that past behavior and attitude
towards a behavior are important determinants that affect the success of exploratory
career information searching. There is statistically a significant link between intentions
and actual behavior. A young person who stated an intention to engage in career
exploratory searching did so (Millar & Shevlin, 2003). If the adolescent lacks the self
confidence or self efficacy to initiate a career search then most likely they will not
approach any sources for help. TPB also shows that past behavior on intentions is salient
(Millar & Shevlin, 2003). What adolescents do in terms of searching activities will be
replicated at some future date.
The barriers of not knowing where to find appropriate information, and the lack of
awareness as to the existence of information sources are looming hurdles that school
administrations need to focus attention on. If students are left to their own resources, bad
search experiences will negatively affect their searching confidence and could lessen
their ability to reach their career goal.
Health information seeking
Adolescents are facing concern over their futures, but they are also facing anxiety
over hormones, puberty, diet, and other medical issues that occur during the teen years.
Several recent studies (since 1997) have examined how adolescents search for health
related information. Although trusted peers are still viewed as the most utilized
information source, the internet may be the most preferred in this context. Since medical
questions are of a personal nature the internet offers the ability to find information
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
7
confidentially and conveniently. Data from the Gray, Klein, Noyce, Sesselberg, and
Cantrill (2005) study support the adolescent perception of the internet as providing timely
and convenient service, reducing embarrassment, and providing anonymity. These
characteristics were extremely important to the young adult users.
Trusted peers such as doctors were viewed as a reliable information source, but
the inconvenience of an office visit was an unmotivating factor. Young girls would use
their mothers as a personal information source, while young boys would more likely turn
to other peers. In most of these cases the internet was used to corroborate what
information was given by non-medical personal sources (Gray, Klein, Noyce, Sellelberg
& Cantrill, 2005). The Gray, Klein, Noyce, Sesselberg, and Cantrill (2005) study
examined adolescents from the United Kingdom and the United States and found that
regardless of location most adolescents dealt with medical inquiries in a similar manner.
Medical terminology proved to be a small hindrance while searching the internet.
The overall search approach most employed was the trial and error method with frequent
backtracking (Hansen, Derry, Resnick & Richardson, 2003). The cyberchondria
phenomenon was also explored with some adolescents stating higher levels of anxiety
because of self misdiagnosis. When the adolescents felt highly perplexed chat rooms
were sometimes used, but only because they offered the security of remaining
anonymous (Gray, Klein, Noyce, Sesselberg & Cantrill, 2005). The common thread
throughout these studies is that because of the highly personal nature of health related
questions the adolescents prefer to remain anonymous, and the internet has provided a
reliable information outlet for convenient use.
The digital age
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
8
Information seeking for young adults is a highly subjective process, one which is
approached with prior knowledge or imitation of past behavior and strongly held
opinions. Generation Y students or the GenNet “networked generation” are concerned
with time and level of difficulty in obtaining information, and less with accuracy (Weiler,
2005). Most research pertaining to adolescents has been focused on the use of others as
their primary information source, but new research is emerging covering the growing
trend of technological influence. The World Wide Web (www) is becoming a viable
information source that young adults are gravitating towards (Moen & Walker, 1999).
According to the Fidel et.al (1999) study “searching the web is like visiting a shopping
mall the size of Seattle: Innumerable types of information, in a large variety of
containers and in many different locations, are all available in one place” (p.24).
To study the searching behaviors of adolescents in a digital environment
observation and interviews were the most employed methods. By observing online
searches it is possible to examine adolescents’ unique abilities to locate information.
Although adolescents are considered novice searchers, they typically have demonstrated
they are more comfortable and familiar in the networked environment than graduates and
adult professionals studied in the past (Moen & Walker, 1999). One of the recurrent
themes observed during a web search was the lack of preparation. Adolescents would
type a word in a search engine and then click through the presented choices (Fidel et.al,
1999).
Many other factors affecting the search process were reported. Young people
seemed to rely on past experiences. If a prior search was successful then the same
method was applied again (similar to the Theory of Planned Behavior as discussed in the
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
9
career section). Quick decision making was made by almost all participants regardless if
the site they were directed to was relevant or not (Fidel et.al, 1999). The web is viewed
as an advantageous information source because of the speed of use. The ability to
quickly search and change sites is a key factor for adolescents. If a search provided
unsatisfactory results a new search was started. Adolescents navigated through these
tasks without much assistance. Assistance was sometimes needed in the help of selecting
an appropriate search term, especially for younger teens and for those assignments where
an explicit search term was not provided.
Frustrations recorded through the web studies reviewed show several barriers.
Low or extremely high hit counts, information overload, inability to manage large
volumes of information, inability to construct effective search strings, inability to
navigate complex subject hierarchies, understanding Boolean logic, considerable
guessing of appropriate search terms, insecurity, uncertainty, superficial assessment of
web sites quality, favoring visual cues, copying information without regard for ethical
use, and looking for quick hits rather than the best results (Todd, 2003). There is a
consistent theme that emerges from the studies reviewed and that is the need to develop
adolescents’ information and critical literacy skills (Todd, 2003). It is important to
enable them to access and assess the vast amount of information that is provided to them
through the use of the www and decipher that information in a meaningful and cognizant
manner.
Everyday life information seeking
The recognition of an information need actually marks the start of the information
seeking process (Shenton & Dixon, 2003a). Informal information needs arise everyday.
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
10
Much of the human effort expended when seeking information is for non-school related
projects and non-research related purposes (Agosto & Hughes-Hassell, 2005).
Savolainen’s research on everyday life information seeking has suggested that habits and
attitudes allow people to use their personal values and beliefs to make meaningful
choices (Savolainen, 1995). The concepts of “way of life” (the order of things) and
“mastery of life” (cognitive or affective, optimistic or pessimistic) are used to understand
the role of information seeking in an individual’s daily problem solving activities,
according to Savolainen (1995).
Regardless of the intention for the information use, instruction is still required for
an individual to self-sufficiently seek information. Especially for young adults who are
viewed as novice users, instruction must be taught at a young age by teachers or school
librarians to help them learn how to access information effectively (Branch, 2003).
Without proper instruction feelings of uncertainty, confusion, frustration, and doubt will
likely be experienced (Branch, 2003). As young adults become adults information search
skills will be critical to master to ensure a standard quality of life. Search skills are
critical in the twenty first century “…to enjoy fully their hobbies and leisure interests, to
function effectively as consumers, to maintain their employability in a changing
workplace, to ensure professional development and prosperity, and to make an informed
contribution to participative democracy” (Shenton, 2004, p.243).
Major Author Scholars
Carol Kuhlthau’s information search process model is cited in almost all of the
literature reviewed. Kuhlthau’s 1988 model is viewed as the foundation on which to
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
11
start. Her model has six stages and is distinct in that the emotions involved are described,
as well as the search activity. The six stages of the model are task initiation, topic
selection, prefocus exploration, focus formulation, information collection, and search
closure. Burdick’s 1996 model is widely cited as well because of its similarities and
differences to the Kuhlthau model. While the Kuhlthau model identifies a common
pattern the Burdick model also addresses their differences, most notably in terms of
search style and levels of motivation.
Other models that are important to note are Dervin’s sense making theory of
communication and Poole’s Principle of Least Effort. Both models are used widely in
the research context of adolescents. Dervin’s model centers on a relationship between
situations in which people need to make sense of a problem, the gap in their information
of how to solve the problem, and the way in which information helps people bridge those
gaps. The Principle of Least Effort does not mean that people are lazy, just that they will
try to minimize the work associated with a search task both now and in the future.
Shenton (2003a) delves the deepest into the different information seeking models and
does a thorough depiction of the major ones.
Future Research Opportunities
The adolescent population is an extremely important group to continue exploring.
As today’s youth continue to grow up with more technological advances the important
question to consider is not if they are computer savvy, but has their search ability
improved? Has technology helped or hindered their progress? More research should
continue to be conducted using observation methods, Think Alouds, Think Afters, and
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
12
questionnaires. In the career realm more research should be directed to differences in
gender and their perceptions as to what future careers are available to them. Not much
research has focused on differences in race, demographics, and socioeconomic status to
see if universal information seeking patterns exist. These are areas where there is great
research potential.
Evaluations of search engines should be conducted by information professionals
for adolescents use. Teachers and librarians should evaluate how they prepare
assignments and information seeking exercises. The internet with its variety of search
tools creates new challenges for developing an appropriate information seeking
curriculum (Moen & Walker, 1999). Perhaps most important of all, research needs to
continue to focus to its fullest extent the attitudes, motivations, and influences that are
perceived by adolescents. Current research has shown great correlation of attitude to
search behavior and this is an area that needs continuous scrutiny.
Conclusion
“We cannot always build the future for our youth, but we can build our youth for
the future.”
Franklin D. Roosevelt
This review looked at research pertaining to adolescents as they venture through
career decisions, medical questions, technological advances, and in everyday life
information seeking. Most of the information known about adolescent information
searching behavior has been fairly recent, in the last 20 years. With the advent of the
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
13
internet, searching ability is a more crucial skill needed then ever before. The internet
touches the lives of millions of Americans daily, and the use of it will be essential to
adolescents in their future endeavors. Some major author scholars were reviewed, and
areas of future research were explored. Adolescents are a unique and diverse group to
study, and enlightening as their ability to succeed will affect not only their future, but
ours as well.
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
14
References
Agosto, D. E.,& Hughes-Hassell, S. (2005). People, places, and questions: An
investigation of the everyday life information-seeking behaviors of urban young
adults. Library & Information Science Research, 27(2), 141-163. Retrieved
November 21, 2006, from Dialog file 438.
Branch, J. L. (2003). Instructional intervention is the key: Supporting adolescent
information seeking. School Libraries Worldwide, 9(2), 47-61. Retrieved November
21, 2006, from Dialog file 438.
Fidel, R., Davies, R. K., Douglass, M. H., Holder, J. K., Hopkins, C. J., Kushner, E. J., et
al. (1999). A visit to the information mall: Web searching behavior of high school
students. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(1), 24-37.
Retrieved December 1, 2006, from LISA database.
Gray, N. J., Klein, J. D., Noyce, P. R., Sesselbert, T. S.,& Cantrill, J. A. (2005). Health
information-seeking behaviour in adolescence: The place of the internet. Social
Science & Medicine, 60(7), 1467-1478. Retrieved November 22, 2006, from Dialog
file 7.
Hansen, D. L., Derry, H. A., Resnick, P. J.,& Richardson, C. R. (2003). Adolescents
searching for health information on the internet: An observational study. Journal of
Medical Internet Research, 5(4), e25. Retrieved December 6, 2006, from
http://www.jmir.org/2003/4/e25
Julien, H. E. (1999). Barriers to adolescents’ information seeking for career decision
making. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 50(1), 38-48.
Retrieved December 1, 2006, from LISA database.
Millar, R.,& Shevlin, M. (2003). Predicting career information-seeking behavior of
school pupils using the theory of planned behavior. Journal of Vocational Behavior,
62(1), 26-42. Retrieved November 22, 2006, from Dialog file 7.
Moen, W. E.,& Rose-Walker, J. (1999). Identifying and categorizing information-seeking
behaviors in the networked environment: An exploratory study of young adults.
Internet Research, 9(5), 409-413. Retrieved November 21, 2006, from Dialog file
438.
Next Generation Internet press release. (Oct. 1996). Retrieved February 22, 2007, from
http://www.ed.gov/PressReleases/10-1996/whpr37.html
Savolainen, R. (1995). Everyday life information-seeking: Approaching informationseeking in the context of “way of life”. Library & Information Science Research,
17(3), 259-294. Retrieved February 22, 2007, from http://www.sciencedirect.com
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents
INFO 511
Review of Literature
15
Shenton, A. K.,& Dixon, P. (2003a). Models of young people’s information seeking.
Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 35(1), 5-22. Retrieved December
1, 2006, from LISA database.
Shenton, A. K.,& Dixon, P. (2003b). Youngster’s use of other people as an informationseeking method. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science, 35(4), 219-233.
Retrieved December 1, 2006, from LISA database.
Shenton, A. K. (2004). Research into young people’s information-seeking: Perspectives
and methods. Aslib proceedings, 56(4), 243-254. Retrieved November 22, 2006, from
Dialog File 7.
Todd, R. J. (2003). Adolescents of the information age: Patterns of information seeking
and use, and implications for information professionals. School Libraries Worldwide,
9(2), 27-46. Retrieved November 21, 2006, from Dialog file 438.
Weiler, A. (2005). Information-seeking behavior in Generation Y students: Motivation,
critical thinking, and learning theory. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 31(1),
46-53. Retrieved December 1, 2006, from ERIC database.
The Information Seeking Behavior of Adolescents