Chapter 5: Adaptation of biodiversity to climate change
Presentation Details:
Slides: 40
Duration: 00:27:26
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presentations\Chapter5.Graham von Maltitz - Adaptation of biodiversity to climate change.ppt
Presenter Details:
Name: Graham von Maltitz
Title: Mr
Email: gvonmalt@csir.co.za
Bio: Mr von Maltitz is a systems ecologist and rural development specialist, employed by the CSIR since 1989. He trained
under Prof Brian Walker and Prof Mike Mentis at the University of the Witwatersrand, and completed an MSc doing research in
the Nylsvley Nature Reserve. Since graduating he has fifteen years experience in natural resource management in developing
communities. Until 2000 he was the business area manager for the Common Property Resource Management group of the
Natural Resources and Rural Development Programme, and as such had a responsibility for management and research dealing
with the interface between rural communities and the natural environment. This research has focussed on communities in areas
of communal land tenure and on the unique problems associated with resource management in these areas. For three years he
was acting Business area Manager for the Environmental Economics and Policy business area. Mr von Maltitz has extensive
experience in managing multi-disciplinary teams engaged in both short and multi-year projects. Currently Mr von Maltitz has a
crosscutting role to develop a focus in natural resource based rural development and the management of large integrated
projects within the programme.
Slide 1: Adaptation of biodiversity to climate change
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Adaptation of biodiversity to
climate change
Presented by
Graham von Maltitz
CSIR Environmentek
Notes:
Welcome to the adaptations of biodiversity to climate change module. The objectives of this module will be to explore the options that are available to
conservation managers to prevent biodiversity being lost as a consequence of climate change.
Slide 2: Introduction
Duration: 00:00:38
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Introduction
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Adaptation
Climate change and
biodiversity research
What has lead to current
conservation
Trends in conservation
Adaptation options
Notes:
This section will start off looking at adaptation and understanding what we mean by adaptation. Two parallel research teams, one on strategic biodiversity
conservation research, and one on climate change, both of which are covered in detail in other modules lead to the inevitable conclusion that biodiversity
is likely to be lost as a consequence of climate change. We will look at a brief history of what has led to the current conservation status in the sub-region
and trends that are currently taking place in conservation. Finally we will look at the adaptation options that are available to a conservation manager to
mitigate the impacts of climate change.
Slide 3: Adaptation I
Duration: 00:01:18
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Adaptation I

What options do biological organisms have to adapt
to changing climates
- Persisters. The organism is pre-adapted to the new climate
-
and will persist
Dispersers. The organism moves with the moving climatic
envelope (autonomous) or is moved to a new suitable
habitat (facilitated) dispersal
Expanders. The new envelope is a better habitat
Go extinct
Evolve. Not likely given the speed of change
Notes:
From the perspective of a biological organism, there are several ways a species may adapt to changing climate. Firstly, they may be persisters. That is,
they may be pre-adapted to the new climate, and will therefore persist in the new climatic envelope.
Dispersers are organism that will move with the climatic envelope – in other words, they will “track” the climate. They may be able to do this autonomously,
or they may be facilitated dispersers that require human assistance in order to find their new habitat.
It is also likely that some species will benefit from the changed climatic conditions, and their range will grow due to the new climatic envelope being better
suited to them than the previous envelope. Hence, these species are termed expanders.
We have excluded evolution as an adaptation option available to species under the current conditions of climate change. This is on the basis that the
current rate of climate change is understood to be considerably faster than anything historically experienced, and it is unlikely that any species other than
those with the shortest life cycles will be able to evolve at the same rate. This does not exclude the possibility that some species will adapt in the future to
more stable climatic conditions after the change process is complete.
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Slide 4: Adaptation II
Duration: 00:00:40
Adaptation II
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
Adaptation in global climate change is about how
humans adapt to the impacts of climate change
How can we as humans respond to the impacts that
climate will have on biodiversity
- Past trends in conservation / preservation
- New trends – sustainable use and benefits
- Adaptation options
Notes:
Our main focus in this adaptation section is not on other species adaptation processes, but rather on the adaptation options available to humans to ensure
that we minimise species loss as a consequence of climate change. What we will do is firstly look at past trends in conservation and preservation, in order
to understand what has led to the current state of conservation and disposition of conservation areas in the sub-region. We will then consider new trends
that are taking place in the field of conservation , particularly strategic conservation planning tools.
Finally we will then look at the adaptation options that are available to society to minimise the rate of climate change-driven species extinction.
Slide 5: Bringing together conservation planning and climate research
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Bringing together conservation planning and
climate research
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Climatic predictions based on scenarios
Climate change is a reality
Strategic conservation planning – configuring
reserves to best conserve biodiversity
Species envelope mapping
Dynamic species movement models
Notes:
The fact that anthropogenic influences are causing global warming has evolved from being a hypothesis to a generally accepted reality, though there is still
extensive disagreement around the magnitude of the predicted change. From a biodiversity perspective, there are rapid advances in both strategic
conservation planning and the understanding of distributional spreads of species through climatic envelope modelling. Combining forecasts of climate
change with dynamic species movement modules, allows us to start considering the conservation strategies that would be needed to conserve biodiversity
in a climatically changed future. Before considering options for this future, it is useful for us to consider what factors led to the distribution of current
conservation areas. Current conservation strategies are by no means maximized solutions to conserve current biodiversity, let alone the biodiversity that
will be found in a changed climate.
Slide 6: Formation of the current conservation network
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Duration: 00:00:26
Formation of the current conservation network

Pre-colonization resource management practices
- Sacred forests
- Hunting areas
- Taboos
Notes:
Conservation in southern Africa has a long history. In fact there is some evidence that a number of conservation practices were taking place prior to
colonization by the colonial powers. This can be found through factors such as the occurrence of sacred forests, areas that were set aside specifically as
hunting areas, and also the fact that numerous taboos and other cultural norms were used to protect certain species and prevent the over-exploitation of
certain species
Slide 7: Colonial conservation
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Colonial conservation
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Two paths of resource management
- Game and nature reserves
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Evolved from hunting
Main emphasis on the big and hairy
Largely based on ecotourism
Preservationist attitudes
- Forest reserves
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Sustainable wood extraction
Protection of indigenous forests
Catchment protection
Notes:
Conservation as we know it started in the late 19th and early 20th century, and followed two parallel paths. Firstly there were the large game and nature
reserves that we are most familiar with. These evolved predominantly from hunting areas, predominantly to provide protection for the large mammals that
were hunted previously. Some of these have evolved into being eco-tourism areas, but the predominant land use on these areas has been strict
preservation and preservationist attitudes. In a parallel move, there were a number of forest reserves created through the sub-region. These were normally
created for sustainable harvesting of valuable wood species, and in some cases protection of indigenous forests. Forest reserves were also set up in many
cases for catchment reserve purposes.
Slide 8: Features of early conservation
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Features of early conservation
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Trees and animals owned by the state
Use – by the privileged and rich
Forced removals of resident local people
Poaching a crime
Strong law enforcement
Strong state backing
Relatively good budgets for conservation
Notes:
Throughout the sub-region there were common trends in early conservation. Firstly, the valuable trees and animals were owned by the state, and the use
of them was largely for the privileged and rich. Forced removal of local resident population was common, and an aspect such as poaching was considered
a crime. There was a strong law-enforcement and a strong state backing. In addition there were relatively good budgets to support the conservation
initiatives.
Slide 9: Where were reserves located
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Where were reserves located
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Areas of poor agricultural
potential
Malaria and tsetse areas
Areas of low human density
Area with extreme climate
Mountains
Forests
Biodiversity was not the
consideration
Notes:
The initial location of reserves in the sub-region was anything but strategic, from a biodiversity conservation perspective. Most reserves were set up on
land that was not being used for other purposes, therefore few reserves are found in areas with high agricultural potential. Many reserves are located in
areas with high disease probability, particularly malaria and tsetse areas. Equally, reserves are normally set up in areas that had low human population
density as this didn’t require translocation of people out of the reserves. Reserves are also often found in areas with extreme climates, either very cold
areas or very hot areas. Mountainous areas with low agricultural potential and low potential for settlement also are areas that are common for reserves.
Forest patches also in South Africa are frequently selected as areas for reserves. Biodiversity was not the key consideration when setting up reserves.
Slide 10: Ecoregions of Southern Africa
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
In the SADC region,
17% of total area is
conserved

However, South Africa
has only conserved
about 6%
Click to enlarge
Notes:
This map shows the major eco-regions of southern Africa, using as a basis the WWF eco-region map. Superimposed on this in red are the conservation
areas. As can be seen, South Africa takes a very different strategy to conservation than to the rest of southern Africa. In South Africa, there are fairly low
levels of conservation but conservation is in a number of small reserves scattered throughout the country. By contrast, in the rest of southern Africa there
tends to be very large reserves
Slide 11: What constitutes conservation
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What constitutes conservation
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Formally recognized
- Formal reserves
Less recognized
- State forests
- Wildlife management / hunting area
- Private reserves
Unrecognized in statistics used
- Unused farmland
- Low biodiversity impact farming practices
Notes:
Conservation of biodiversity takes place at a number of different levels. There are formally recognized reserves (often considered IUCN reserves). These
are typically the nature reserves. But there are also a lot of other protected areas that act as areas for biodiversity protection that are less formally
recognized, things like state forests, wildlife management or hunting areas and particularly private game reserves in some of the southern African
countries like South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia. These are often not reflected in conservation statistics. In addition, there are a number of other areas
that provide a limited degree of conservation, that are not considered in conservation statistics at all. These are things like unused farmlands and farming
practices that have a low impact on biodiversity.
Slide 12: Mopane woodland
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Mopane woodland
Typified by relatively low biodiversity in poor Kalahari sands
Notes:
Mopane woodland can be used as an example of a vegetation type which has been extensively conserved in he region. Mopane vegetation is found
almost exclusively within the low-lying, hot and arid river valleys of the major river systems in the tropical areas of southern Africa. The tree species
(Colloquius burnham mopane) is the dominant species in this vegetation, and forms almost monospecific stands. Although this vegetation has relatively
limited biodiversity, it is fairly good from a conservation perspective in terms of its eco-tourism potential that most of the so-called big five animal species
are found in this vegetation type.
Slide 13: Mopane is more than adequately conserved
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Mopane is more than adequately conserved

38% of Mopane
Woodland in South
Africa is
conserved, mostly
in Kruger National
Park
Notes:
This map shows the conservation status of mopane woodland in Southern Africa. The red signifies conservation areas, and is overlaid on the pink of the
mopanE vegetation. As can be seen, mopane is exceptionally well conserved in almost all countries, with the possible exception of Angola. The history of
mopane conservation probably has more to do with the fact that this vegetation is very unsuitable for human settlement due to malaria infections, tsetse,
as well as being in a hot arid area. Conservation in this area is probably more historically linked to its poor agricultural potential rather than its conservation
importance.
Slide 14: Hotspots of biodiversity in South Africa
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Hotspots of biodiversity in South Africa
Wolkberg
Maputaland
Pondoland
Eastern
Mountain
Albany
Succulent Karoo
Cape
Koakoveld
Area (km2)
5 980
26 734
40 000
1 880
species
2700
1100
1750
1500
% Endemics
4
15
30
8
22 500
111 212
90 000
70 000
2000
4849
7000
952
10
40
80
12
Notes:
Within South Africa, a number of biodiversity hotspots are recognized. One of the most important of these are the Cape Floristic Region, or as it is more
commonly called the Fynbos Region, where there’s an incredible 7000 species of which almost 80% are endemic to the region. Another area with high
species diversity is the Succulent Karoo area, with 4800 species, 40% endemics. Over the next few maps we’ll have a look at the location of these areas,
and show that in these areas there is by and large fairly low conservation despite their high biodiversity importance.
Slide 15: Southern African bioregions
Duration: 00:00:17
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Notes:
This map shows the major eco-regions of southern Africa. The two biodiversity hotspots we will be looking at are the Cape Floristic Region (shown in the
southwest of the country), and the succulent Karoo (shown in green, and extending up to the border with Namibia).
Slide 16 : Succulent Karoo
Duration: 00:00:36
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Succulent Karoo

Typified by small succulents and
sparse individual plants.

Occurs in the Karoo and up the
west coast of South Africa, into
Namibia.
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Less than 0.5% formally conserved
Click to enlarge
Notes:
This map shows the location of the Succulent Karoo biome. As can be seen, a very limited portion of this biome is conserved; this despite the fact that this
biome has both high species diversity and a very high level of endemism. It is typified by small succulents and sparse individual plants.
Occurs in the Karoo and up the west coast of South Africa, into Namibia.
Most importantly, less than 0.5% formally conserved, although the extent of land transformation in the region is considerably less than in the West Coast
Renosterveld, for instance.
Slide 17: Fynbos
Duration: 00:00:27
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Fynbos

Under extreme threat from
urbanisation and agriculture.
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Reserves mostly limited to extreme
slopes and mountain peaks.
Click to enlarge
Notes:
This map shows the location of the Fynbos vegetation….Cape Floristic Kingdom. Under extreme threat from urbanisation and agriculture. As can be sent
there are fairly few formal conservation reserves in this area, and they are mostly limited to extreme slopes and mountain peaks, but as we will show in the
next slide, this is a misrepresentation of the amount of conservation in this area.
Slide 18: Reserves in the fynbos region
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Reserves in the fynbos region
Notes:
This slide adds mountain catchment areas and forestry areas to the formal conservation areas of the previous slide. As can be seen this greatly increases
the amount of protected area within the Fynbos. However, this is almost exclusively within the mountain Fynbos areas, with the low-lying renosterveld
getting almost no conservation. Renosterveld is an important area from an agricultural perspective and has undergone a large amount of transformation,
making conservation of this veld-type even more important.
Slide 19: Extent of conservation versus “need” for conservation. Two extremes
Duration: 00:00:40
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Extent of conservation versus “need” for conservation.
Two extremes
Vegetation
type
Centre of
endemism
Area in
1000 km2
%
%
transformed conserved
Mopane
Shrubveld
Mopane
Bushveld
West coast
Renoster
Mountain
Fynbos
no
26
0%
99.8%
no
209
8%
38%
yes
61
97%
1.7%
yes
247
11%
26.2%
Based on Low and Rebelo 1996
Notes:
Based on the vegetation types shown previously, two extremes of conservation strategies can be seen. With the mopane veld there are very high levels of
conservation, despite the fact that this area is not a centre of endemism, and despite the fact that there is almost no transformation of this veld vegetation
type. By contrast, the West Coast Renosterveld is almost totally transformed, yet there is only 1.7% conserved. Mountain Fynbos on the other hand has a
far lower level of transformation due to the fact that the mountains can’t really be used for other land uses and in this area there is a far greater percentage
of conservation.
Slide 20: Reserves in Madagascar
Duration: 00:00:23
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Reserves in Madagascar
Click to enlarge
Notes:
This slide shows the location of conservation areas in Madagascar. In order to view it with more clarity, just click on the image to enlarge it. Madagascar is
an area again known for its high species biodiversity and endemism, yet as can be seen there is a very low level of formal conservation, and this is
skewed to one or two vegetation types.
Slide 21: Reserves in other SADC countries
Duration: 00:00:27
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Reserves in other SADC countries
Click to enlarge
Notes:
On the east coast of Africa it can be seen that the coastal vegetation is very poorly conserved. Coastal forest vegetation stretching from the middle of
Mozambique, through the Tanzanian and Kenyan coasts, up into Ethiopia has almost not formal conservation. By contrast, many of the savanna
vegetation types in the centre of the countries have fairly extensive conservation.
Slide 22: Conserved area in seven Southern Africa countries
Duration: 00:00:26
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Notes:
From the late 1800’s through to about 1970, there is a trend to increasing areas in southern Africa that are conserved. However, from about 1970 onwards
there is almost no increase in the conservation area. This largely correlates with the end of the colonial era. After independence, most African states put
greater emphasis on social good and increasing social benefits rather than environmental issues.
Slide 23: Number of parks in seven Southern Africa countries
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Notes:
As can be expected, the total number of parks shows a very similar trend to the area under conservation. Again there is a rapid increase in park number
from about 1940 through to about 1970 after which the number of parks flattens off. The exception is South Africa where there are lots of small parks and
these haven’t been included in the statistics.
Slide 24: Contribution of private land to conservation
Duration: 00:00:41
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Notes:
The other area of formal state conservation levels off from about 1970 onwards. There is a new trend of private ownership of conservation land. As can be
seen from the graph, this is a rapidly increasing proportion of the conservation estate. A number of factors have led to this, one of which is changes in
legislation, which effectively allows private landowners ownership of the wildlife on their land. A further factor has been the economics of cattle
management. There are fairly strong arguments that cattle management has been artificially supported through a number of state subsidies. Without these
subsidies, wildlife management in many instances is more economically viable.
Slide 25: Old trends
Duration: 00:00:50
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Old trends
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Preservation
Manage to pre-colonial (pre man) pristine state
Exclude people
Separate conservation from other land use
Conservation the domain of the state
State owned the wildlife and trees
Notes:
The following are some of the trends that are seen in old-style conservation. Firstly there was a preservationist attitude; that conservation areas were to be
preserved, not used. They were also managed to some form of what was seen to be pre-colonial, pre-man, pristine state. Quite what this was, is hard to
define, but is clearly in the minds of most conservation managers, that there is a pristine state to which the area should be managed. Management
normally excluded people and separated conservation from other land uses, often putting up large fences between them. Conservation was primarily the
domain of the state and the state owned the wildlife and the trees, both within and outside the conservation areas.
Slide 26 : Pressures on conventional conservation
Duration: 00:00:48
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Pressures on conventional conservation
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Population growth
Inability to police
Changed political priorities
No more land available
Cut in expenditure
Notes:
A number of pressures have caused changes in the old conservation paradigm. Firstly population growth means that there aren’t large unpopulated areas
left in Africa. Instead there is a growing population adjacent to conservation areas and these people in many instances have poor livelihoods and are
desperate for land. Equally there’s an inability of police to police the conservation areas. This is largely due to changes in budgets but also because of the
increased population pressure. Equally there’s a change in political priorities: social issues are seen far more as a priority than they were in the past. Land
is no longer available for the expansion of conservation areas, and there is a general cut in expenditure on conservation in favour of more social
development.
Slide 27: New trends I
Duration: 00:00:47
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New trends I
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Conservation rather than preservation
Conservation may include sustainable use
Allow for change
Promote tourism and other value addition
Conservation must pay its way
Global contribution to third world conservation (e.g.
GEF)
Notes:
Conservation paradigms have changed in relation to these pressures placed on conservation. Currently there is more of an emphasis on conservation
rather than on strict preservation, and sustainable use of resources is seen as being important in many areas. Systems are allowing for change rather than
being held in some past static state. Equally there’s the realization that conservation must pay its way, and therefore tourism and other value addition
activities are looked at for conservation land. A new trend also is the global contribution to third world conservation. This is being funded through global
funds such as the GEF (Global Environmental Facility) which is helping set up conservation areas in a number places in southern Africa.
Slide 28: New trends II
Duration: 00:00:39
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New trends II

Transfrontier conservation areas TFCAs “peace
parks”
- Large areas across countries
- Linked to development
- Strong political backing
- Strong international backing
Notes:
A further new trend is the formation of what are termed Trans-frontier Conservation Areas, or what are sometimes referred to as Peace Parks. These are
large conservation areas across countries, often linking and joining existing conservation areas. Unlike conservation in the past, these Trans-frontier
Conservation Areas have a very strong link to rural development, with a strong focus on uplifting the local communities. These conservation areas are
based on strong political backing, and in many cases rely heavily on international funding, such as GEF funding as mentioned previously, or funding and
support from individual donor countries.
Slide 29: Current trends I
Duration: 00:00:55
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Current trends I
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Devolution of resource ownership
- Can own game
- Local management
Growth in tourism revenue as % of GDP
Changes in agricultural subsidies
Declining world food prices
Globalization of markets
- Cattle less profitable
Notes:
A number of current trends are impacting on conservation. One consequence of the colonial period is that most resources were owned by the state. This
was particularly true for the communal areas. A current trend is devolution of resource ownership from the state back to local communities that own the
land, and allowing them to truly manage the land. Growth in tourism revenue is also an important driver because of the links between tourism and
conservation. This has been driven by a number of factors, many of which relate to changes in agriculture. This is driven by changes in agricultural
subsidies, real-term declines in world food prices, and a globalization of markets. For instance, cattle have become far less profitable, and game revenue
and tourism revenue is seen as far more favourable for many, particularly of the more arid areas.
Slide 30: Contribution of private land to conservation in South Africa
Duration: 00:00:29
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Contribution of private land to conservation in
South Africa

Game Ranching
- 5 million ha
- 8.5% land area (vs 6% state
reserves)
- 5 000 – 8 000 ranchers
Notes:
Where cattle ranching was our main activity through most of the sub-region in the past, game ranching is now taking on greater and greater importance. In
South Africa for instance, game ranching is currently estimated to occupy about 5 million hectares, or 8.5% of the land area. As such it exceeds the area of
land currently under state conservation. It is estimated that there are 5 to 8 thousand game ranches within the country.
Slide 31 : Current trends II
Duration: 00:01:58
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Current trends II
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Community conservation
- Community based natural resource management (CBNRM)
- Joint forest management
- Community Public Private Partnerships
- National CBNRM programmes eg CAMPFIRE
- conservancies
Strategic conservation planning
- Computer assisted models e.g. C-plan
- GEF funding
- CAPE, SKEP, Wild Coast, STEP
Habitat fragmentation
Global warming becoming a reality
Some species will lose their habitat
Change in climate too fast for evolutionary adaptation
Notes:
A new trend, particularly in the communal areas is to see conservation as part of a community development initiative. This is often referred to as
community-based natural resource management (CBNRM), and the idea is to link development and conservation through joint management efforts. This is
happening in the conservation arena around game reserves, and also in the forestry arena around what is often referred to as joint forestry management.
A common vehicle to achieve this is through community public private sector partnerships, for instance through private sector running a game lodge on
communal land with joint profit sharing between the community and the private investor. A number of countries have national CBNRM programmes, such
as the CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe, and similar programmes in Botswana and Namibia. A similar trend is the formation of conservancies. As was
pointed out earlier, the location of current conservation areas in southern Africa is anything but strategic. Currently there’s a new trend towards strategic
conservation planning, where complex computer models and facilitation is used to identify the best areas for conservation. In many cases this is supported
through international funding, such as GEF funding, but in South Africa there are a number of current initiatives where strategic conservation is being
considered. This includes the CAPE programme in the Fynbos, the SKEP programme on the Wild Coast and the STEP programme. There are a number
of global trends impacting on conservation. One of the main ones is habitat fragmentation through land use transformation. This is particularly true for the
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high agricultural areas in the country. Global warming is also becoming a reality. As a consequence of global warming, many species will lose their current
habitats, or their habitat will move in space to a new area. The current rate of global climatic change is far too fast for evolutionary adaptation.
Slide 32 : Adaptation responses
Duration: 00:00:52
Adaptation responses
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Persists or expands
Autonomous dispersal / migration
Facilitated migration
- New reserves
- Management of corridors
- Translocation
Preservation
Extinction
Notes:
As has been mentioned earlier, there are a number of adaptation responses available to individual plant and animal species, as a consequence of climate
change. Firstly, species can persist or expand into a new climate which is still favourable to them. Equally, species can disperse or move with the climate
as it moves across the landscape. This can be autonomous (in other words the species can do it itself) or can be facilitated (in other words the species
can’t move on its own, but it could move given human assistance), and this could be through new reserves, management of dispersal corridors, or in
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extreme cases, actual translocation. Where species won’t have a new habitat available in the future, then preservation ex situ is the only option. This could
be in zoological gardens or herbaria. Failing this, the species will become extinct.
Slide 33: Persists or expands
Duration: 00:00:33
Persists or expands



Providing the species is not already threatened, and
is well conserved in current reserve networks, then
no additional action need be taken
If the species becomes ‘invasive’ it may need to be
managed to prevent it having negative impacts on
other species
High probability of alien exotics invading new areas
as a consequence of climate change
Notes:
The following adaptation strategies are suggested for persister or expander species. Firstly, providing the species is not already threatened, and provided
it is well conserved in the current reserve network, it is probable that no additional action needs to be taken. However, if the species becomes invasive, it
may be necessary to prevent it having a negative impact on other species. There is a high probability of alien exotic species invading new areas as a
consequence of climate change, and this needs to be carefully considered and watched.
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Slide 34: Autonomous adaptation / migration
Duration: 00:01:02
Autonomous adaptation / migration







Providing the species is not already threatened, and
providing there are safe migration routes then no
action will be needed
May wish to conserve migratory pathways
Manage the matrix in the migratory pathways
Many species unlikely to migrate over different soils
Land transformation likely to be a big barrier to
migration
Should be carefully monitored
Strategic conservation needs to consider future
habitats and species patterns
Notes:
Many species, both plant and animal, will have the ability to move through the landscape to track their preferred climate as the climate envelope moves
through the landscape. Providing these species are not already threatened, and providing there are migratory routes available to them, then no further
action may be needed. However, it is very likely that for many species, there is a necessity to conserve migratory pathways. This could be through formal
conservation, or could be through managing the matrix, in other words the land outside of conservation areas, that forms migratory pathways. Care must
be taken to ensure that pathways are suitable for species, for instance many species might not be able to migrate over different soil types. Land
transformation also is likely to be a large barrier to migration. For all species, careful monitoring will be needed to ensure that they are able to migrate.
Strategic conservation planning needs to consider future habitats and species patterns.
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Slide 35: Facilitated migration
Duration: 00:00:55
Facilitated migration




Well established as a practice for mammals, but not
common for other organisms
Current paradigm of move species to where they
occurred historically will have to change. We may
need to move species to areas where they did not
historically occur, but that are now suitable habitats
New reserves may be needed
Management of the matrix
- Community based conservation
- Contractual reserves
- Incentives
- Private reserves
- Education
Notes:
For many of the species that are able to find new habitats in the future, it is very likely that some level of human facilitation will be needed to help them
migrate. In a simple case, this might be simply managing the areas outside of conservation areas, to ensure that these areas are friendly for the species to
migrate through them. In this regard, community based conservation may be an important strategy. Equally it might be important to form what are termed
contractual reserves, where the landowner enters into a contract with conservation authorities to keep his land for conservation purposes. Less severe and
less expensive methods could be through incentives to landowners, use of private reserves, and just general education. In many cases landowners are not
aware of the need for migration, and simply understanding the benefits that they can give to conservation might be sufficient for them to engage in
conservation.
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Slide 36: Preservation
Duration: 00:00:22
Preservation



Gene banking
Zoos
Botanical gardens
Notes:
It seems clear that many species will not have suitable habitats in the future as a consequence of climate change. In many cases there is a large degree of
unknown involved as well; therefore some level of ex situ conservation is critical. This could be through gene banking, zoos, or botanical gardens.
Slide 37: Conclusion I
Duration: 00:00:55
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Conclusion






Current reserve patterns have historic rather than
strategic conservation origins
New strategic conservation tools being used to reconfigure reserve layout
Need to consider impacts of climate change in
strategic conservation
Manage for change
Off reserve conservation is an critical component of
strategy (manage the matrix)
Devolution of ownership and use rights – make it
worthwhile for farmers to conserve biodiversity
Notes:
A number of conclusions can be drawn from this section. Firstly, current reserve patterns have historic, rather than strategic conservation objectives, and
therefore are not well configured to best conserve biodiversity. However, a number of new strategic conservation planning tools are being developed that
allow for re-configuring reserves to better conserve biodiversity. These tools however, need to consider the impacts of climate change, and strategic
conservation needs to manage for climate change, rather than managing for constant state or trying to manage to past distribution patterns. It is likely that
off-reserve conservation needs to be a critical component of this strategy, in other words what we have termed matrix management. One of the ways of
achieving this is devolution of ownership of user rights, in other words making it worthwhile for the farmer to conserve biodiversity.
Slide 38: Conclusion II
Duration: 00:01:37
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Conclusion





Biological organisms have differing responses to
climate change. Some may benefit but many are
predicted to become extinct
A number of management options are available and
these need to be specific to different organisms
Need to configure reserves for best conservation
given climate change (e.g. protect environmental
gradients)
Need to intervene to help some species
Best option is to have off reserve areas (the matrix)
as biodiversity friendly as possible
Notes:
Individual biological organisms will have different responses to climate change. Some may well benefit from the change in climate but it is predicted that
many other will become extinct as a consequence of climate change. There are a number of management options available and these are likely to be
specific to specific organisms. There is a need to configure reserves that don’t best conserve the current configuration of biodiversity, but rather that
protect gradients and migratory corridors that allow biodiversity to move through the landscape. Environmental gradient protection may well be a key
component of such a conservation strategy. In addition there will be a need to intervene to help many of the species. This may be through helping the
species translocate through space. New conservation paradigms are needed in the conservation fraternity to think of moving species to areas where they
didn’t occur in the past. Probably the most important strategy for ensuring the conservation of biodiversity, given a climatically-changing environment, is
that areas outside of the reserves must be conserved, or made as biodiversity-friendly as possible. This is not to say that a strategically aligned
conservation network that protects conservation given climate change is not important. Rather it is a necessity to expand conservation to as large an area
as possible. Many species will have to migrate through areas that aren’t covered by the current reserve network. In addition, areas outside of the reserve
network may become important refugia for species, as the habitat within the reserves is decreased due to climate change.
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Slide 39: Test yourself
Duration: 00:00:05
Check your understanding of
Chapter 5
PASS MARK 80%
Please do not proceed further
until you have PASSED
Chapter 5: test yourself
Notes:
Slide 40
Links to other chapters
Duration: 00:00:15
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Links
Linksto
to other
other chapters
chapters
Next
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
Chapter
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
The evidence for anthropogenic climate change
Global Climate Models
Climate change scenarios for Africa
Biodiversity response to past climates
Adaptations of biodiversity to climate change
Approaches to niche-based modelling
Ecosystem change under climate change
Chapter 8 Implications for strategic conservation planning
Chapter 9 Economic costs of conservation responses
I hope that found chapter 5 informative, and that you
enjoy chapter 6.
Notes:
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