Developing Bilingualism
Emi Yoshida
October 13, 2005
Definitions and typologies of bilingualism
 Definitions of bilingualism
What is bilingualism?
In general, bilingualism is accepted as “native-like control of two
languages” (Bloomfield, 1935).
However, there are broader definitions of bilingualism.
Some
researchers consider bilingualism as being able to use two languages at some level, not the highest
level.
 Types of bilingualism
Criterion of
Types of bilingualism
distinctions
1
2
3
4
Balance of skill
Balanced bilingualism
Dominant bilingualism
in two languages
(均衡バイリンガリズム)
(偏重バイリンガリズム)
Compound bilingualism
Coordinate bilingualism
(複合バイリンガリズム)
(等位バイリンガリズム)
Simultaneous bilingualism
Consecutive bilingualism
(同時バイリンガリズム)
(継続バイリンガリズム)
Social position of
Additive bilingualism
Subtractive bilingualism
two languages
(付加的バイリンガリズム)
(消減的バイリンガリズム)
Semantic
distinction
Period
of
acquisition
(1) Balance of skill in two languages
Balanced bilingualism (均衡バイリンガリズム) occurs when a speaker has equal skill in two languages.
These skills may correspond to native-like.
Dominant bilingualism (偏重バイリンガリズム) occurs when a speaker has a better skill in one
language than the other.
L1
Monolingualism
L1
L2
L1
Balanced Bilingualism
L
2
Dominant Bilingualism
(2) Semantic distinction
Compound bilingualism (複合バイリンガリズム) occurs when a speaker learns two languages in one
context and develops only one, fused conceptual system.
1
Coordinate bilingualism (等位バイリンガリズム) occurs when a speaker learns two languages in
separate environments.
He associates two languages with different contexts; therefore he
develops different conceptual systems for the two languages.
家
家

house
house
Compound bilingualism
Coordinate bilingualism
(3) Period of acquisition
Simultaneous bilingualism (同時バイリンガリズム) occurs when a child acquires two languages almost
at the same time as a first language.
Consecutive bilingualism (継続バイリンガリズム) occurs when a child is introduced to a second
language after he has acquired his first language.
L1
L1
L 1’
L2
(4) Social position of two languages
Additive bilingualism (付加的バイリンガリズム) occurs when two languages have high status both
socially and economically so that a speaker places positive values to both languages.
In this case,
both two languages are developed.
Subtractive bilingualism (消減的バイリンガリズム) occurs when a second language has higher social
and economical status than a first language. In this case, a second language replaces a first
language.
Immersion bilingual education
 History of immersion
Immersion education (イマージョン教育) is one type of bilingual education, which first started in
Canada. In 1965, 26 children joined an experimental immersion kindergarten where they were
exposed to two languages; English(L1) and French(L2). The children succeeded to achieve the goal
of the program as they acquired a high level of French we well as English.
immersion has spread across the country.
2
Since then, French
 Immersion education in Japan
Katoh Gakuen
Katoh Gakuen (加藤学園) is the first Japanese school to start English immersion in 1992. The
private school was accredited its K-12 bilingual program by Monkasho. The bilingual program
was also received the International Baccalaureate authorization(国際バカロレア).
※国際バカロレアは、世界のインターナショナル・スクールが高等教育としてのレベルがあるか
を認定する機関である。加藤学園の中・高等部の教育水準は、文部科学省に認定されているばか
りでなく、インターナショナル・スクールとして国際バカロレア機構に認定されている。
Curriculum and school life
Kindergarten
 Each class has both a native Japanese and native English speaking teacher.
Elementary school (Grades 1-6)
 In grades 1-3, each class has two native-English speaking homeroom teachers and one Japanese
homeroom teacher.
In grades 4-6, each class has one native-English speaking homeroom
teacher and one Japanese homeroom teacher.
 The program follows the regular Japanese curriculum. In grades 1-3, English, math, theme,
computer, PE, music and art classes are taught entirely in English, while Japanese and language
arts classes are taught entirely in Japanese.
In grades 4-6, English, math, science and
computer classes are taught entirely in English, while Japanese, social studies, art, music and
PE classes are taught entirely in Japanese.
The same content is never taught in both
languages.
High school (Grades 7-12)
 The program integrates 3 different curriculums into one:
the International Baccalaureate
Middle Years Program, Diploma Program and the national Japanese curriculums.
Type: Partial immersion
100
80
60
40
20
0
K. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Grade
English
Japanese
3
Academic achievement
In 2004, 17 students graduated from Katoh Gakuen as the first immersion students. 11 of them
were those who had attended the program since 1992 and other 6 joined from high school.
 26 students completed the IB middle school diploma.
 11 received a bilingual diploma and the other 6 received their certificates.
 Most students scored 70% or higher on the national center test (センター試験).
 Allegedly, 8 students attended Japanese universities. They were accepted at Aoyama Gakuin,
Meiji Gakuin, Keio, Waseda, Chuo, Tokai and Nihon universities.
 Allegedly, 9 students attended U.S. universities.
They were accepted at Harvard, Yale,
Columbia, Michigan State, Oklahoma State, and university of Georgia.
 The students seem to have acquired the same skill in math and Japanese as non-immersion
students in Katoh Gakuen (Bostwick, 2001).
 Most of the 8th grade students have obtained pre-second of STEP (英検準２級).
It is assumed that the first immersion students have succeeded academically. They seem to have
achieved a high level of English as well as Japanese. Moreover, the students’ skill in other subjects
is probably over average according the number of universities they had been accepted. However,
their academic success cannot only depend on the immersion program they had joined.
It is
notable that most of their parents are able to communicate with the native English speaking
teachers, and all of the parents could afford to have sent their children to the immersion program
from kindergarten to high school. The expectation of the parents and the teachers also might
have increased the students’ motivation.
Furthermore, there is a question whether first 17
graduates are naturally intelligent enough to apply to the English immersion or the English
immersion has developed their intelligence.
Discussion
Acquiring high level of English has been a dream for many Japanese. If English immersion
enables Japanese to use the language, should they start English immersion in all schools? Is an
immersion program ideal English education in Japan?
Benefits
 Students are expected to acquire two languages.
 Students are expected to become more tolerant to other languages and cultures.
 Students are expected to be heighten the students’ sense of Japanese identity and appreciation of
Japanese culture.
Problems
 A vast sum of money would be needed to employ as many native English teachers as Japanese
speaking teachers, and to train them.
 Parents and Japanese speaking teachers would be required to make a great effort to be able to
4
communicate with native English speaking teachers.
 If a student fails to acquire an appropriate level of English especially around 9th or 10th grade, he
would fail in all classes.
Although English immersion is beneficial in terms of access to two languages and cultures, it is not
ensured that all students would succeed academically. If parents are incapable to communicate
with native English speaking teachers and do not expect their children to learn English, they might
fail to acquire a high level of English because they are not highly motivated.
English immersion cannot apply to a general education style in Japan since it requires a vast sum
of money and a great effort to parents and teachers.
Language attrition(言語喪失)
 Types of language attrition (Van Els, 1986)
He divided language attrition into four groups.
Language
L1
L1
L2
Type1
Type3
Language death(言語死)
People who learn in L2 and
the people who back in L1
lose L2.
Environment
Type2
L2
Type4
Immigrants lose their mother Immigrants lost L2 in L2.
language in L2.
 Why languages are lost？
(Reason)
(1) Passed year (time)
How long have the people who lose language left in L2?
Gardner said that the time is incubation period.
In generally, the longer people stay in L1, the more they lose L2. That is important but another
reason is more important.
(2) Degree of proficiency
The level of L2 (proficiency) is one of the reasons why people lose language.
The higher
proficiency people learn L2, the more they can memorize L2. And the lower proficiency people
learn L2, they lose L2 (Codsall-Myers, 1981).
Reetz-Kurashige (1998) reported about 18 returnee Japanese children.
They collected and
analyzed dates about morphosyntax speech(形態統語論的発話). Target people are those who lived
5
more than 2 years in English-speak countries. The people that know the laws of grammar in verb,
that is more important than age and period to retain L2.
But why the person who is high degree of proficiency does not lose L2?
This theme was studied by Neiser (1984). That is critical threshold hypothesis (決定的閾値の仮説).
Some people get critical mass (決定的言語量) once, it is hard for the people to lose a language.
(3) Age
Mr. Yoshida reported that the juniors lose L2 more than senior. But Kuhberg is different. He
countered about that. He reported that senior lose L2 more than junior.
(4) Motive and attitude forward languages
 If we want to retain our language ability after graduations, what can we do?
There are several ways to retain language ability after graduation.
Ⅱ. Read English
Read anything written English language, the book, newspaper article, letters, website, magazine,
etc. we do not need to buy them; we can read them in the library or bookstore for browsing.
Ⅱ. Write English words and sentences
Write English words. Long sentences are helpful to use a lot of words. Also translating into
Japanese from English will be good and vice versa. Keep diary and write letters and e-mail is
good.
Ⅲ. Speak in English
With friends, talk or chat about any topic. Advise each other on their mistakes without words or
idioms and so on and write down these mistakes words so we do not do it again.
Use NHK radio program ‘Let’s speak English’ and MSN messenger.
Ⅳ.Listen to English
Talk with the friends or listen to radios, music, news on TV, and etc.
Use NHK radio program and NHK news and NHK program.
Watch TV and DVDs with and without subtitles.
Listen to music and etc.
They are all easy things. We want to try by ourselves to maintain English. It is difficult to find
native English speaking people and to make English environment that is only use English all the
time in Japan. How many times do we study a week? From the forgetting curve of view, at least
one hour per three days a week will be needed.
References
6
Baker, C. 1996. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. Trans. Hideo Oka. Tokyo:
Taisyukan.
Bearsmore, Hugo Baetens.
1986.
Bilingualism:
Basic Principles.
2nd. ed.
Cleverdon:
Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Bloomfield, L. 1935. Language. London: Allen & Unwin.
Childs, Marshall. “First Immersion Students Graduate.” Daily Yomiuri 23 Apr. 2004, 14.
Koike, Ikuo, Masanori Terauchi, Koji Kinoshita, and Masumi Narita, eds. 1986. 第二言語習得研究
の現在. Tokyo: Taisyukan.
7