What does the presence of
sedimentary rock layers reveal
about sea level?
Limestone is
formed in deep
ocean.
Shale is formed
in shallow
oceans.
Sandstone
forms on
beaches.
This pattern (sandstone on shale on limestone)
indicates ocean level falling.
The reverse pattern would indicate a time when
the sea level was rising.
The top of Mt. Everest is made of
limestone. What does this
indicate about how the
topography of this region has
changed?

Limestone is formed at the bottom of the ocean.
The highest point on Earth was once at the bottom of the
ocean!
How does the wind cause
surface currents in the ocean?
By friction of the wind on the upper surface of the ocean (called
“wind stress”). If a wind passes from west to east—it causes a
surface current from west to east as well.
(Ekman drift causes sub-surface currents to bend to the right in the
northern hemisphere)
In your own words, describe the
difference between an intrusive
igneous rock and an extrusive
igneous rock.
Extrusive igneous rocks
cool from lava
on the surface
of the Earth…
…while intrusive igneous
rocks cool from magma
below the surface
of the Earth
Why are some metamorphic
rocks foliated but others lack
foliation?
Foliation occurs when rocks are exposed to steady
pressure. The foliation forms at right angles to the pressure.
Without this steady pressure… no foliation!
Did the igneous rocks in your
community or area form
underground or at the Earth’s
surface? Explain.
Underground. The igneous rocks in this are usually
granite. The large crystals indicate that it cooled slowly
underground.
(There is also rhyolite, a fine textured, pale igneous rock
that cooled on the surface)
Earth’s orbit has an eccentricity
of about 0.017. Compare this
value to the ellipse with the
lowest eccentricity of those you
drew. Why does it make sense
to describe Earth’s orbit as
"nearly circular"?
d=10 cm
L=14 cm
E=10/14=.71
d=2 cm
L=22 cm
E=2/22=.091
d=5 Gm
L=300 Gm
E=5/300=.0167
The ellipses we drew ranged from .71 down to about
.091 for the lowest eccentricity. At about .017
eccentricity, Earth’s orbit is far less eccentric, The lower
the eccentricity, the more circular the orbit—zero
eccentricity is a perfect circle!
Rock salt is mined throughout
the Great Lakes region. What
does this suggest about the past
climate of this area?
Rock Salt
Halite
NaCl
Rock salt (halite) is formed when seawater evaporates.
This area was once under sea level, then sea level fell and
the climate warmed enough to evaporate the seawater
Explain the relationship between
the mineral composition of an
igneous rock and the color of the
rock.
Sandstone has lots of
quartz
Basalt has lots of biotite
and hornblende
The lighter colored the minerals are, the lighter colored
the rock is.
Pale minerals include
quartz, feldspar, muscovite
and halite.
Dark minerals include
biotite, hornblende and
graphite
Why is the mineral composition
of a metamorphic rock usually
different from the mineral
composition of the protolith (the
original rock)?

Coal
forms
diamond
During metamorphism, the heat and pressure allow
chemical reactions that change one mineral into another.
The atoms can re-combine into new compounds and the
structure of the crystals can be changed as well.
Has there been more than one
period of metamorphism in this
area?
Why is the shape of metamorphic
rock units usually much more
complicated than that of igneous
or sedimentary rock units?
What is the difference between a
sill, a dike, and a batholith?
What kinds of rocks are laid
down in nearly horizontal layers?
Describe tension, compression,
and shear forces in your own
words. You may wish to use a
diagram.
What factors determine whether
a rock will fault or fold?
Define and explain two of the
major principles used by
geologists to interpret the rock
record.
(The fault is younger than all of
the rocks except the top layer)
Youngest
Youngest
Oldest
The principle of
superposition says that,
since rock layers are
usually laid down on top of
existing rocks, the layers
on top are younger than the
layers below.
The principle of crosscutting relationships
states that if one feature
cuts through another, the
first feature is younger.
The feature that got cut
must have been formed
first.
Why does the horizontal scale of
a Mercator projection increase
with latitude?
When you project the
surface of a sphere onto a
cylinder, the Equator is
right against the cylinder.
The polar regions are
projected farther away, so
they get magnified. A line
across the map represents a
circle around that part of
the globe. The globe gets
smaller as you go away
from the Equator, but the
map is a rectangle. The
shorter circle is stretched
out to fill the width of the
map.
Where on Earth do most
volcanoes occur? Explain your
answer.
Most volcanoes occur at plate boundaries. Of plate
boundaries, the best ones for volcanoes are convergent
ocean continent boundaries. The longest convergent oceancontinent plate boundaries make the Ring of Fire around
the north Pacific.
Over half of the world’s volcanoes are on the Ring of Fire.
Explain in your own words the
meaning of a contour line,
contour interval, relief, and
topographic map.
Why do silica-poor magmas
produce broad volcanoes with
gentle slopes while high-silica
magma tends to form volcanic
domes with steep sides?
Sketch a contour map of a
volcano that shows: a gentle
slope, a steep slope, a nearly
vertical cliff, and a crater or
depression at the top
For a cinder cone and a shield
volcano, sketch a topographic
map to show what the volcano
would look like from above.
Name two factors that influence
the viscosity of a lava flow.
Describe two ways in which lava
flows can be controlled
Explain how topography
influences volcanic flows.
How does the volume of an
eruption affect the area covered?
Why might a lahar (mudflow of
volcanic debris and water) affect
a community more severely than
a lava flow?
Name two factors that can affect
the distance that volcanic ash can
travel
How does the silica content of
magma affect how explosive a
volcano can be?
In your own words, compare the
sizes of the areas affected by
lava, pyroclastic flows, and ash
falls.
Why do the eruptions in Hawaii
differ from Mt. St. Helens
eruption?
Do volcanic eruptions increase or
decrease the temperature of the
Earth?
Can monitoring equipment be
used to prevent a volcano from
erupting? In your answer explain
what monitoring equipment can
do.
No. If a volcano is going to erupt, it is going to erupt. We
can’t do anything about it. What we can do is:
1. Get people to safety and
2. Save some of their belongings
Not much else. The monitoring equipment will (might!)
give us an early warning to save more lives.
Describe three methods of
monitoring an active volcano.
Which monitoring system is a)
least reliable, b) most dangerous,
and c) most useful?
Consider what you know about
volcanic hazards. Why is it
important to study rocks in your
area?
Name the three types of
boundaries between
lithospheric plates.
Convergent plate boundaries
can be in three different
settings. What are they?
Convergent means “coming together.”
Ocean-Ocean
Ocean-Continent Continent-Continent
There are two different types of crust: continental crust
and ocean-floor crust.
Ocean-floor crust is thinner, but denser.
The three settings differ by which types come together.
Identify on a world map of
lithospheric plates one example
of each of the following
settings:
an established divergent
boundary
an ocean-ocean convergent
boundary
an ocean-continent
convergent boundary
a continent-continent
collision zone
a transform plate boundary
How does the density of the
Earth provide evidence that the
interior of the Earth is denser
than the surface?
How are convection currents set
up?
What geographic features
would you expect to see at plate
boundaries?
After reviewing your work with
earthquakes and volcanoes,
summarize where most
earthquakes are located
compared to plate boundaries.
Although most earthquakes and
volcanoes are associated with
plate boundaries, they are not
always located directly along
the boundaries. Considering
boundaries between oceanic
and continental plates: Why are
volcanoes usually found on the
continental side of a plate
boundary?
Make a list of the various plate
tectonic settings where
mountain ranges are likely to be
produced. For each item, draw
a cross-section that shows the
mountain range and how it
relates to the plate-tectonics
setting. Then give an example
from somewhere in the world
for each item.
What evidence did Wegener
use to support his theory of the
breakup of Pangea?
How was fossil evidence used
to reconstruct Pangea?
What is the relationship
between the focus and the
epicenter of an earthquake?
Focus
(on the surface)
Epicenter
(underground
)
The epicenter is the spot on the surface above the focus.
The focus is where the earthquake really happens,
usually far underground.
The epicenter is shown on a map. The focus can be
shown on a cross-section drawing of that part of the
Earth’s crust
Use a diagram to describe the
difference between: P waves, S
waves and Surface waves.
Of the types of earthquakes
waves discussed, which do you
think are the most dangerous?
Why?
What information is provided
by a travel-time curve?
What advantages would be
gained by having more
seismometers at a particular
location?
Why do scientists use the
distribution of earthquakes as
evidence to support the theory
of plate tectonics?
Why is the intensity value of an
earthquake more meaningful
than magnitude to a non
scientist?
What geological conditions
influence the intensity of an
earthquake?
What are the direct hazards of
an earthquake?
In a major earthquake, where in
the your school and in your
community would you be the
safest? What places pose the
greatest risk form the effects of
an earthquake? Explain why
you selected these locations.
Name five factors that affect the
amount of damage caused by an
earthquake.
Chapter 5—Water Resources
Draw a sketch to show the
major processes and reservoirs
in the water cycle
Describe three “paths” of the
water cycle that precipitation
can follow once it reaches the
surface of the Earth.
How can the destruction of
large areas of rain forest affect
climate?
Identify and describe ways that
human activity affects surface
water and ground water quality.
How does the quality of water
from local streams, ponds, or
untreated wells compare to
water that has been processed
by a local water treatment
plant?
Where do you think geese poop?
Even a beautiful, peaceful pond harbors an incredible
number of organisms that you don’t want inside of you.
Don’t drink the untreated water. Really. The treatment
removes sediments and kills bacteria and parasites.
Drinking untreated water is very dangerous!
Chapter 6—Energy Resources
What type of electricity
generation is used most by the
world’s richest countries?
Which is used least?
What type of electricity
generation is used most by the
world’s poorest countries?
Which is used least?
Rank United States electricity
generation by fuel type from
highest to lowest. How does
this ranking match global
electricity generation?
From an Earth systems
perspective, what are the
advantages and disadvantages
of hydroelectric power?
Why are biomass and wind are
called renewable energy
sources?
What are the major factors that
determine whether a coal seam
is economically and
geologically suitable for
mining?
Think about regional
differences in electricity use.
Which part of the country do
you think would be the lowest?
the highest?
What are some of the positive
impacts associated with the use
of energy resources?
We call it “quality of life.” The good things in life—heat
in the winter, safe water and food, lights after sunset,
shelter, transportation, and many others all require
energy. If we don’t use the resources we have, we can’t
keep all of these things.
Even cavemen burned wood to make their campfires!
What are some of the negative
impacts associated with the use
of energy resources?
What are the advantages of
petroleum and natural gas as
fuels?
Why are oil and gas considered
nonrenewable resources?
Is the future decrease in
petroleum production likely to
be abrupt or gradual? Why?
How does the average daily
solar radiation per month for
January compare with that of
July? How might you explain
the difference?
Why must solar energy systems
occupy a much larger area, per
unit of energy produced, than
conventional systems that burn
fossil fuels?
Chapter 7—There is no chapter
7—I miscounted.
Which of the units in Question
1 (light year, an astronomical
unit, and a parsec) would you
use to describe each of the
following? Justify your choice.
Distances to various stars
(but not our Sun)?
Distances to various planets
within our solar system?
Widths of galaxies?
In your own words, explain the
nebular theory for the
beginning of our solar system.
Observe how the illuminated
portion of the Moon changes
shape as you turn 45° each
time. How would the Moon
phases appear from Earth if the
Moon rotated in the opposite
direction?
Summarize your ideas about
how the Moon affects the tides.
How did the Moon likely form?
Describe the relative positions
of the Earth, the Moon, and the
Sun for a spring tide and for a
neap tide.
The questions below refer to
your investigation of lunar
phases. Explain why the Moon
looks different in the sky during
different times of the month.
For an ellipse with a major axis
of 25 cm, which one is more
eccentric; the one with a
distance between the foci of 15
cm or with a distance between
the foci of 20 cm? Explain.
Why might Neptune be farther
away from the Sun at times
than Pluto is?
What are some of the problems
caused by sunspots and solar
flares?
Static on your radio or phone. Sunspots are a symptom
of a magnetic disturbance. Solar flares usually occur
when there are a lot of sunspots. The solar flares make a
lot of radio “noise.” The solar wind can even short out
electrical equipment on satellites…even on the Earth’s
surface!
In your own words, explain
what is meant by the term
"solar wind." How does the Sun
contribute to "space weather?"
Which wavelengths of light can
be more harmful to you than
others? Why?
Explain the relationships
between temperature,
luminosity, mass, and lifetime
of stars.
How does the wind cause surface
currents in the ocean?
Describe the Coriolis effect in
your own words.
What are the two factors that
determine the density of a water
mass?
Why do individual water masses
within the oceans retain
distinctive physical properties for
long periods of time?
Identify and describe the factors
that influence surface and deep
ocean circulation under El Niño
conditions:
Are the surface water
temperatures along the eastern
boundary of the equatorial
Pacific Ocean warmer or colder
during an El Niño event? Why?
What happens to the location of
the warm surface water during El
Niño?
Warmer. The change in wind patterns force the warmer
surface water to the east during an El Niño event. Usually,
it is forced west, and cooler deep water wells up from
below in the east (against the west coast of South America).
Ski areas in many parts of the
country depend on snowfall. a) In
which areas of the country would
the ski industry be hit hardest
from an El Niño like that of
1982–83? b) Which ski industry
would have benefited from the
1982–83El Niño?
Do you see a cyclic or
predictable trend to the fish-catch
data such that you might be able
to predict the next El Niño event?
If so, what is your prediction?
Chapter 10
Draw a diagram that shows how
an updraft forms due to:
Convection.
Orographic uplift.
Describe how an approaching
cold front can promote the
development of thunderstorms.
In the central and eastern parts of
the United States, what accounts
for the general increase in
thunderstorms as you go south?
On a warm summer afternoon,
why might you see scattered
cumulus clouds? In other words,
why might a cumulus cloud form
in one place and not another?
Describe what happens to the
temperature of a gas when the
volume of the gas increases.

Warm

Cool
As the volume increases the gas cools!
Describe what happens to the
temperature of a gas when the
gas is compressed.
Cool


Warm
As you compress a gas, it heats up!
Describe the vertical motion of
air in a thunderstorm that has
reached its mature stage.
On a piece of paper, draw the
vertical profile of a prominent
mountain range. Assume that a
humid wind blowing from left to
right encounters the mountain
range. Because the wind cannot
go through rock, it is forced to go
up and over the mountain range.
Using a broad smooth arrow,
draw the wind flowing up the
mountain on one side and down
the mountain on the other. In
pencil, sketch clouds on the side
of the mountain where you think
clouds and thunderstorms are
most likely to form.