写作
GRE
目录
GRE
写作...............................................................................................1
GRE 写作教程............................................................................................2
第一章 作文概述 ....................................................................................2
第二章 评分标准 ....................................................................................4
第三章 习作点评 ....................................................................................7
第四章 范文观摩 ..................................................................................40
第五章 是非问题题库 ..........................................................................52
第六章 逻辑问题题库 ..........................................................................71
第七章 提纲大全 ..................................................................................94
第八章 关键句式 ................................................................................135
第九章 写作工具箱 ............................................................................154
第十章 增补内容 ................................................................................244
第十一章 写作高分突破补充资料 ....................................................267
1
GRE 写作教程
第一章
作文概述
1．GRE 作文对考生的要求
GRE 作文考试是在 ETS 的组织下经过多年的研究、试验后慎重推出的。ETS 首先组织全美高校各学科
领域的学者根据本学科对学生知识结构的基本要求设计作文题，然后将每一道题投入考试试验，这样逐步
建立起一个完善的题库。随后，ETS 又组织专业人员对作文机考进行技术可行性研究，并组织专门阅卷班
子进行训练，以确保评分标准的科学性以及阅卷的客观性和公正性。目前，GRE 作文测试系统已得到北美
各研究生院的广泛认可。
GRE 作文考试旨在考察考生在限定的时间内对较复杂的政抬、经济、社会、文化等方面的种种问题进
行快速思辨和准确表达的能力，要求考生：
· 清楚有效地表达复杂的思想；
· 分析所给的观点及相关证据；
· 用理由和例证支持自己的观点；
· 论证中心突出，有条理和逻辑性；
· 能使用规范的英文进行写作。
同 IELTS、TOEFL 的作文考试相比，GRE 的作文考试要难得多，其难度与 GMAT 的作文相当，甚至
可以说更难一些。虽然它的作文考题来自于题库，但这些题目涉及的范围非常宽广，涉及人文、社会学科
诸多领域，因此．要求考生有较宽的知识面。例如，是非问题分析（Analysis of an Issue）中有这样一道题：
“When we concern ourselves with the study of history，we become storytellers. Because we can never know the
past directly but must construct it by interpreting evidence, exploring history is more of a creative enterprise than it
is an objective pursuit．All historians are storytellers．
”
这个问题涉及历史学的基本理论。这种枯燥的问题恐怕一般考生平常是不会关心的。再如：
"What is called human nature is really a reflection of the human condition: if all people had a reasonable share of
territory and resources, such products of 'human nature' as war and crime would become extremely rare."
这是一个颇有几分哲学意味的题目，要写好这个题目，考生若没有一点抽象思辨的能力是很难的。
其次，逻辑问题分析（Analysis of an Argument）是中国考生的又一难关。这一方面因为中国的大学里
很少开逻辑课，中国学生的逻辑分析能力相对贫乏，另一方面是因为用英文对逻辑问题进行分析谈何容易。
总体来说，中国考生在 GRE 作文考试上面临的最大挑战在于用规范的书面英语快速、准确地表达对复
杂问题的有深度的看法。
当然，再难的考试也难不倒勤劳、勇敢的中国人民。危难之处，方显英雄本色。可以说，从一个角度
看，GRE 作文考试的推出是在你留学申请的道路上设置了又一道障碍；但从另一个角度看，只要你充分准
备，自信应战，它将为你提供一个从千百万竞争者中脱颖而出的机遇。
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重要的是，你必须知己知彼，运筹帷幄，才能百战不殆。
2．GRE 作文成绩的重要性
过去，GRE 考试只有综合考试和单项考试。国外的研究生院逐渐发现，大量的考生虽然在这两方面的
分数很高，但写作能力极端欠缺．入学后很难顺利地完成学业。原因很简单，GRE 的综合考试和单项考试
成绩只能反映考生的理解能力，而对于入学后的学习来说，学生的书面表达能力如果说不是更重要，至少
可以说是同样重要。在此情况下，ETS 便及时推出 GRE 写作考试。此项考试推出后立刻受到北美各研究生
院的重视；在招生录取时，各研究生院均依据申请者的作文成绩来判断他们：
· 成功地适应研究生层次学习的能力；
· 其它测试以及申请文书无法反映的从事学术研究的能力；
· 相对于其它同类申请者的比较优势。
因此，凡是希望在强手如云的入学申请和奖学金申请赛中高人一筹、捷足先登的求学者都应该未雨绸
缪，勇敢地迎接 GRE 写作考试的挑战。
同时，立志留学海外的学子也应该十分清楚地认识到，在英文听、说、读、写、译这五项基本技能中，
写作是最难提高的，然而它却是你顺利完成海外学业、有效从事社会交际、成功推展个人事业的最重要的
技能之一，如果不在出国前打好写作基础，即便侥幸出国，恐怕也很难顺利地完成学业，更不用指望有更
大的事业发展，并最终实现自己的宏伟抱负。因此，出国前的你在忙忙碌碌中别忘了安排出足够的时间好
好攻攻英文写作，实实在在地提高英文写作水平。英文里有一句格言：
The secret of achievement is to not let what you're doing get to you before you get to it.
记住这句话，Get to WRITING NOW!
3．GRE 作文的考试内容
GRE 作文考试要求写两篇作文。第一篇作文时间为 45 钟，要求对一个是非问题（两题选一）提出自
己的见解：第二篇作文时间为 30 分钟，要求分析一个逻辑问题。对于是非问题，考生可以选取任何角度展
开分析，只要能提供有力的证据支持自己的观点就行。也就是说，考生不必过于担心自己的立场是否正确，
重要的是言之成理，自圆其说。逻辑问题考查的是考生的分析能力，它要求考生剖析一段逻辑论述，探讨
该论述的逻辑性。对于逻辑问题作文，考生无需对题中的立场表示赞同或反对，而应集中分析该论述的逻
辑性是否严密。
简单地说，第一篇作文考查考生确立自己的观点并加以论证的能力，第二篇作文考查考生发现并剖析
所给论证中逻辑错误的能力。
另外，考生必须清楚，你在考场上实际得到的作文题将是从 ETS 公布的 GRE 作文题库（见本书第五、
六章）中直接抽出的。因此，你完全有可能提前做好准备。只是，这么多道题从哪里准备起，又如何准备，
这依然是一个大问题。不用急，往下看，本书正是要帮助你一步步登堂入室，稳操胜券。
4．GRE 作文的评分
每篇作文按 6 分制进行总体评分，即每篇作文的最后得分不是其单项（如结构、内容、语法等）成绩
的总和，而是看该文的总体质量。阅卷人都是经过严格训练的老手，他们来自北美高校，都有多年从事作
文教学的经验，而且事先都经过了严格的训练，以确保阅卷时判分的标准统一、客观、公正和准确。
ETS 对阅卷的程序也作了严密的设计。每篇作文由两名阅卷人同时评分，最后的成绩是这两个评分的
平均分。如果对同一篇作文的两个评分相差大于一分，则必须由第三位阅卷人再次评分。在阅卷的过程中，
考生的作文卷随机分发给阅卷人，有关考生的任何信息都被隐藏；同时，阅卷人也无法知道其他阅卷人对
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同一篇作文的评分，也就是说，每一位阅卷人独立评分。
现在，考生可以选择机考或笔考。如果选择机考，那么你的作文将由人脑和电脑（E-Rater）分别评阅，
规则与全人脑阅卷完全相同。
值得注意的是，如果你选择机考作文，那么作文成绩可以在 10-15 天内通知本人和学校；如果你选择
笔考，那要等 6 周后才能得到作文成绩。
第二章
评分标准
一、是非问题分析评分标准
Each perspective on an Issue essay will be scored on a 6-point holistic scale according to the criteria below.
Although the GRE Writing Assessment contains two discrete essay-writing tasks, a single combined score is
reported because it is more reliable than either task score alone. The score reported will represent the average of
the scores for the two essays.
SCORE 6
A 6 paper presents a cogent, well-articulated analysis of the complexities of the issue and demonstrates mastery of
the elements of effective writing. A typical paper in this category
· develops a position on the issue with insightful reasons and/or persuasive examples
· sustains a well-focused, well-organized discussion
· expresses ideas clearly and precisely
· uses language fluently, with varied sentence structure and effective vocabulary
· demonstrates superior facility with the conventions (grammar, usage, and mechanics) of standard written
English but may have minor flaws
SCORE 5
A 5 paper presents a well-developed analysis of the complexities of the issue and demonstrates a strong control of
the elements of effective writing. A typical paper in this category
· develops a position on the issue with well-chosen reasons and/or examples
· is focused and generally well organized
· expresses ideas clearly and well
· uses varied sentence structure and appropriate vocabulary
· demonstrates facility with the conventions of standard written English but may have minor flaws
SCORE 4
A 4 paper presents a competent analysis of the issue and demonstrates adequate control of the elements of writing.
A typical paper in this category
· develops a position on the issue with relevant reasons and/or examples
· is adequately organized
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· expresses ideas clearly
· demonstrates adequate control of language but may lack sentence variety
· demonstrates control of the conventions of standard written English but may have some flaws
SCORE 3
A 3 paper demonstrates some competence in its analysis of the issue and in its control of the elements of writing
but is plainly flawed. A typical paper in this category exhibits one or more of the following characteristics:
· is vague or limited in developing a position on the issue
· is weak in the use of relevant reasons or examples
· is poorly focused and/or poorly organized
· has problems expressing ideas clearly
· uses language imprecisely and/or lacks sentence variety
· contains occasional major errors or frequent minor errors in grammar, usage, or mechanics
SCORE 2
A 2 paper demonstrates serious weaknesses in analytical writing. A typical paper in this category exhibits one or
more of the following characteristics:
· is unclear or seriously limited in developing a position on the issue
· provides few, if any, relevant reasons or examples
· is unfocused and/or disorganized
· has serious and frequent problems in the use of language and sentence structure
· contains numerous errors in grammar, usage, or mechanics that interfere with meaning
SCORE 1
A 1 paper demonstrates fundamental deficiencies in analytical writing skills, A typical paper in this category
exhibits one or more of the following characteristics:
· provides little evidence of the ability to develop or organize a coherent response to the topic
· has severe and persistent errors in language and sentence structure
· contains a pervasive pattern of errors in grammar, usage, or mechanics that severely interferes with
meaning
SCORE 0
Off topic, in a foreign language, merely copies the topic, consists only of keystroke characters, or is illegible, blank,
or nonverbal.
二、逻辑问题分析评分标准
Each Analysis of an Argument essay will be scored on a 6-point holistic scale according to the criteria below.
Although the GRE Writing Assessment contains two discrete essay-writing tasks, a single combined score is
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reported because it is more reliable than either task score alone. The score reported will represent the average of
the scores for the two essays.
SCORE 6
A 6 paper presents a cogent, well-articulated critique of the argument and demonstrates mastery of the elements of
effective writing. A typical paper in this category
· clearly identifies important features of the argument and analyzes them insightfully
· develops ideas cogently, organizes them logically, and connects them with clear transitions
· effectively supports the main points of the critique
· demonstrates control of language, including diction and syntactic variety
· demonstrates facility with the conventions of standard written English but may have minor flaws
SCORE 5
A 5 paper presents a well-developed critique of the argument and demonstrates good control of the elements of
effective writing. A typical paper in this category
· clearly identifies important features of the argument and analyzes them in a generally thoughtful way
· develops ideas clearly, organizes them logically, and connects them with appropriate transitions
· sensibly supports the main points of the critique
· demonstrates control of language, including diction and syntactic variety
· demonstrates facility with the conventions of standard written English but may have occasional flaws
SCORE 4
A 4 paper presents a competent critique of the argument and demonstrates adequate control of the elements of
writing. A typical paper in this category
· identifies and analyzes important features of the argument
· develops and organizes ideas satisfactorily but may not connect them with transitions
· supports the main points of the critique
· demonstrates sufficient control of language to convey ideas with reasonable clarity
· generally follows the conventions of standard written English but may have flaws
SCORE 3
A 3 paper demonstrates some competence in its analysis of the argument and in its control of the elements of
writing but is plainly flawed. A typical paper in this category exhibits one or more of the following characteristics:
· does not identify or analyze most of the important features of the argument, although some analysis of the
argument is present
· mainly analyzes tangential or irrelevant matters, or reasons poorly
· is limited in the logical development and organization of ideas
· offers support of little relevance and value for points of the critique
· does not convey meaning clearly
contains occasional major errors or frequent minor errors in grammar, usage, or mechanics
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SCORE 2
A 2 paper demonstrates serious weaknesses in analytical writing skills. A typical paper in this category exhibits
one or more of the following characteristics:
· does not present a critique based on logical analysis, but may instead present the writer's own views on the
subject
· does not develop ideas, or is disorganized and illogical
· provides little, if any, relevant or reasonable support
· has serious and frequent problems in the use of language and in sentence structure
· contains numerous errors in grammar, usage, or mechanics that interfere with meaning
SCORE 1
A 1 paper demonstrates fundamental deficiencies in analytical writing skills. A typical paper in this category
exhibits more than one of the following characteristics:
· provides little evidence of the ability to understand and analyze the argument
· provides little evidence of the ability to develop an organized response
· has severe and persistent errors in language and sentence structure
· contains a pervasive pattern of errors in grammar, usage, or mechanics that results in incoherence
SCORE 0
Off topic, in a foreign language, merely copies the topic, consists only of keystroke characters, or is illegible, blank,
or nonverbal.
第三章
习作点评
一、是非问题例文分析
Present your perspective on the issue below, using relevant reasons and/or examples to support your views.
Sample One
"In our time, specialists of all kinds are highly over-rated. We need more generalists—people who can provide
broad perspectives."
Benchmark 6—Outstanding
In this era of rapid social and technological change leading to increasing life complexity and psychological
displacement, both positive and negative effects among persons in Western society call for a balance in which
there are both specialists and generalists.
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Specialists are necessary in order to allow society as a whole to properly and usefully assimilate the masses of new
information and knowledge that have come out of research and have been widely disseminated through mass
global media. As the head of Pharmacology at my university once said (and I paraphrase): "I can only research
what I do because there are so many who have come before me to whom I can turn for basic knowledge. It is only
because of each of the narrowly focussed individuals at each step that a full and true understanding of the
complexities of life can be had. Each person can only hold enough knowledge to add one small rung to the ladder,
but together we can climb to the moon." This illustrates the point that our societies level of knowledge and
technology is at a stage in which there simply must be specialists in order for our society to take advantage of the
information available to us.
Simply put, without specialists, our society would find itself bogged down in the Sargasso sea of information
overload. While it was fine for early physicists to learn and understand the few laws and ideas that existed during
their times, now, no one individual can possibly digest and assimilate all of the knowledge in any given area.
On the other hand, Over specialization means narrow focii in which people can lose the larger picture. No one can
hope to understand the human body by only inspecting one's own toe-nails. What we learn from a narrow focus
may be internally logically coherent but may be irrelevant or fallacious within the framework of a broader
perspective. Further, if we inspect only our toe-nails, we may conclude that the whole body is hard and white.
Useful conclusions and thus perhaps useful inventions must come by sharing among specialists. Simply throwing
out various discoveries means we have a pile of useless discoveries, it is only when one can make with them a
mosaic that we can see that they may form a picture.
Not only may over-specialization be dangerous in terms of the truth, purity and cohesion of knowledge, but it can
also serve to drown moral or universal issues. Generalists and only generalists can see a broad enough picture to
realize and introduce to the world the problems of the environment. With specialization, each person focusses on
their research and their goals. Thus, industrialization, expansion, and new technologies are driven ahead.
Meanwhile no individual can see the wholisitc view of our global existence in which true advancement may mean
stifling individual specialists for the greater good of all.
Finally, over-specialization in a people's daily lives and jobs has meant personal and psychological
compartmentalization. People are forced into pigeon holes early in life (at least by university) and must
consciously attempt to consume external forms of stimuli and information in order not to be lost in their small and
isolated universe. Not only does this make for narrowly focussed and generally poorly-educated individuals, but it
guarantees a sense of loss of community, often followed by a feeling of psychological displacement and personal
dissatisfaction.
Without generalists, society becomes inward-looking and eventually inefficient. Without a society that recognizes
the importance of broad-mindedness and fora a for sharing generalities, individuals become isolated. Thus, while
our form of society necessitates specialists, generalists are equally important. Specialists drive us forward in a
series of thrusts while generalists make sure we are still on the jousting field and know what the stakes are.
____________________________________________________________________________
6 分作文点评
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这是一篇出色的作文，作者对问题的分析有独到的见解，论证严密，遣词准确、丰富，表现了作者对
写作基本要素的娴熟的驾御能力。作者不同意题目提出的观点，认为专才和通才都很重要：专才使我们在
一个信息爆炸的时代免于堕落为平庸，而通才使我们有可能把握事物的整体，从而在一个专业分工日益碎
化的时代实现更大的整体利益。
该文结构严密，论证有条理。作者对问题的各方面都进行了比较周密的探讨，并提出了有力的例证和
理由来支持自己的前提，最后得出了一个令人信服的结论。
该文的字数是 625。从 ETS 的要求来看，GRE 作文要想拿到高分，字数必须达到 500 字以上。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 5—Strong
Specialists are not overrated today. More generalists may be needed, but not to overshadow the specialists.
Generalists can provide a great deal of information on many topics of interest with a broad range of ideas. People
who look at the overall view of things can help with some of the large problems our society faces today. But
specialists are necessary to gain a better understanding of more in depth methods to solve problems or fixing
things.
One good example of why specialists are not overrated is in the medical field. Doctors are necessary for people to
live healthy lives. When a person is sick, he may go to a general practitioner to find out the cause of his problems.
Usually, this kind of "generalized" doctor can help most ailments with simple and effective treatments. Sometimes,
though, a sickness may go beyond a family doctor's knowledge or the prescribed treatments don't work the way
they should. When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed as a disease that requires more care than a family
doctor can provide, he may be referred to a specialist. For instance, a person with constant breathing problems that
require hospitalization may be suggested to visit an asthma specialist. Since a family doctor has a great deal of
knowledge of medicine, he can decide when his methods are not effective and the patient needs to see someone
who blows more about the specific problem; someone who knows how it begins, progresses, and specified
treatments. This is an excellent example of how a generalized person may not be equipped enough to handle
something as well as a specialized one can.
Another example of a specialist who is needed instead of a generalist involves teaching. In grammar school,
children learn all the basic principles of reading, writing, and arithematic. But as children get older and progress in
school, they gain a better understanding of the language and mathematical processes. As the years in school
increase, they need to learn more and more specifics and details about various subjects. They start out by learning
basic math concepts such as addition, subtraction, division, and multiplication. A few years later, they are ready to
begin algebraic concepts, geometry, and calculus. They are also ready to learn more advanced vocabulary, the
principles of how all life is composed and how it functions. One teacher or professor can not provide as much in
depth discussion on all of these topics as well as one who has learned the specifics and studied mainly to know
everything that is currently known about one of these subjects. Generalized teachers are required to begin molding
students at a very early age so they can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic
subjects and finding out new facts on the old ones.
____________________________________________________________________________
5 分作文点评
该文对问题的复杂性进行了深入的分析。作者的立论基于两个十分典型的、恰当的例证。该文第二段
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以医学领域为例展开讨论，指出在这一领域不仅需要专科医生而且需要通科医生。然后，为了说明自己的
观点，作者把这一例子推进一步，指出在呼吸病领域对哮喘病专家的需要。这一从具体到一般的例证分析
法在该文的第三段也有出色的运用。总之，该文结构合理，这部分是因为作者有效地使用了恰当的关联词，
如：
“but”
、
“usually”
、
“for instance",等等。
该文虽然在语言方面总体表现不错，但有些明显的问题使该文不能进入 6 分之列。例如作者对代词的
使用不准确，如“When a sickness progresses or becomes diagnosed,…he may be referred to a specialist”
；排比
结构也有问题，如“…how it begins, progresses and specified to begin molding students at a very early age to they
can get ready for the future ahead of them in gaining more facts about the basic subjects and…”
Benchmark 4—Adequate
The need for generalists is undeniable but one can not underestimate the need and importance of specialists. The
medical profession is a good example of an area that requires both generalists and specialists. If there were no
generalists in the profession there would be no one to help patients determine when a specialist was needed. There
are certain problems that a general practitioner can take care of and there are other problems that are out of his or
her league. The general practitioner is the an appropriate place to start when a patient develops a problem. Many
times the general practitioner is more than capable of handling problems that arise and other times he or she is
unable to fully take control of the patient's care. It isn't a fault with the general practitioners. There is just too much
to know for any one person to be an expert on all topics. It takes people years to become experts on a single topic,
never mind being an expert on everything in the medical profession.
I am currently working in a large teaching hospital where the need for both general practitioners and specialists is
obvious. When a patient is admitted to a general medicine floor, the general medicine physicians are not always
able to deal with every problem the patient has without some help from the specialists. It would be unrealistic, not
to mention unfair to the general practitioners, to expect the general practitioners to know everything about
everything. The key is to know where everyone's knowledge and area of expertise lie and use their strengths to
optimize patient care.
On the general medicine team in which I worked, the team would constantly be requesting consults from
specialists. Whether it be a renal, psychiatric, orthopedic, rehabilitation, speech, gastroenterologist, or any other
specialist, their input was constantly needed and used to get the patient well as quickly as possible. The list of
specialists can go on longer than one would think and it is just impossible for one person to know everything about
each one of them.
Although the need for generalists is apparent, it would be hard to survive without specialists, also. When a person
acts as a generalist, they know little bit about everything, but certainly not a totally inclusive knowledge of
everything.' The specialist is there to help add the expertise and inclusive knowledge that the generalist may be
lacking. The most important thing to remember with specialists and generalists is to recognize both's strengths and
weaknesses and capitalize on the strengths to achieve whatever goal may be desired.
____________________________________________________________________________
4 分作文点评
总体来看，该文有效地回应了题目的要求，作者不同意“专家过剩”的论点，认为专家和通才都需要。
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作者只提出了一个例子来支持自己的观点，不过作者对这个例子还是展开了分析，探讨了医学领域里专才
和通才的不同职责与贡献。遗憾的是，第三段写得平平，结尾段不过是对第一、二两段的复述而已。
该文满足了对语言的一般要求，但遣词不够恰当、准确。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 3—Limited
Generalists have the ideas and beliefs of what America is made of. America's wealth of knowledge can be related
to the generalists of the past generations and the original leaders of our Constitution Period that helped shape our
great nation. If our former leaders would have not been generalists when creating our country's Constitution in the
late 1770's, American generations of would have been burdened with the constant understanding that they are
doomed to failure.
The fact that our past leaders were not specialists gave the creation of the Constitution the ability to be changed
through amendments passed by our represented leaders of today. The Constitution was created with the ability to
adapt to the countries needs and demands in running our society as it changes over time. The generalists approach
to this creation of a non-specialized Constitution shows the need for todays generations to continue with the beliefs
that a specialist would not follow.
America has learned from it's past and has done what it can to make the changes through adaption. America's
greatness has been from the generalist leaders of the past, thinking for the Americans of the future. Americans with
a broad perspective is what will continue to lead our great nation into the twenty-first century.
____________________________________________________________________________
3 分作文点评
该文表现了一定的写作能力，但对问题的分析不透彻，在语言上也有许多错误，
作者认为通才比专才更有价值，并以美国宪法的起草者为例展开分析。这个例子虽然相关，但作者分
析不够。中间段落将美国宪法的灵活性归功于其创始者的通才倾向，但开头段的观点模糊不清，而结尾段
的归纳并没有得到有力的支持。
该文有不少语言方面的缺陷，如标点符号、代词、动词时态以及措辞和搭配等方面的错误，如：
“Generalists have the ideas and beliefs of what America is made of ”
；…gave the creation of the Constitution the
ability to …”
。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 2—Seriously Flawed
I disagree with the portion of the "Specialists of all kinds are highly overated" statement. Specialists are persons
who take care of certain tasks or a specific area of whatever the case may be. These persons contibute more time
and effort than those with general titles, the specialists are the ones who can tell or give the client more details on
what is happening to them. The generalist can only give broad ideas which can be a number of things. The
specialist narrows the ideas down to the specifics. For example if one goes to a "general practioner doctor" for
pains in the chest area, he would tell the client that the poblem may be heart burns, or something else that's not be
so serious, depending on the symptoms. He may also refer him to a cardiologist to be sure it's not any thing else.
The point I'm making is that specialist are people who can help us out even more that our generalist. Also the fact
that one would go to a specialist only in dire needs.
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____________________________________________________________________________
2 分作文点评
该文作者提出了观点，但没有能够有效支持自己的观点。
作者首先对“专家过剩”的观点表示反对，然后试图界定和比较专才和通才。作者的这一努力没有成
功，主要因为描写太抽象，构思不严密。作者以普通医生为例，这本来是一个相关的例子，但作者设想普
通医生一定会误诊，这就太绝对了。
该文另一弱点表现在措辞贫乏、语法错误两个方面。虽然这些错误尚不足以影响理解，但足以构成一
篇 2 分的作文。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 1—Fundamentally Deficient
In today's society, there are many people who feel generalist are more broad than specialists. I will discuss how
there is a need for generalists in the medical field, education, and the work place.
First, I will discuss how there is a need for generalists in the medical field. A generalist in this area would be
straight foward with clients. For instance, in explaining to a patient they had cancer. A specialist would use
wording that you would believe everything is fine.
Second, I will discuss how there is a need for generalists in the education field. In this field some instructors use
"big words" and try to out smart themselves with there own thoughts of character.
Last, I will discuss how there is a need for generalists in the workplace. In the workplace the bosses should be
open with personell. For instance, instead of acting like they know everything they should be open to knew
thoughts and ideas.
____________________________________________________________________________
1 分作文点评
表面上看，该文似乎结构合理，但在分析和论证方面都存在严重问题。作者开篇第一句话实际是一个
同义重复的判断：
“…there are many people who feel generalist are more broad than specialists.”
。在随后的三个
小段落中，作者表示要探讨专门领域对通才的需要，而实际上作者根本没有探讨。文章的其余部分只是简
单地强调专才的不足，但并未提出证据来论证这一点，而作者将专才定义为欺骗和误导别人的人，这就更
难令人信服了。
该文的主要问题并非语言方面的错误太多，而是作者没有能力展开逻辑连贯的论证。
Sample Two
"It is unfortunate that today's educators place so much emphasis on finding out what students want to include in
the curriculum and then giving it to them. It is the educator's duty to determine the curriculum and the students
duty to study what is presented to them."
Score 6:
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The statement above conceals intesting connotations far above curriculum development Issues of classroom
control and development of scholarly talents are at stake, not simply a debate over which books are acceptable or
over revisionist histories.
The statement itself is a bit misleading in that in my experience, student control over curriculum hardly existed.
Each year, there were certain course offerings made available, and students were to choose from those offerings, of
course bearing in mind requirements for graduation set forth by the administration. On a classroom level, the
immediate, initial material may have been somewhat directed by the students, but this was a part of the process
allowed by the teacher/professor in order to gain the interest and attention of the students. However, too much of
any one thing becomes problematic; letting students set the curriculum, as with letting students choose and design
their own major in college, serves ultimately to dilute the quality of the educational experience unless a single
advisor can devote significant amounts of time to the individual student. This amount of time, or even the expense
to the student of this individual attention, seem to indicate that resources would be better allocated elsewhere.
Of course, any school in which the students decide "what goes" is bound to have problems controlling students.
Once the educators, be they administrators or teachers, are under the control of students, even a democratic
situation would be like holding royalty acountable to the mob. Presently, students hear for hours that they should
not forget to use a condom in the heat of the moment, and educators think the message gets through, while half the
kids can't even remember to bring a pencil to class. Students go to school not to simply learn the Pythagorean
theorem, but to learn direction and receive guidance. This cannot occur when students are in charge, and standards,
already hard to find in America's contemporary public schools, will become unenforceable. If students dictate and
administrators do, students will never learn academic responsibility, and if they can't be held accountable for
homework, what other responsibilities will they avoid when they get older?
But in another sense, teachers and students do exist in a partnership of sorts. Teachers are there to satisfy the needs
of the student, and the student, while perhaps not being the most experienced/ knowledgeable person on what
his/her needs actually are (versus wants), at least should be afforded some say. In addition, we must remember
what the purpose of education is, and that there are different levels of education.
In high school, the focus is not so much on learning actual material. The focus is on developing study habits, and
on social interaction. The best secondary schools promote an environment in which individual creativity and
pacing can be developed, where students are taught to thinkon their own, and learn to debate and argue in a
scholarly way, through writing and other formal methods of discourse. Group collaboration and interpersonal skills
are developed and honed. The actual details of what is studied and tested is of less importance. Whether a student
reads Maya Angelou, or Yeats, or Euripides essentially is beside the point as long as a student's mind is cultivated,
not just their ability to record and recite. What is important is that secondary students develop and grow in the
hands of the professionals.
The secondary educational experience is designed to prepare a student for college. It is in college where the
individual learns to examine the world and how it works, and the individual's place in it.
As for duty, it is the educators' duty not simply to determine the curriculum, but to present it effectively. They
cannot half-heartedly paint it on the blackboard, they must enliven it and actually teach. Hard work must be lauded,
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while freeloaders are punished. These are the duties of teachers, and the duty of the students is not just to learn or
study, but to grow. An independent mind is what students need, and that mind has to be in a position to want and
be able to question beyond the material presented, not simply to question its legitimacy. That distinction, though
subtle, is the difference between letting the students follow a self-destructive course of premature
self-determination on the one hand , and permitting on the other hand the fostering of great talents through a
cooperative, mentoring relationship
Commentary:
This is an insightful, well-articulated discussion of curricular responsibility and the larger issue of academic
responsibility.
After a brief introduction examining assumptions implied by the topic, the writer skillfully
develops the position that letting students dictate the curriculum could dilute the educational experience. Allowing
students to determine the curriculum, the writer claims, will deny them the guidance and direction they need to
learn academic responsibility.
The line of reasoning is strengthened by the discussion of how teachers and students can work in partnership to
satisfy the needs of students. The argument is further advanced with concrete examples from high school courses
showing how teachers provide guidance for students through group collaboration, development of interpersonal
skills, and preparation for college. The examples are varied (from condom use to reading Angelou, Yeats, or
Euripedes) and used effectively to further support the writer's position.
In the conclusion, the writer thoughtfully discusses how educators should not only determine the curriculum but
present it in an enlivened and appropriate manner. The final sentence, contrasting a "self-destructive course of
premature self-determination" and "a cooperative, mentoring relationship," ties the essay together.
The essay is clearly organized, although the writer does not rely on conventional phrases (such as "first???,"
"second???," etc.) to signal the organizational structure. Instead, the organization and focus progress through the
line of reasoning that moves fluently and coherently from one paragraph to the next.
Language use is generally precise and effective (e.g., "holding royalty accountable to the mob"), and sentence
structure is well controlled (e.g., "hard work must be lauded, while freeloaders are punished"). The few errors are
minor, the kind that can easily be made—and forgiven—under testing conditions.
This outstanding response received a score of 6.
Score 5:
FROM WHENCE SHOULD CURRICULUM COME?
"It is unfortunate that today's educators place so much emphasis on finding out what students want to include in
the curriculum and then giving it to them. It is the educator's duty to determine the curriculum and the students'
duty to study what is presented to them."
As an elementary educator, I believe this stance is extremist. Educators and the public must come to a middle road.
The high road and the low road are intimated in this statement. I believe the high road on this topic (from whence
14
should curriculum come) represents a nouveau approach. Ask the students what they want to learn and study for
the year; then meander, research and branch off of their interests. The low road on this topic (directly endorsed by
this statement) is old fashioned and outdated. The assumptions behind this view include a magical ability by
teachers to infuse reams of information, data and knowledge into students' brains that then become internalized and
applied by the students.
In a complex and frightening society, we must look to the middle road. We must infuse the best of the high and the
low roads. Current research has had a lot to say on curriculum development. Overreaching arguments defend the
quality of students' self-directed learning. However, in order to prepare our students for this society, we must have
developed the backbone and anchor for curriculum. Content and performance standards (i,e. curricula) need to be
developed by the district's educators as a map for teachers. When educators provide students with choices
WITHIN the map of curriculum, students relish in the freedom and take ownership for their learning.
Were we to provide students the ultimate authority in curriculum development, we would be doing an injustice not
only to our students but to society as a whole. There are specific skills and abilities that need to be developed and
taught—regardless of students' (or for that matter, teachers') interest. In my profession as an elementary educator
and as a parent, I value the abilities to read, write and be mathematically proficient. Those students not mastering
those critical skills are at a disadvantage. We see those students become destructive or depressed. I have observed
students struggling with the basics become outcasts in their own little worlds. Very young outcasts grow into adult
outcasts.
I do NOT think it is unfortunate that today's educators emphasize students' interests. It IS our duty, however, to
provide the parameters for their education. We can not simply state that educators determine curriculum and
students follow. This is just not reality in the classrooms. When standards and curricular maps have been
developed, teachers of today's children have the responsibility (yes, the duty!) to bring life to those maps. One
crucial and successful way, is to provide students variety and choices within the context of "what needs to be
covered." The educator who brings curricula to life for her students and gives her students the responsibility to
make choices helps to prepare our children for thriving—not just surviving.
Commentary:
This response presents a well-developed analysis of the issue and displays strong control of the elements of writing.
The essay argues in favor of a "middle road" position on the issue by analyzing the pros and cons of both
teacher-determined and student-driven curricula. The argument is clear and well focused, supported with first-hand
experience and the results of educational research.
The writer endorses a curriculum that emphasizes strong basic skills (reading, writing, and math) and reminds the
reader that the teachers' ultimate responsibility should be to bring curricula to life in order to "prepare our children
for thriving—not just surviving."
This essay displays a strong facility with written English language; the careful choice of words and carefully
structured paragraphs help unify the structure of the argument. Overall, this response displays a strong command
of academic writing skills and thus received a score of 5.
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Score 4:
The above quotation a concrete example of a major problem in our society today. While probably stated with good
intentions, the quotation misses the mark on the path education needs to follow. As our society changes, so do our
educational needs, and thus our educational curriculum needs to change also.
I find fault with the quotation on two fronts. First, the quotation does not acknowledge that curriculum must
change. It seems to say the educator should decide when to change the curriculum. This does not lead to optimal
learning conditions, ask anyone who studied high school history out of outdated textbooks. One can also infer
some students won't be taught up-to-date informationin a wide variety of areas. This can become ideologically
dangerous. What happens when students are not given full teachings of such vital movements as the Equal Rights
Amendment or the Constitution of their country? An unenlightened society is a grave society with little hope.
Curriculum must change, and should not be left to input from a single voice.
The second argument answers who should make curriculum adjustments. Obviously the educator still plays alarge
role in this matter. The students also need to be part of the decision process. The two groups need a give and take
relationship when deciding topics for the classroom. If the students could benefit from learning material that is
presently not taught in the classroom, it should be entered. Sex education and AIDS education classes needed to be
part of the curriculum to inform young people. Those classes were added and have worked well.
A third party that has a role in curriculum development is private business, including research labs, goods and
service providers, and financial businesses. By hiring employees with certain capabilities they have indirectly
influenced curriculum for years. As time passes they will have more input by demanding subpar schools raise the
level of student test scores in certain areas, either by stating so or by not hiring unqualified students
Commentary:
This essay presents a competent discussion of the issue. The essay's argument—that curriculum should be
determined by many voices, including that of private business—is clearly expressed and adequately developed.
The writer supports this position with relevant reasons, including an analysis of the need for private business to
become involved in education. Examples are clearly relevant (e.g., sex education and AIDS education are cited as
examples of how schools are offering new classes to meet the contemporary needs), and the writer uses details to
help develop and illustrate important points. While the essay presents several ideas that are thought provoking—
e.g., "An unenlightened society is a grave society with little hope"—those ideas are not expressed precisely or
persuasively enough to merit a score of 5.
The conclusion is appropriate; it reinforces the main idea of the essay, that schools need to keep pace with society
and adjust curricula to meet the needs of both students and employers.
The essay consistently displays adequate control over the conventions of academic writing. Sentence structure is
generally adequate, although many of the sentences would benefit from restructuring and the use of transitions to
more effectively communicate the writer's ideas.
For all of these reasons—competent analysis and adequate control of the elements of writing—this essay received
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a score of 4.
Score 3:
In today's society, there is too much emphasis placed on students desires rather than their needs. The students of
today should have to study what is presented to them, rather than what is desired by them. Students are searching
for the easy way out, and educators' are supplying them with that. Students should not only be presented with
mandatory curriculum, but the educators should strive to insure that each individual student truly gains from their
education, rather than just breezing through it.
It is vital to the continued success and expansion of the United States, that the young people be challenged in their
curriculum and be encouraged to succeed in all that they do. The educators should determine a more strenuous
curriculum, and enforce it at an earlier age. Thus, the young people of today will expect to be challenged, rather
than avoiding it. Students have the easy way out, and they are not truly giving all that they can. There is so much
potential that is just waiting to flourish, but it is the educators' reponsibility to tap into that potential.
In conclusion, it is the educators responsibility to enforce curriculum and than requesting it. Students should be
challenged and expect curriculum that will eventually lead them to a path of success.
Commentary:
This brief essay is flawed by its generalities, repetition, and limited development. The central thesis—that it is the
burden of educators to teach what they believe is necessary and that our educational system should not allow
students to "breeze through" the educational system—is not adequately supported. The middle of the essay merely
repeats much of what was said in the introduction. The writer discusses the concepts of students' potential and
educators' responsibilities in only the most general terms.
The two-sentence conclusion simply repeats earlier discussion and does not sufficiently tie together and comment
upon the earlier discussion. To earn a score of 4, this essay would need to provide specific reasons and examples
that more adequately develop its main points.
Also, the phrasing is often vague ("giving all that they can" and "path of success"), and the syntax is at times
poorly controlled ("young people of today will expect to be challenged, rather than avoiding it.") Still, the
problems are not severe or frequent. For all of these reasons, this essay received a 3.
Score 2:
There are many school violences in each school. Those are big problems to our govenment and social. School
violences effect the studying of students. This is very serious, even some students are nervious to go school. In fact,
the government must give students a clean place to study. Teachers should help students know it is a duty to study.
So, everyone should face those big problems.
Do we know what are students' ideas? Do the educators try to know? Most educators hope the govenment can give
students more and help them more. These are people's hope. But it is so unfortunate that students can't have a good
17
place to study. Also, teachers have to teach the students. Not that students can know what to study by themself. In
the compus, there are many guys sell the drugs and acohol to younger students. Why those guys can go into the
school? That is also the main problem.
When we were little, we didn't know what is correct and what is wrong. So we lose ourself easily. At the same time,
we need much care from parents and teachers. So our teachers and parents play the important roles and they own.
must do better. Because some students learn some bad habits from their teachers and parents.
If we want to resolve all the problems, we must face the problems and find out the reasons, then try to resolve
them. We also must care all students. If we can help them, tring to do our best. Then, the problems will become
less and less.
Commentary:
This is a seriously flawed response to the topic. The writer begins by discussing school violence and the need for a
good place to study, parental and teacher influence, and resolution of school problems. The issue of who should
determine the curriculum, teachers or students, is implied but not addressed directly. In fact, teacher-directed
learning seems to be a small point in a series of concerns related to school violence. The development of a position
on the issue is unfocused and disorganized. Even the example, drug selling, relates to school violence and not to
curricular responsibility.
Language errors are numerous. Problems with correct use of tense, diction, word order, sentence structure, and
subject-verb agreement also interfere with meaning. Had the writer not included references to teachers helping
students know what to study, the essay would probably have received a score of 1 instead of a 2.
Score 1:
Today some educators place much emphasis on what students want, there is a conflict about what is the educator's
duty for what educatee should get.
Normally, the college or university in our country, students just study what they are tought,it is the professor's duty
to dermine what should appear in the classroom. Nowday china has taken the polices of opening reforming, every
thing chang vastly. Students can't get the job position from goverment authority but must look for the work chance
by themself, so students have taken great care to what they learn int the college and what kind of knowlege does
the job market need. If our high education institute ignore this chang and keep the tranditional teaching method, it
will seem as wast student's time and money and the colleges will lost their student.
It may be the best way for the developing country to reform their high education system, especially with those
majors that closely connected with market or industry application, we must give our student most upcoming
technolegy or skill to meet the need of outdoor of our college, the information from students may be the best
reference for the educator to determine what they should take to the classroom,
Commentary:
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This essay displays little ability to develop and organize a coherent response to the topic.
The essay takes the position that China needs to reform its traditional approach to curriculum by becoming more
student centered and technologically current. However, the reader has to work hard to decipher the generally
confusing line of reasoning, which does not obviously address the central issue presented in the topic.
There is an attempt to organize the argument into a three-paragraph essay, but the one-sentence introduction is
simply a variation of the topic statement. The brief body of the essay does not advance an opinion in a coherent
manner, and the final paragraph shifts the focus to the need for technology in the curriculum.
The errors (comma splices, misspellings, verb problems, etc.) are so intrusive that coherence remains a problem.
This essay would need considerable rewriting in order to earn a higher score than 1.
Sample Three
"The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things."
Score 6:
Even the most brilliant thinkers, from Socrates to Satre, live lives in time. A childhood, an adolescence, an
adulthood; these are common to me and you as well as the greatest writers. Furthermore, many of the great
thinkers we esteem in our Western culture lived somewhat unevetful lives. What distinguished their life from say a
common laborer was their work. Therefore, what provided the grist for their work? One might say that they were
brilliant and this alone was sufficient to distinguish their lives from the masses. Intellect alone can not devise
situations or thoughts from no where; there must be a basis and that basis is most common, if not always,
observation of the common, of the quotidian. Critics of this idea may argue that these thinkers were products of
fine educations and were well schooled in the classics. This, they may point to, is the real basis for their knowledge.
I would agrue that although it may be a benefit to study classics and be well schooled in diverse disciplines, these
pursuits merely refine and hone an ability each and every person has, the ability to study human nature. Where best
to study human nature than in the day to day routine each one of us can witness in him or herself or those around
us.
I propose that the two best disciplines to understand this power of the commonplace and its ability to cause a
groundswell of thought are philosophy and literature. Every school of philosophy, from the Greeks to our day,
share a common mission or intent and that is to understand and explain human existence, with all of its
concommitant features. Generally speaking, the Greek philosophers, epitomized in Aristotle, attempted to set down
rules for human behavior founded on logic. These rules applied not only to the rare forms of human behavior but
largely focused on the more mundane motions of daily life. Many of Aristotle's rules were based on his
observations of others as well as himself. Contrast this venture with the existentialists of our century who
attempted to look behind the real motivations of human behavior as well understand man's relation to the Universe.
To do this, what did these philosophers do? They studied those around them; they submerged themselves in the
commonplace, in cities with hordes of annonymous people. While the existentialists, as well those philosophers
before, exploited their uncommon eduation and intellect, the basis for their movement was ordinary human
19
behavior and existence.
Finally, literature is similar to philosophy in that it seeks to explain and understand human behavior and therefore
rooted in the commonplace. Nevertheless, its relative strength over philosophy is literature's ability to emotionally
and spiritually move the reader through the use of contrived situations and fictional characters. It can do this when
even the central theme of a piece maybe love between a man and a woman (e .g. commonplace). Literature also
distinguishes itself from philosophy in that the breadth of the fiction may be huge. The plot and the detail can be
quite ordinary or fantastic. However, this does not mean that the central themes of all literature, whether ordinary
or fantastic, deal with human beings and the problems they find in the world, something which we all share.
In conclusion, I hope it has been shown that a passionate desire to understand and explain human behavior, the
significance of our existence and deal constructively with the challanges of life are the centerpieces of at least in
two of the most influential areas in human thought. What is more commonplace than the existence of man.
Commentary:
This essay sustains a well-focused and insightful analysis of the issue. Beginning with the observation that the
greatest thinkers "live lives in time," the writer reasons that the great thinkers develop their ideas through
observation of common occurrences and everyday reality. One of the strengths of this essay is the way in which it
thoughtfully considers the opposing claim: that great thinkers are primarily the product of fine education, and that,
being "well schooled in the classics," they are far removed from everyday life. The writer notes that, while it "may
be a benefit to study classics," it is nevertheless true that being "well schooled in diverse disciplines" will simply
"refine and hone an ability to study human nature" in its everyday manifestations. This observation is indicative of
the writer's sophisticated grasp of the complexities of the issue.
The writer goes on to demonstrate the intellectual "power of the commonplace" by skillfully developing two
compelling examples from academic life: philosophy and literature. Aristotle is cited as a philosopher who studied
the "more mundane motions of daily life." Similarly, the writer explains, twentieth-century existentialists, in
attempting to understand man's relation to the universe, found inspiration in the commonplace.
Another strength in this essay is the way it introduces an idea and then builds on that idea as the argument unfolds.
For instance, in a discussion of the existentialists in the second paragraph, the writer expands on an earlier point
about "thinkers" in general: the existentialists may have "exploited their uncommon education and intellect," but
the "basis for their movement was ordinary human behavior and existence." It is logical connections such as these
that make for a coherent and well-focused discussion.
The writer uses language fluently and controls sophisticated syntax throughout the essay: "I would argue that
although it may be a benefit to study classics and be well schooled in diverse disciplines, these pursuits merely
refine and hone an ability each and every person has, the ability to study human nature."
This is not a flawless paper: word choice, for example, is not always precise.
But the essay's cogent analysis,
effective organization, and sophisticated sentence structure merit a solid score of 6.
Score 5:
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I can agree with the statement above that, "The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things."
The statement is an accurate description of how many people form great ideas from ordinary things in life. Sports
are all great ideas that are made from commonplace things. What makes sports some of the best ideas is not what
they began as but what they evolved into.
All athletic competitions began from commonplace things being brought together for the purpose of entertainment,
excercise, and social interaction. Many of the sports people enjoy today are the results of someone's idea creating a
new dimension of our lifestyle out of an ordinary object. Baseball, basketball, and track especially show that the
idea of creating something wonderful out of ordinary objects is true.
Who would have thought that a stick and a ball would spawn into a national pastime, a generational tie between
father and son, a national bond between all races, and a multibillion dollar industry. Baseball began when someone
decided to throw a ball at someone with a stick and that person with the stick would then try to hit the ball. What a
simple concept and what a wonderful consequence.
Today the simple game of baseball is played all over the world. It is a sport that crosses international divides of
religion, race, and politics. This one simple game, a bat hitting a ball, can bring the whole world together. But
baseball is just one sport that shows the ablitiy to bridge cultural gaps.
When Mr. Naismith nailed a peachbasket to a post and threw a ball into it he had no idea that millions of people
would be playing his game today. Mr. Naismith invented the game of basketball, which most everyone has played
at some point in his or her life. Throwing a ball into a basket. What could be more simple or commonplace than a
ball and a peach basket.
Today, basketball is the new American pastime. It replaced baseball because it is cheaper than baseball and it can
be played by only one person. This interest in balls and new uses for them, as we can see in both baseball and
basketball, brought about a huge social phenomena of excercise and new social interaction that would bring people
together rather than divide them.
It doesn't take a ball to create a sport from a commonplace item. Track and field has no balls used in it, unless you
consider the shotput a ball. The whole sport of track and field is made of simple ideas: running, jumping, and
throwing. Simple but yet it is one of the most watched events worldwide as evidenced by the recent Olympic
Games. For example, team relay races consist of four people running around an oval track passing s baton to each
other. A baton that is the only object you need to have a relay race, a baton is definetly a commonplace thing. Yet
this event has such stars as Carl Lewis who is known world wide.
Sports and how they were created is the epitome of the idea that "the best ideas arise form a passionate interest in
commonplace things." What might have seemed boring at the time of hitting a ball, or throwing a ball into a net, or
passing a baton are all now events that millions take part in and even more watch. What makes these ideas great is
that they all bring people from different backgrounds together, wether they intended to or not.
Commentary:
21
This essay presents a thoughtful, if not very well-developed, discussion of the issue. Drawing examples from the
world of sports, the writer notes that most sports begin with a simple idea. Baseball, for
example, "began when someone decided to throw a ball at someone with a stick and that person with the stick
would then try to hit the ball." From this simple idea came a sport that is played and enjoyed all over the world.
Instead of focusing solely on the universal appeal of sports, however, the essay introduces the idea that sports cross
"international divides of religion, race, and politics." This is a perceptive idea, but it is not effectively supported or
sustained.
Throughout the essay, ideas are expressed clearly and word choice is accurate. Sentences are at times well formed
and varied: "Today the simple game of baseball is played all over the world. It is a sport that crosses international
divides of religion, race, and politics. This one simple game, a bat hitting a ball, can bring the whole world
together." On the whole, however, this is a 5 essay; it lacks the syntactic sophistication and insightful analysis
necessary for a score of 6.
Score 4:
While the best ideas do indeed arise from mankind's interest in the commonplace, one must realize that the
"commonplace ideas" of our current society continue to evolve at such a rapid rate that we are converging on the
Twenty-First Century on a wave of thought, ideas, and creation that would surely baffle our forefathers.
Simply put, Thomas Jefferson, a brilliant, and progressive thinker, was motivated to create certain societal services
that he felt necessary for his time. Historians report that Mr. Jefferson witnessed a fire which destroyed a man's
home. The victim was left with nothing. Mr.Jefferson, thinking it most unfortunate that a man should lose all his
worldly posessions, developed a system of homeowners insurance. Of course today, we have taken insurance to a
new and all-encompassing level. President Roosevelt adored nature and found great solace while visiting Yosemite
in Wyoming. Among his many accomplishments; Rooselvelt, our twenty-sixth President, is perhaps best known for
his creation of a National Parks Protection program.
Over time, the basic needs of mankind have been met due to interests in the commonplace mixed with a
progressive trait in man to make things simpler, faster, less expensive, and more gratifying.
Today, our "simple thoughts" turn to ideas such as space stations, the technological superhighway, and electric
vehicles. Sadly, we must also repair much of the fallout from some of our "commonplace" inspired ideas. For
example, evolved transportation has a price as we work to restore our environment.
If we are inspired by the simple motivations, dreams, and tasks of everyday life then we must make a commitment
to development our muse. Perhaps, the best way to move ahead is to step back; to re-examine and learn from the
art, science, history, love and war of our founding fathers. Perhaps simple is best. After all, that's where all the best
ideas are born.
Commentary:
This essay presents a competent discussion of the issue. The opening paragraph introduces two ideas that serve as
the primary focus of the essay. The first is that, as the topic claims, the best ideas are the result of an interest in
22
commonplace things; the second is that our ideas are evolving at a rate of rapidity that would "surely baffle our
forefathers." These two ideas are adequately developed in the course of the paper, but not with enough fluency or
complexity to merit a score of 5.
The second paragraph, which considers the way in which ideas arise from an interest in commonplace things, is
the most thoroughly developed section of the response. The examples are relevant: Thomas Jefferson, who used
everyday observations to come up with the idea of homeowners insurance, and Theodore Roosevelt, whose
passionate interest in nature led him to develop the National Parks Protection program.
The essay's other area of focus—the rapid rate at which our ideas change—is discussed in the third paragraph.
Some good ideas emerge, but, unfortunately, they are not well developed.
The essay is organized with an introduction, three supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion. However, the
organization would be stronger if the ideas in one paragraph or section were more clearly connected to the points
made in the next section.
While there are some errors, they are not severe enough to interfere with meaning. In general, the writer expresses
ideas adequately, although at times the wording seems almost haphazard and therefore a bit confusing: "to
re-examine and learn from the art, science, history, love and war of our founding fathers." For reasons of adequate
content and adequate presentation of ideas, this essay received a score of 4.
Score 3:
The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things. This is something I learned from everyday
experiences. I always found that the things I decorated my life with abundantly, were the things I treasured most. It
could be a memory, a possesion, or just a view. It's hard to create a whole picture without first looking at the pieces
within it. My whole life of school and studies have brought me to college and have sparked my interest in applying
to a graduate program. Never before did I realize how these little efforts would create this dream. In my field of
dietetics many would be amazed to find that the food we eat could kill us or help us from disease.
There are many times where I'll be looking at the beautiful view, and I just have to go out and enjoy it. I do this by
walking, gardening, or just lying in the grass. The feeling of the warm sun makes me dream. I know I'm not the
only one who tends to overlook the basic things, like the tree outside that you used to climb, or the food you eat to
give you energy and growth. We just have to take the time from our busy schedules to stop and smell the roses.
Everyone's life is different, with our own experinces and thoughts to motivate us, and no matter who we are, some
of the simplest things can bring great achievements in our lives.
Commentary:
This is a limited response; it does not adequately analyze the issue. The essay is primarily concerned with
discussing the writer's own personal enjoyment of commonplace things. As such it never fully engages the topic's
central issue—the quality of the ideas that come from those commonplace things. Early in the response, the writer
makes the following observation: "I always found that the things I decorated my life with abundantly, were the
things I treasured most." This is typical of the simplistic analysis that characterizes this essay.
23
At the end of the first paragraph, the writer does make some hesitant steps toward a discussion of the ideas that
might come from these everyday experiences, mentioning that "in my field of dietetics many would be amazed to
find that the food we eat could kill us or help us from disease." This insight is not adequately developed, however,
and, in the second paragraph, the writer returns to a discussion of the idea that one must enjoy the little things in
life. In short, the essay is limited in its development, revealing only a partial understanding of the topic's assertion.
In general, the essay displays control of standard written English. There is not much syntactic variety, but neither
are there profound errors. The essay received the score of 3 because its analysis is simplistic and vague, and its
development is limited.
Score 2:
The thought of a passion
In reading such a passage as the one given to me as an assignment I can't help but think of an analogy that entered
my mind. It is my enduring interest in the field of multimedia. I say this because of the ideas in which I cultivate as
an artist of many media materials such as paints, film, computer animated software, etc. Being an expressionist I
take in my surroundings and personal experiences from commonplaces and things and tell a story from my
perspective using the various tools whether it be computer aided or hand drawn. My ideas come from people or
things because it tells a story. The story can be abstract, little, big, or even strange. To record stories like these may
spark ideas that may come to me in a domino effect It's beautiful I shared this with you to conclude that sometimes
even common things such as a pencil and an empty page can spell out your fate and unlimited possibilities when
you have a passion or an interest that drives your hunger for innovation.
Commentary:
This essay is seriously flawed in its analysis of the issue. The writer attempts to address the topic by focusing on
his or her interest in "multimedia" art. Yet, while isolated words and phrases from the topic appear throughout the
essay, the essay never clearly states a position on the issue. For example, in a discussion of multimedia art, the
writer makes the following observation: "Being an expressionist I take in my surroundings and personal
experiences from commonplaces and things and tell a story from my perspective using the various tools whether it
be computer aided or hand drawn." The essay circles around the issue, without ever really engaging it.
The essay is also marked by serious flaws in language use: inaccurate word choice ("and tell a story from my
perspective using the various tools whether it be computer aided or hand drawn."), unclear pronoun reference ("My
ideas come from people or things because it tells a story"), and, in general, a debilitating lack of clarity and
precision. These errors frequently interfere with meaning, a characteristic of many essays scored 2.
Score 1:
The best ideas arise from a passionate interest in commonplace things because they are from places in the heart.
These iseas draw you to learn more about them. The idea or ideas have become passionate to you by either
personal experience or by observation. It catches your attention and causes you to examine why or how the
occurance /idea exsists. Institentively the desire to know more about the idea pushes you into futher research of the
24
subject. The idea can be something you don't understand to be acceptable or unacceptable. The drive to understand
leads to passion and that passion drives you to develope a great idea.
Commentary:
This essay is fundamentally flawed; it does not present an organized, coherent response to the topic. Sentences and
fragments are strung together with little, if any, underlying logic. The writer's position seems to be that the more
passionate we are about an idea, the more we will pursue it But this idea is not really developed, even in a
perfunctory way.
The errors are so pervasive and fundamental that they seriously interfere with meaning. This response requires
considerable revisions to receive a score higher than 1.
二. 逻辑问题例文分析
Discuss how well reasoned you find this argument.
Samp
le One
Hospital statistics regarding people who go to the emergency room after rollerskating accidents indicate the need
for more protective equipment. Within this group of people, 75 percent of those who had accidents in streets or
parking lots were not wearing any protective clothing (helmets, knee pads, etc.) or any light-reflecting material
(clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads, etc.). Clearly, these statistics indicate that by investing in high-quality
protective gear and reflective equipment, rollerskaters will greatly reduce their risk of being severely injured in an
accident.
Benchmark 6—Outstanding
The notion that protective gear reduces the injuries suffered in accidents seems at first glance to be an obvious
conclusion. After all, it is the intent of these products to either prevent accidents from occuring in the first place or
to reduce the injuries suffered by the wearer should an accident occur. However, the conclusion that investing in
high quality protective gear greatly reduces the risk of being severely injured in an accident may mask other (and
potentially more significant) causes of injuries and may inspire people to over invest financially and
psychologically in protective gear.
First of all, as mentioned in the argument, there are two distinct kinds of gear—preventative gear (such as light
reflecting material) and protective gear (such as helmets). Preventative gear is intended to warn others, presumably
for the most part motorists, of the presence of the roller skater. It works only if the "other" is a responsible and
caring individual who will afford the skater the necessary space and attention. Protective gear is intended to reduce
the effect of any accident, whether it is caused by an other, the skater or some force of nature. Protective gear does
little, if anything, to prevent accidents but is presumed to reduce the injuries that occur in an accident. The
statistics on injuries suffered by skaters would be more interesting if the skaters were grouped into those wearing
no gear at all, those wearing protective gear only, those wearing preventative gear only and those wearing both.
These statistics could provide skaters with a clearer understanding of which kinds of gear are more beneficial.
25
The argument above is weakened by the fact that it does not take into account the inherent differences between
skaters who wear gear and those who do not. If is at least likely that those who wear gear may be generally more
responsible and /or safety conscious individuals. The skaters who wear gear may be less likely to cause accidents
through careless or dangerous behavior. It may, in fact, be their natural caution and responsibility that keeps them
out of the emergency room rather than the gear itself. Also, the statistic above is based entirely on those who are
skating in streets and parking lots which are relatively dangerous places to skate in the first place. People who are
generally more safety conscious (and therefore more likely to wear gear) may choose to skate in safer areas such as
parks or back yards.
The statistic also goes not differentiate between severity of injuries. The conclusion that safety gear prevents
severe injuries suggests that it is presumed that people come to the emergency room only with severe injuries. This
is certainly not the case. Also, given that skating is a recreational activity that may be primarily engaged in during
evenings and weekends (when doctors' offices are closed), skater with less severe injuries may be especially likely
to come to the emergency room for treatment.
Finally, mere is absolutely no evidence provided that high quality (and presumably more expensive) gear is any
more beneficial than other kinds of gear. For example, a simple white t-shirt may provide the same preventative
benefit as a higher quality, more expensive, shirt designed only for skating. Before skaters are encouraged to invest
heavily in gear, a more complete understanding of the benefit provided by individual pieces of gear would be
helpful.
The argument for safety gear based on emergency room statistics could provide important information and
potentially saves lives. Before conclusions about the amount and kinds of investments that should be made in gear
are reached, however, a more complete understanding of the benefits are needed. After all, a false confidence in
ineffective gear could be just as dangerous as no gear at all.
____________________________________________________________________________
6 分作文点评
这是一篇非常出色的作文，表现了作者敏锐的分析能力。
作者在开头段指出，若采纳题目中论者的推理，将使人们过分关注保护措施：随后作者对题中论述的
逻辑一一剖析：第一，预防性装置和保护性装置不是一回事；第二，穿戴保护装置的滑冰者发生事故的可
能性更小，因为他们自然会更小心谨慎；第三，论证中所提供的数据并未区别受伤的严重性；最后，保护
装置不一定要质量才能有效。
该文通顺、流畅，逻辑清晰，每一个观点都得到了支持。此外，文字简洁，没有语病，句式有变化，
能使用复杂句式，用词准确、生动。
总之，该文满足了 6 分作文的要求。即便语言方面再差一点，理由再减少一点，该文依然可以获得 6
分。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 5—Strong
The argument presented is limited but useful. It indicates a possible relationship between a high percentage of
accidents and a lack of protective equipment. The statistics cited compel a further investigation of the usefulness of
26
protective gear in preventing or mitigating roller-skating related injuries. However, the conclusion that protective
gear and reflective equipment would "greatly reduce...risk of being severely injured" is premature. Data is lacking
with reference to the total population of skaters and the relative levels of experience, skill and physical
coordination of that population. It is entirely possible that further research would indicate that most serious injury
is averted by the skater's ability to react quickly and skillfully in emergency situations.
Another area of investigation necessary before conclusions can be reached is identification of the types of injuries
that occur and the various causes of those injuries. The article fails to identify the most prevalent types of
roller-skating related injuries. It also fails to correlate the absence of protective gear and reflective equipment to
those injuries. For example, if the majority of injuries are skin abrasions and closed-head injuries, then a case can
be made for the usefulness of protective clothing mentioned. Likewise, if injuries are caused by collision with
vehicles (e.g. bicycles, cars) or pedestrians, then light-reflective equipment might mitigate the occurences.
However, if the primary types of injuries are soft-tissue injuries such as torn ligaments and muscles, back injuries
and the like, then a greater case could be made for training and experience as preventative measures.
____________________________________________________________________________
5 分作文点评
该文对所给论证的批驳准确有力。作者指出所给论证只表明了一种可能的关系，其结论是不成熟的。
作者提出了三个可以削弱该结论的关键问题：其一，所有滑冰者的总体特征是怎样的？其二，保护装置或
者反光装置在预防或减少事故方面有什么用途？其三，事故伤害有哪几种，根源到底是什么？作者对上述
问题一一部析，并分别指出如何加强或削弱所给论证。该文在分析问题的深度和广度上都不如 6 分作文，
但文章结构清晰，语言通顺，论证有力，超过了 4 分作文的水平。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 4—Adequate
Although the argument stated above discusses the importance of safety equipment as significant part of avoiding
injury, the statistics quoted are vague and inconclusive. Simply because 75 percent of the people involved in
roller-skating accidents are not wearing the stated equipment does not automatically implicate the lack of
equipment as the cause of injury. The term "accidents" may imply a great variety of injuries. The types of injuries
one could incur by not wearing the types of equipment stated above are minor head injuries; skin abrasions or
possibly bone fracture of a select few areas such as knees, elbows, hands, etc. (which are in fact most vulnerable to
this sport); and/or injuries due to practising the sport during low light times of the day. During any physically
demanding activity or sport people are subjected to a wide variety of injuries which cannot be avoided with
protective clothing or light-reflective materials. These injuries include inner trauma (e.g., heart-attack); exhaustion;
strained muscles, ligaments, or tendons; etc. Perhaps the numbers and percentages of people injured during
roller-skating, even without protective equipment, would decrease greatly if people participating in the sport had
proper training, good physical health, warm-up properly before beginning (stretching), as well as take other
measures to prevent possible injury, such as common-sense, by refraining from performing the activity after proper
lighting has ceased and knowing your personal limitations as an individual and athlete. The statistics used in the
above reasoning are lacking in proper direction considering their assertions and therefore must be further examined
and modified so that proper conclusions can be reached.
____________________________________________________________________________
27
4 分作文点评
该文驳斥所给论证中的数据含糊不清，指出其推理不合逻辑的原因在于对数据的误用：首先，不使用
保护装置被“自动地”推定为事故的原因；其次，
“accidents”可能指轻微的受伤；最后，未能认识到自己
的生理极限，等等。
总之，作者准确抓住了所给论证的弱点，思路清晰。不过，文章缺少有效连贯。语言问题不大，表达
清楚，基本合乎写作规范。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 3—Limited
The argument is well presented and supported, but not completely well reasoned. It is clear and concisely written.
The content is logically and smoothly presented. Statistics cited are used to develop support for the
recommendation, that roller skaters who invest in protective gear and reflective equipment can reduce their risk of
severe, accidental injuries. Examples of the types of protective equipment are described for the reader.
Unfortunately, the author of the argument fails to note that merely by purchasing gear and reflective equipment
that the skater will be protected. This is, of course, falacious if the skater fails to use the equipment, or uses it
incorrectly or inappropriately. It is also an unnecessary assumption that a skater need purchase high-quality gear
for the same degree of effectiveness to be achieved. The argument could be improved by taking these issues into
consideration, and making recommendations for education and safety awareness to skaters.
____________________________________________________________________________
3 分作文点评
该文的前半部分只是对所给论证进行了描述。后半部分指出了论证中的两个命题，一是购买保护装置
的人都会使用；二是高质量的保护装置比其它的装置更好。这两点都没有得到充分论证。作者提出了一些
分析，因此可以给 3 分。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 2—Seriously Flawed
To reduce the accidents from roller skating we should consider about it causes and effects concurrently to find the
best solution. Basically the roller-skating players are children, they had less experiences to protect themselves from
any kind of dangerous. Therefore, it should be a responsible of adult to take care them. Adult should recommend
their child to wear any protective clothing, set the rules and look after them while they are playing.
In the past roller-skating is limited in the skate yard but when it became popular people normally play it on the
street way) Therefore the number of accidents from roller-skating is increased. The skate manufacturer should
have a responsibility in producing a protective clothing. They should promote and sell them together with skates.
The government or state should set the regulation of playing skate on the street way like they did with the bicycle.
To prevent this kind of accident is the best solution but it needs a cooperation among us to have a conscious mind
to beware and realize its dangerous.
____________________________________________________________________________
28
2 分作文点评
该文问题严重。作者没有对所给论证进行剖析，而是建议成年人或冰鞋生产厂家确保儿童穿上保护衣。
而实际上作者只是未加分析地接受了原论证。
该文语病连篇。文中语法错误随处可见，如主谓语不一致、标点符号错误、时态错误、选词错误，等
等：
“…it needs a cooperation among us to have a conscious mind to beware and realize its dangerous.”
。该文只
能得 2 分，因为作者的语言和逻辑分析能力都表现不佳。
____________________________________________________________________________
Benchmark 1—Fundamentally Deficient
the protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75%
Of those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing, such as hemlets,
kenn pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do
have protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen, also that can greatly reduce their risk of being
severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for the treatment, the
protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75% Of
those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing. such as hemlets, kenn
pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do have
protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen, also that can greatly reduce their risk of being
severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for the treatment, the
protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75% Of
those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing, such as hemlets, kenn
pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do have
protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen, also that can greatly reduce their risk of being
severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for the treatment, the
protective equipment do help to reduce the risk of being severyly injuryed in an accident since there are 75% Of
those who had accidents in streets or parking lots were not wearing any protectivel clothing, such as hemlets, kenn
pads, etc. or any light-reflecting materials such as clip-on lights, glow-in-the-dark wrist pads ets. if they do have
protective eqipment that only a quarter accident may happen, also that can greatly reduce their risk of being
severyly injuryed in an accident, that can save some lives and a lot of energy and money for the treatment
.____________________________________________________________________________
1 分作文点评
作者无分析地接受原论证：
“the protective equipment do help to reduce the risk being severely injured in
an accident…”
。但作者显然既无能力理解也无能力分析所给论证。全文只是抄了一下原题，将自己的两句
话反复重抄。语言方面的问题同样严重，词不达意，前后不连贯。
Sample Two
The University of Claria is generally considered one of the best universities in the world because of its instructors'
reputation, which is based primarily on the extensive research and publishing record of certain faculty members.
29
In addition, several faculty members are internationally renowned as leaders in their fields. For example, many of
the faculty from the English department are regularly invited to teach at universities in other countries.
Furthermore, two recent graduates of the physics department have gone on to become candidates for the Nobel
Prize in Physics. And 75 percent of the students are able to find employment after graduating. Therefore, because
of the reputation of its faculty, the University of Claria should be the obvious choice for anyone seeking a quality
education.
Score 6:
While the University of Claria appears to have an excellent reputation based on the accomplishments and
reputations of its faculty, one would also wish to consider other issues before deciding upon this particular
institution for undergraduate or graduate training. The Physics and English departments are internationally known,
but these are only two of the areas in which one might study. Other departments are not listed; is this because no
others are worth mentioning, or because no other departments bothered to turn in their accomplishments and kudos
to the publicity office?
The assumption is that because English and Physics have excellent brains in the faculty offices, their teaching
skills and their abilities to pass on knowledge and the love of learning to their students are equally laudable.
Unfortunately, this is often not the case. A prospective student would certainly be advised to investigate thoroughly
the teaching talents and attitudes of the professors, the library and research facilities, the physical plant of the
departments in which he or she was planning to study, as well as the living arrangements on or off campus, and the
facilities available for leisure activities and entertainment.
This evaluation of the University of Claria is too brief, and too general. Nothing is mentioned about the quality of
overall education; it only praises the accomplishments of a few recent graduates and professors. More important
than invitations to teach elsewhere, which might have been engineered by their own departmental heads in an
attempt to remove them from the campus for a semester or two, is the relationship between teacher and student.
Are the teaching faculty approachable? Are they helpful? Have they an interest in passing on their knowledge? Are
they working for the future benefit of the student or to get another year closer to retirement? How enthusiastic are
the students about the courses being taught and the faculty members who teach those classes? Are there sufficient
classes available for the number of students? Are the campus buildings accessible; how is the University handling
all those cars? Is the University a pleasant, encouraging, interesting, challenging place to attend school? What are
its attitudes about education, students, student ideas and innovations, faculty suggestions for improvement?
What about that 75% employment record? Were those students employed in the field of their choice, or are they
flipping burgers and emptying wastebaskets while they search for something they are trained to do. A more
specific statement about the employability of students from this University is needed in order to make the
argument forceful.
The paragraph given merely scratches the surface of what must be said about this University in order to entice
students and to convince them that this is the best place to obtain a quality education. Much more work is needed
by the public relations department before this can be made into a four-color brochure and handed out to
prospective students.
30
Commentary:
The writer of this outstanding response acknowledges that the University of Claria may "appear" to have a sterling
reputation, but cogently argues that such a reputation is perhaps unwarranted in light of the thin and misleading
information provided. The essay's insightful critique targets several instances of unsound reasoning in the
argument:
— hat the argument identifies academic achievements in only two departments;
— hat publications and research prove little about the quality of teaching at Claria; and
— hat the student employment statistic lacks specificity and may be entirely bogus.
The writer probes each questionable assumption and offers alternative explanations, pointing out, for instance, that
invitations for faculty to teach elsewhere may have been purposely arranged in order to temporarily remove them
from campus and that the employed students may be "flipping burgers and emptying wastebaskets."
In addition, the response perceptively analyzes many features—omitted by the argument—that could more
convincingly make the case that Claria is "the obvious choice." The essay suggests that the search for a quality
education would, at least, need to investigate the teaching strengths of the faculty; ideally one would also ask about
research facilities, the university's physical plant, availability of classes, even parking arrangements!
Although the fourth paragraph ("What about that 75% employment record?") interrupts this discussion, the essay is,
on the whole, logically and effectively organized Each paragraph develops the central premise: that the argument is
uncompelling because it fails to use more valid indices of educational quality.
The writing is succinct, graceful, and virtually error-free, distinguished by impressive diction ("kudos," "laudable,"
"engineered," "entice"), as well as syntactic sophistication. For all of these reasons, the essay earns a 6.
Score 5:
While it is true that the facts presented in the above passage contribute to the idea that the University of Claria is a
fine university, it can hardly be concluded from the propaganda that the University of Claria is the best university
for every applicant. For example, it appears, based on the passage, that the University of Claria is largely a
research-oriented university. No where in the passage, however, is the quality of the education discussed. The
faculty/student ratio is not discussed. It is largely possible that while many of the faculty are teaching at
universities in other countries, the students at U. Claria are left being taught by graduate students or non-doctoral
instructors.
Secondly, the passage states that 75 percent of graduates from U. Claria find jobs. One wonders where these
graduates obtained their jobs. It is possible that very few graduates are able to find work in their fields of major.
The number of graduates who enroll in graduate school is also not disclosed. One would expect a large number of
graduates from a research-oriented university to pursue research careers. These students would undoubedtly
require a graduate school education, rather than simply a Bachelor's level degree. By stating that 75 percent of
graduates find employment, the reader is left to wonder why these students entered the workforce, rather than
graduate school, since graduates with Bachelor's level degrees often do not land research-oriented jobs.
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Lastly, the socioeconomic status of the institution is not disclosed. Perhaps the University of Claria is an expensive
school located in the heart of a large metropolitain city. Certain prospective applicants to the university may not be
able to afford such a costly school, nor may the like the idea of living in a crowded metropolis. The fact that the
argument leaves our the socioeconomic status of the school leads the reader to believe that the school perhaps has
something to hide; perhaps its socioeconomic situation is not something it is proud of. In addition to the "sales
pitch" passage, above, the argument should include facts that a diverse group of students may find useful, such as
the cost of education and the quality of its teaching program. Only after evaluating all the facts might a student
strongly agree that the University of Claria is one of the best universities in the world.
Commentary:
After dismissing the argument's unsupported conclusion about the University of Claria, this strong essay
thoughtfully critiques the argument's presumptive line of reasoning. The response targets a root flaw in the
argument's logic: that the data provided fail to constitute meaningful evidence of educational quality. The writer
notes the lack of essential statistics—e.g., the faculty/student ratio —and argues quite effectively that invitations
for faculty to teach in other countries may not be a reliable index of educational merit.
Paragraphs 2 and 3 address additional flaws in the argument:
— whether the 75% of employed graduates found work related to their majors;
— whether, in a research-oriented institution like Claria, it might not be expected that most graduates would go on
to graduate school; and
— whether Claria might not be affordable to all applicants or might be located in an area that some would find
undesirable.
The analysis is clear, sensible, and logically organized, but development is neither as uniform nor as full as in a
typical 6 essay. Nor is the response as precise as a 6. In the final paragraph, for instance, references to Claria's cost
are vaguely described as "the socioeconomic status of the institution."
The response exhibits generally good control of language, but awkward phrasing and inflated language sometimes
result in a lack of clarity (e.g., "left being taught," "fields of major," "Bachelor's level degree"). Overall, this essay
merits a score of 5. It presents a well-developed and effectively written critique, but lacks the cogency and superior
fluency of a 6.
Score 4:
The argument states that anyone who is looking for a quality education should choose The Universtiy of Claria
based on the instructors they have to offer. The argument assumes that students can learn better from faculty
members who are internationally renowned and who have been invited to universities in other countries to teach.
The proof of their argument rests on the fact that two recent graduates have been candidates for the Nobel Prize in
Physics, and that 75 percent of their graduates find employment upon graduation.
According to the argument, strong faculty members help determine the quality of education that a student will
recieve at a particular institution. The passage does not clearly state whether or not the faculty members that were
32
included in the research were actually instructors. Neither does it offer any examples of the variables and
procedures of the research. Assuming that the faculty members are actually instructors, their assumption would be
a fair, for the students in the English and Physics departments. However, these examples are vague and would not
allow a fair determination.
This argument does compare the findings with other universities which may compete. It assumes that a 75 percent
graduate employment rate is one of the best employment rates of all schools, and that it is the only school whose
graduates have been nominated for a Nobel Prize. It also doesn't say whether or not the graduates nominated
actually won the Nobel Prize, and in fact, a candidate from another university may have done better.
The argument is not strong enough to be convincing to the reader. It needs to have more background information
as to the type of research conducted to make the assumption, and it needs to have more examples of the strength of
the faculty members and graduates. Finally, it needs to have comparisons with other universities and their
competing credentials.
Commentary:
While the first paragraph of this adequate response merely summarizes the argument, the remainder of the essay
identifies and analyzes several significant flaws in the argument. The second paragraph intelligently questions
whether the "renowned" faculty members actually teach; if so, the essay notes, the claim that Claria offers "a
quality education" would still only be true for some departments. This is a relevant critique, but thinly developed
and described with less clarity than is expected of a 5 essay.
The third paragraph continues to critique the argument's faulty logic. The writer points out that the employment
statistic is deceptive since it hasn't been compared to rates at other universities, and that the argument never
establishes that the "two recent graduates" won the Nobel Prize. These are apt criticisms, but minimally developed.
Organization is clear and logical, even better than adequate. The writer generally exhibits sufficient control, but
awkward sentences and unclear pronoun referents ("their assumption would be a fair," "it needs to have
comparisons with other universities and their competing credentials") demonstrate only adequate fluency. For
these reasons, the paper deserves a score of 4.
Score 3:
Any university which is generally considered as one of the best universities in the world may not necessarily the
best in all fields of studies. Also quality eduction doesn't mean that there is a lot of research. Quality eduction may
be one that fulfill requirement of the country. Some of the developing country even don't have enough food or
other basic requirement, so in those countries quality education is one that can fulfill a typical people requirement.
Another point is that 75% of the students are able to find employment after graduating. It is not necessarily avery
high employment rate. If there are other universities, and 80% or more students from those universities are able to
find employment after graduating and also there might not be extensive research then those ones might be the first
choice for anyone seeking quality education.
Also reputation of the universities is based upon the extensive resrarch and publishing record of CERTAIN faculty
33
members, and it doesn't mean that the other faculty members are also eqally capable.
So it is clear that reputation of its certain faculty, doesn't cause univ. of claria obivious choice for anyone seeking
quality education. We know because 75% of students employed is maybe not high employment rate. Other
universities may have 80% more students are able to find employment after graduating and also might be first
choice.
Also, reputation of university might is based on the research and publishing record of certain faculty members, and
it doesn't mean that other faculty are equally capable. Also quality education doesn't mean that there is alot of
research. Quality eucation may be one that fulfill tequirment of the country. I think students who are considering
universities to go to school should look at record and research record of all faculty and their departments, and what
field of study they want. They should find out emplyment rates and reputation of university. They should also find
out about student housing and money for students. Then they can make good choice.
Commentary:
There is some competent reasoning in this limited response. However, tangential analysis, thin development, and
an accumulation of both major and minor language errors mark it as plainly flawed.
The first sentence disputes the argument's claim, pointing out that Claria may not be the best "in all fields of
studies." The rest of the paragraph, however, fails to add to or develop this critique. Indeed, the final sentence of
the paragraph ("quality education is one that can fulfill a typical people requirement") is barely coherent.
Despite this weak beginning, the response goes on to offer two sensible reasons to question the assertion that
Claria is the "obivious choice":
— The 75% employment rate may not be very high; other universities may exceed this rate.
— All of Claria's faculty may not be equally capable.
There is a discernible organizational plan in this response, with an introductory paragraph, two analytical
observations, and a concluding paragraph that offers a definitive rejection of the argument, repeats the main points,
and goes on to offer advice. The writing, however, is less than competent. There are errors in grammar, usage, and
mechanics that limit the writer's ability to convey meaning clearly. For this reason, and because the analysis is only
thinly developed, the essay earns a score of 3.
Score 2:
I found this article moderately reasoned. One of the reasons I did not find this article well reasoned is due to the
fact that there was no concrete evidence given to support some of the article's claims. For instance, the English
department at the University might actually be as internationally renowned as mentioned but due to the lack of
names, it makes the claims harder to believe. The abscence of names makes the members of the university, in the
mind of the reader, seem like fictitious characters. Also, due to the notariety of the Nobel Peace Prize, it would
have been beneficial to the article if the writer would have at least given the particular field the two anonymous
winners received their prize, which once again puts doubt in the mind of the reader regarding the validity of the
article or moreso the information the article contains. In essence the article had the potential to be very
well-reasoned but due to the lack of more concrete information, the article was less believable.
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Commentary:
The first sentence of this seriously flawed response expresses some praise for the argument reasoning, leading the
reader to expect an uncritical acceptance of the argument. Instead, the following sentences are apparently aimed at
challenging the argument. What follows, though, is neither an agreement with the prompt nor a logical critique.
Rather than analyzing the unfounded claims, the essay complains about the lack of "concrete evidence." In
particular, the writer believes that Claria's assertions would be more believable if the article included both the
names of the "internationally renowned" faculty and the fields in which the two Claria graduates won Nobel Prizes.
However, these are only superficial criticisms; there are glaring flaws in the argument, but the writer misses these.
In addition, the second criticism is unfounded; the Nobel Prize category (physics) is mentioned in the argument,
and the former Claria students are described only as "candidates," not as winners.
There are grammatical errors (e.g., "the particular field the two anonymous winners received their prize") and
imprecise word choices ("members of the university," "r moreso the information the article contains"). For the
most part, though, the writer's meaning is clear. The response merits only a 2 because it fails to construct a critique
of the argument.
Score 1:
Is true that University of Claria is generally consider one of the best university in world. Because instructors
reputations. Because research and publishing record. Because teach in other countries. Because win Nobel prizes.
Because find empolyment after graduating. But other school good just as Claria. Can be little money. Can be good
teachers too.
Commentary:
This fundamentally deficient response appears to recognize that the argument consists of a statement supported by
evidence. However, there is no evidence of an ability to understand and analyze the argument. There is also no
evidence of an ability to develop an organized response.
In addition, there are severe and persistent errors in language and sentence structure. In the few instances where
the language appears controlled, the phrasing is borrowed directly from the argument topic. For all these reasons,
this response requires a score of 1.
Sample Three
The following is taken from a memo from the advertising director of the Silver Screen Movie Production Company.
"According to a recent report from our marketing department, fewer people attended movies produced by Silver
Screen during the past year than in any other year. And yet the percentage of generally favorable comments by
movie reviewers about specific Silver Screen movies actually increased during this period, Clearly, the contents of
these reviews are not reaching enough of our prospective viewers; so the problem lies not with the quality of our
35
movies but with the public's lack of awareness that movies of good quality are available. Silver Screen should
therefore spend more of its budget next year on reaching the public through advertising and less on producing new
movies."
Score 6:
The argument presented above is relatively sound, however, the author fails to recognize all the elements necessary
to evaluate his situation. The idea that more money be invested in advertising may be a helpful one, but perhaps
not because people are unaware of the current reviews. To clarify, it may be necessary to advertise more in order to
increase sales, however that could be due to many circumstances such as a decrease in the public's overall
attendance, an increase in the cost of movies, or a lack of trust in the opinions of the reviewers.
The advertising director first needs to determine the relative proportion of movie goers that choose to see Silver
Screen films. That will help him to understand his market share. If the population in general is attending less, then
he may still be out-profiting his competitors, despite his individual sales decrease. In fact, his relative sales could
be increasing. Determining where he stands in his market will help him to create and implement an action plan.
Another important thing to consder is the relative cost of attending movies to the current standard of living. If the
standard of living is decreasing, it may contribute to an overall decrease in attendance. In that case, advertising
could be very helpful, in that a clever campaign could emphasize the low cost of movies as compared to many
other leisure activities. This could offset financial anxieties of potential customers.
Finally, it is important to remember that people rarely trust movie reviewers. For that reason, it is important that
the films appeal to the populus, and not critics alone. The best advertisement in many cases is word of mouth. No
matter what critics say, people tend to take the opinions of friends more seriously. This supports continual funding
to produce quality movies that will appeal to the average person.
There is no reason that silver screen should not spend more on advertisement, however, there is reason to continue
to invest in diverse, quality films. Furthermore, the company must consider carefully what it chooses to emphasize
in its advertisement.
Commentary:
Although the essay begins by stating that the argument "is relatively sound," it immediately goes on to develop a
critique. The essay identifies three major flaws in the argument and provides a careful and thorough analysis. The
main points discussed are that.
— the fall-off in attendance might be industry wide
— the general state of the economy might have affected movie attendance
— movie goers "rarely trust movie reviewers"
Each of these points is developed; together they are presented within the context of a larger idea: that while
spending more money on advertising may be helpful, the company should "continue to invest in diverse, quality
films."
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This is a smoothly written, well-developed analysis in which syntactic variety and the excellent use of transitions
make for a virtually seamless essay. This paper clearly merits a score of 6.
Score 5:
The advertising director of Silver Screen should lose his job. It is clear that his analysis of the decrease in
attendance in the past year was incomplete. A better qualified individual might have explored the issue further by
doing several different things. First of all, surveys of the general population could provide a clue to the decreased
viewership. They may find that people aren't as willing to pay the high prices anymore. A survey may also reveal
that people are aware of Silver Screen, but opt not to see the films. An inspection of the nature of the films made
by Silver Screen could also hint to the root of the problem. If Silver Screen produces a lot of the same type of
movie, then the problem may be that they don't produce enough to appeal to the diverse interests of the population.
For instance, if their movies typically contain excessive violence and foul language, parents won't take their
children to these films. That is a significant portion of the potential viewing population lost.
The ad director mentions that reviewers liked specific films and gave more favorable reviews than in the past. But
he neglects to mention the specific numbers- critics may have raved about 2 movies and turned their thumbs down
the 10 others. If that's' the case, it's no wonder that viewership has declined.
Spending more on advertising, and less on production, as the ad director suggests, could drive the company out of
business. If the media builds a lot of hype over a new release that was poorly produced, people are more likely to
be disappointed, and skeptical about future productions. This is certainly not in the company's best interests. What
is in the company's best interest is a broader scope of the problem, and different approaches to solving I
Commentary:
This strong essay begins with an attack on the advertising director of Silver Screen but quickly shifts to identifying
major flaws in the argument. The main points of the critique are that
— the real reasons for a decline in viewership have not yet been identified;
— Silver Screen may not produce different kinds of movies to appeal to diverse interests;
— the number of favorably reviewed movies may actually have been very low; and
— spending money to produce a possibly poor movie would hurt rather than help the company.
Although more points are made here than are made in sample 6, each of the points made in the 6 essay is
developed. That is not the case here. In this essay, each point is supported (by perhaps an additional sentence), but
it is not further developed. The essay is smoothly organized with few but appropriate transitions. The writing is
strong with some variety in syntax. For these reasons, this response earns a score of 5.
Score 4:
Although the reasoning in this arguement is logical, the writer failed to consider other reasons for the disparity
between the percentage of people attending the company's movie and the percentage of favorable reviews. Perhaps
the fault lies with the reviewers and not the production company; the public may not trust the critics' reviews.
Another posibility for the attendance drop is that the general public does not find the subject matter of the movies
37
enticing. If that were the case, spending less on producing new movies in an effort to re-direct funds to advertising
could backfire by further limiting the types of movies available to the potential audience. Maybe the general public
is simply not impressed with the critically-acclaimed qualities of the movies (such as eloquent screenplays, artful
cinematography, and realistic acting) and and would prefer seeing flashy special effects and big-name stars. The
possible reasons for the attendance decline are numerous; even aspects not directly related to the movie industry
(such as the improving quality of television programming and the increasing popularity of home computer use)
may play large roles. The company's management would be wise to consider and study the entire realm of
possibilities before making drastic changes in its budget based on one statistical discovery.
Commentary:
This essay identifies and analyzes some important flaws in the argument. Although the number of points
mentioned is the same as that in the sample 5 essay, this response remains at the 4 score level because the features
of the argument that are identified are not developed or supported. The essay identifies four points:
— the public might not trust critics
— the movies' subject matter might not be appealing
—the public might prefer seeing special effects or big-name stars rather than good cinematography or realistic
acting
— perhaps improvement in TV programming or increased use of home computers has kept people away from
movie theaters
Ideas in the essay are conveyed well and clearly; the use of language and syntax are generally strong. But the
essay's "bare-bones" analysis give it a list-like quality. It is therefore merely adequate and merits 1 score of 4.
Score 3:
This argument states the problem but the conclusion is not compatible to the rest of the statement.
Silver Screen recognized that fewer people attended movies in the studied year. I would recommend that they find
out if this was happening with the entire movie market. It might of have been a poor year for movies for all movie
companies.
Silver Screen recognized that of the movies that they did, they received favorable reviews. It should be concluded
that they are doing well with the movies that they are making. Obviously, they are on track with the consumer in
what they are producing.
I understand the conclusion that more people need to be exposed to the movies available for viewing. The last
statement focuses on the fact that advertising needs to be increased, but does it by cutting production costs. This is
wrong, instead of continuing what is working the company plans on focusing on advertising while taking away
from producing. The consumers like the movies they make. If Silver Screen focuses their funds with advertising,
producing funds will suffer. It will not matter how much advertising is done, if it is a poorly produced movie,
nobody will want to go? Eventually, Silver Screen will get the reputation of producing bad movies. There has to be
some compromise which doesn't hurt producing costs.
Commentary:
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This essay is flawed. It makes two points, the first of which is undeveloped (paragraph 2) and the second of which
(the remainder of the essay) is mainly discussion rather than analysis, although some meager analysis is present.
The author also offers a questionable assumption of his or her own in stating that "the consumers like the movies
they make." Overall, there is nothing incisive or convincing in this essay. It is loosely organized and not well
developed.
The essay is clear; what errors there are never interfere with a reader's understanding, but there are frequent minor
errors in language, syntax, and punctuation.
For all of these reasons, the essay is clearly limited and deserves a score of 3.
Score 2:
Americans are spending millions of their hard earned dollars to see the latest theatrical productions, and we here at
Silver Screen want to exploit our share of that profit. Surveys have proven that our movies are better than ever, but
yet our attendance is lower than ever. This finding screams one shortcoming: advertisement.
Try to think of the last movie you remember. The movie which probably leaps into everyone's mind is
Independence Day. Why? Certainly not because of the actual film, but because of all the 'hype' which the movie
received. Furthermore, this grand production paid off big for the production company.
Does anyone that you know drive by the theatre just to see what is playing and then pick a film based on the
catchiness of the title? No. Viewers buy tickets for movies which they have seen effectively advertised on
television and radio.
Not only must Silver Screen advertise more, but we must advertise when it really counts: Monday Night Football,
the evening news, awards shows, etc.
Everyone has heard the saying, "you must spend money to make money", and it is proven true in this industry.
From a completely economical standpoint, the ad is actually more important than the film itself. Consumers are
compelled by the preview and buy a ticket. I am not suggesting that we compromise the integrity of our films, but I
cannot overstate the importance of this decision.
Therefore, I submit that the Silver Screen Production Company attempt to secure 30% of the fiscal budget for
advertisement. It will be the best money you have ever spent.
Commentary:
The writer of this seriously flawed essay has adopted the position that she or he works for Silver Screen and that it
is her or his job to present in expanded form the fallacious reasoning of the argument. In so doing, the writer turns
the argument task into an issue-like discussion. The writer presents no analysis of the argument.
39
The essay is characterized by a series of undeveloped paragraphs, yet there is some variety in syntax and there is
adequate control of both language and the elements of writing. However, even though the writing may be at a 4
score level, the absence of any kind of critique requires a score of 2.
Score 1:
The author make a conclusion that Silver Screen should spend more of its budget next year on reaching the public
through advertising and less on producing new movies. Becase the author think the public is lack of awareness that
movies quality are available. Althogh the percentage of generally favorable comments by movie reviews actually
increased during this period, it is the opnion of the movie reviews which not stand for the reviews of the most
people. So these fact is not sufficient provide the conclusion. Furthermore the author think we need let more
prospective viewer have the same opnion of the movie viewer. It is not unreasonable that it will decrease his
inference. So I don't think it is a good conclusion for Silver Screen to spend more money on advertise instead of
improve the quality of movie.
Commentary:
This fundamentally flawed essay is characterized by three essential deficiencies:
— It provides little evidence of the ability to understand and analyze the argument.
— It provides little evidence of the ability to develop an organized response.
— It contains a pervasive pattern of errors in grammar and usage that results in incoherence.
Where the language makes sense and looks controlled, the writer has relied on the language and phrasing of the
argument topic. Where the writer has relied on her or his own knowledge and command of language and syntax,
we see serious and fundamental deficiencies. Thus, this response requires a score of 1.
第四章
范文观摩
一. 是非问题例文
·写作要领：
是非问题分析的基本要求是要你就一个有争议的问题发表自己的看法。对于社会科学和人文科学方面
的问题，仁者见仁，智者见智。因此，你不必担心自己的观点是否“正确”
，很可能你的观点正因为与众不
同而显得十分新颖，有创造性。重要的是言之成理，自圆其说。更何况，阅卷人两、三分钟要判一篇作文，
不大可能有雅兴来咀嚼你的观点的深刻和伟大。
就文章的结构而言，你应该写 4 到 5 段，有清楚的开头——正文——结尾。具体安排如下：
开头——开头写一个段落，在这里你必须首先简要陈述所要探讨的问题的背景，如这个问题因何而引
起，人们对这个问题有什么不同看法，等等。其次，你必须明确表明自己在这个问题上的立场。你可以赞
成，可以反对，可以有保留地赞成，可以有保留地反对，也可以提出一种全新的立场。重要的是有自己的
立场。同时，你要警惕问题的复杂性，绝大多数问题都不是简单的完全赞成或完全反对的问题，而是多大
40
程度上赞成或反对的问题。最后，第一段不必写太长，3 到 4 个句子就行了。
正文——中间展开论述，段落安排上可以写两到三段，分别支持自己的立场。中间段落的写作要注意
四个问题：第一是每一段必须有一个主题句，即所谓的 topic sentence,一般放在段道。第二是必须展开论述，
也就是要摆事实讲道理，不能只是抽象地议论。你可以举例，可以引用个人经历、案例、故事、名言、数
据、事实、常识等来支持自己的观点。你还可以做演推理，从逻辑上驳斥或论正某一观点。总之，你必须
以理服人。第三是注意问题的复杂性。绝大多数问题都不是简单的 yes 或 no 的问题，也就是说，你可以首
先基本支持某一观点，或基本反对某一观点，然后对相反的立场做出必要的让步，或者说修正、限定自己
的立场，这样就不至于使自己显得太极端、武断。当然，在你确有把握的时候，你也可以完全支持或完全
反对某一观点。最后，中是段落的写作必须特别注意连贯性，这主要表现在对一些连接词的有效运用上，
如：for example, in the first place...in the second place, on the one hand...on the other hand, however, therefore, as
a result, in addition, 等等。
结尾——很多考生根本不考虑结尾的问题，写到哪算哪，这会影响得分。必须留几分钟给结尾，归纳
自己的理由，重申自己的立场。实在来不及，一句话的结尾总比没有结尾好。
最后是语言问题。GRE 的作文在语言上要求比较高，这主要表现在你的文章必须大量使用复杂的、较
长的句子，必须使用比较正规的、学术性的词汇，必须注意句子结构的变化，必须少犯或不犯语法错误。
为了减少语言方面的问题，写完作文后留下两、三分钟快速检查一遍通常很有效，可以修正不少明显的语
法错误。
·写作步骤：
第一步：快速审题（2 分钟）——抓住题目中的观点，在心中确立自己的基本立场。
第二步：输入写作提纲（5 分钟）——写作提纲由 3、4 个英文句子组成，第一句是你在这个问题上的基本
立场 （position）
，第二、三或四句是正文段落的主题句（topic sentence）
（参考第七章“提纲大全”
）
。如果
是你熟悉的题目，这一步应非常容易；如果不熟悉，你必须立刻运用“大脑风暴”的办法展开构思，完成
写作提纲。
第三步：写第一段（5 分钟）——按照你早已准备好的开头模式和句型写作。这一段可写三、四个句子，
先说明探讨的问题是什么，然后指出在该问题上的代表性观点或题目中提供的观点，最后表明自己的立场。
第四步：写正文段落（25 分钟）——依次在已输入的 topic sentence 后展开论述，写两到三段。
第五步：写结尾（5 分钟）——按照自己准备的模式写作，先重申自己在该问题上的立场，然后归纳理由，
即把正文的几个主题句的意思“换言之”一下。
第六步：检查（3 分钟）——根据下面的“作文自查清单”快速扫描作文。特别注意自己平常训练写作时
常犯的错误。
·作文自查清单
1．是否针对题目写作，有没有跑贵？
2．结构是否合理，有无完整的开头、正文（2 到 3 段）和结尾？
3．是否在开头段提出了自己的立场？
4．中间段落每段是否用事例或理由支持该段的主题句？
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5．中间段落每段是否用事例或理由支持该段的主题句？
6．是否使用连接词使文章上下文连贯、通顺？
7．每段是否有句式变换？
8．结尾是否总结自己的理由并重申自己的立场？
9．语言方面是否有下列错误：大小写错误、标点符号错误、拼写错误、串句、错位修饰、排比错误、主谓
语不一致、定语从句错误、时态错误、名词单复数错误、搭配错误、词性错误、用词不当，等等？
Issue 105: "The study of history has value only to the extent that it is relevant to our daily lives."
Contemporary society is sometimes portrayed as dominated by the experience of change. The break-neck
speed of technological innovation, the erosion of traditional values and loyalties, the fickleness of consumers, and
the instability of international relations are all from time to time cited as evidence that we live in a world radically
different from the past, in which a sense of history and the lessons which can be drawn from it are dispensable.
This is a superficial assessment to say the least.
History is closely related not only to us as individuals in our daily lives but also to us as members of society.
In all spheres of life, from personal relationships to political judgments, we constantly interpret our experience in
time perspective, whether we are conscious of it or not. The mere fact of living alongside people older man
ourselves makes us conscious of the past. Our sense of personal identity demands roots in the past that are sought
in the first instance in genealogy and family history. Our sense of what is practicable in the future is formed by an
awareness of what has happened—or not happened—in the past. We learn, in short, by experience. Furthermore,
history is collective memory, the storehouse of experience through which people develop a sense of their social
identity and their future prospects. People who profess to ignore history are nevertheless compelled to make
historical assumptions at every turn. Our political judgments are permeated by a sense of the past, whether we are
deciding between the competing claims of political parties or assessing the feasibility of particular policies. We are
all naturally curious about how our society came to be the way it is, and we all entertain some explanation on the
subject, however half-baked and ill-founded it may be. The pace of contemporary change does not render the past
irrelevant; it merely shifts the perspective from which we weigh its influence and interpret its lessons.
To be more specific, the study of history has three important practical implications. In the first place, the
effort to recapture the essence of every epoch in the past alerts us to the sheer variety of human mentality and
achievement—and thus to something of the range of possibilities at our disposal now. Partly this is a matter of
imaginative range. History, after all, offers insights into a very wide range of human mentalities. Few people could
have foreseen the rise to power of an Adolf Hitler; but to someone with a historical education their personalities
were at least credible, as being within the range of recorded human deviance, and an effort of imaginative
comprehension was possible—not, it should be added, to excuse their crimes but to provide a basis for dealing
realistically and effectively with them. From this point of view, the broader the scope of historical study the better,
hi the second place, history can serve, in a sense, as a source of precedent and prediction. That is why history is
often compared to a "mirror" in Chinese culture. Although history seldom repeats itself, it conveys the awareness
of what is enduring and what is ephemeral in our present circumstances: this is what is meant essentially by
"historical perspective." Finally, the study of history can help us understand better other societies as well as our
own society. On the one hand, the compiling and propagating of national history has always been used by national
governments to enhance national cohesion and civil patriotism. On the other hand, the study of world history has
contributed greatly to the mutual understanding and cooperation of world nations.
In conclusion, we are part of history just as history is part of us. The study of history benefits us not only in
our daily life, but also in our effort to understand the present world and to construct the future.
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Issue 66: "In many countries it is now possible to turn on the television and view government at work. Watching
these proceedings can help people understand the issues that affect their lives. The more kinds of government
proceedings—trials, debates, meetings, etc.—that are televised, the more society will benefit."
Although television has been called an "idiot box," the fect remains that it is now the primary source of
political, economic, social and cultural information for a majority of citizens in many countries. As a result,
government is no longer mysterious, and politics is becoming more and more open. This ongoing process, I believe,
benefits not only the individuals in their personal life but also the society as a whole.
In the first place, television helps people understand the issues that affect their life, which is the precondition
of democracy. As we know, a conscious democracy pays attention to what is going on. A conscious democracy is
awake and watches the trends and events that shape the short-term and long-term future. In this respect, television
is playing a decisive role. With the increasing popularity of television today, citizens of the world are becoming
more and more informed of local, national and even international politics. For example, in China, two decades ago,
people knew very little about how government policies were formulated and how these policies would influence
their lives. Today, with the democratization of China's politics, and especially with the introduction of television in
politics, ordinary Chinese people can now watch and hear through television the national conferences in which
important policies or laws are discussed. Furthermore, television has made it possible for people to follow what
their government has promised to do, how it is operating and whether it has fulfilled its tasks. As a result, Chinese
people are now in a better position to supervise their government. A typical example is the Focus Interview
program on CCTV, which focuses on current controversial social issues. On the one hand, it helps the government
to keep track of the social problems that concern the people. On the other hand, it motivates people to confront the
serious problems in society and hence to solve those problems.
In the second place, television has made it possible for ordinary people to participate in politics. A conscious
democracy depends on public discussion of the major issues of the day and publicly building working agreements
for appropriate courses of action. How could this work? Imagine that a random sample of a thousand or more
citizens in a community (or country) is called several weeks in advance of a televised "town meeting" and asked to
participate. Those who agree are sent a list of phone numbers to dial in and register their views the night of the
electronic town meeting. By dialing a particular number, they can show their agreement or disagreement with
various options or their intensity of sentiment. This kind of telephone-based, scientific feedback can be obtained in
the TV studio in three minutes or less and displayed for everyone to see. By combining representative feedback
with an informational documentary program and non-partisan dialogue, a community can know its own mind with
a high degree of accuracy on the key issues of the day.
Despite the power of television, it has not been effectively used to serve the urgent needs of democracy. In the
United States, the democratic modal of the world, roughly 97 percent of prime-time broadcast TV is devoted to
entertainment programming. It is said that American citizens are "entertainment rich and knowledge poor". It is the
same case with other countries around the world. Furthermore, although television has enormous potential to serve
the purpose of democracy, it is well known that throughout the world, television is often secretly manipulated by
the government or certain interest groups to serve their vested interests.
For all the obstacles, however, there is every reason for us as individuals and members of the society to come
to realize the significant potential contributions that television can make to the construction of a vital democracy. It
is high time we took actions to bring the political potentialities of television into reality.
Issue 44: "Only through mistakes can there be discovery or progress."
43
Paul Ehrlich, a chemist, discovered a drug to treat those afflicted with syphilis (梅毒) . It was named
"Formula 606," because the first 605 tests were mistakes. The lesson we can draw from this story is clear and
simple: discovery or progress is born in mistakes.
Making mistakes is a valuable learning experience. A now famous story at IBM involved founder Thomas
Watson and one of his vice presidents who took the initiative on the development of a new product. As reported in
Fortune, the product was a risky venture that ended up a colossal failure and cost the company $10 million. Watson
called the executive into his office saying there was something he wanted to discuss with him. Sure he was about
to lose his job; the young man blurted out, "I guess you want my resignation?" Watson replied, "You must be
kidding. We've just spent $10 million educating you." Watson's logic is this: anyone making a multi-million-dollar
mistake had to learn something that would help him do a better job the next time.
Furthermore, making mistakes gives one an opportunity to try a new approach. China's progress in the past
decades is a case in point. After Liberation in 1949, China, under the leadership of Chairman Mao, gradually built
up a nationwide state-run economy. This mode of economy was originally intended to ensure both stable economic
development and social justice. Unfortunately, what it resulted in was economic stagnation and lasting poverty.
Recognizing this fatal mistake in Mao's economic policy, Deng Xiaoping took a new approach-a gradual but
dramatic reform. He first introduced some elements of market economy, hoping to juxtapose planned economy and
market economy. This approach worked for some years, but then proved ineffective. Finally, after a series of trials
and errors, he decided that market economy was China's only choice. Due to this strategic turning, China's
economy has now embarked upon a stable and dynamic course. Although Mao's mistakes caused Chinese people
painful sacrifice, we are lucky that we have learned our lessons and now we are marching on the road of
prosperity.
Admittedly, mistakes will not automatically lead to discovery or progress. We must analyze every failure to
find its cause; we must honestly face defeat and never fake success; we must exploit the failure; we must never use
failure as an excuse for not trying again. In a word, we must learn how to fail intelligently.
As a saying goes, to err is human. To this I would add: To learn from errors is progress.
Issue 92: "Tradition and modernization are incompatible. One must choose between them."
There is much debate over whether tradition and modernization are compatible. Some people maintain that
they necessarily conflict with each other, while others argue that it is possible to combine tradition and
modernization in our pursuit of development As far as I am concerned, these two forces undermine each other at
times, but they can also compliment each other, if handled properly.
Most people take it for granted that modernization and tradition are contradictory, which is true in a sense.
Modernization, a popular yet a vague term, is generally understood as "Westernization," which means individualist,
rights-based democracy, capitalism, and technological imperatives. Meanwhile, tradition comprises the whole
complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features that characterize a specific society or
a social group. It includes not only the arts and letters, but also modes of life, the value systems and beliefs of the
indigenous people. In this sense, it is only natural that modernization, as a foreign culture forced upon non-Western
cultures, tends to cause damage to the tradition and arouse confrontation from the native people involved in this
destructive and painful process. Where modernization marches on, we often see traditional customs disappearing,
traditional value systems collapsing, traditional craftsmanship withering, and traditional ways of life disintegrating.
As a result, modernization has not brought about prosperity and happiness at it promises to traditional societies. On
the contrary, we are alarmed at the deterioration of the cities and disintegration of society—overcrowding; slum
formation; breakdown of culture, community, and family; isolation of social and age groups, etc.—as well as the
44
environmental destruction—water and air pollution; noise; destruction of wildlife, vegetation and land, etc.
However, if we understand modernization as sustainable development, we must believe in the necessity and
possibility of synthesizing modernization and tradition. Development can only flourish where it is rooted in the
culture and the tradition of each country, since it is an all-encompassing process linked to each society's own
values and calling for an active participation of individuals and groups who are both the authors and the
beneficiaries of it. The success of Japan and the South-East Asian "dragons," is a case in point. While espousing
the free enterprise system of the western development model, these traditional societies dosed it with more than a
little government control, a form of paternalism alien to the West but totally in keeping with their own traditions.
In the same vein, China is confidently pushing forward its development by synthesizing modernization and
tradition.
To conclude, it seems unavoidable that some traditional cultural elements will be lost in the process of
modernization. Yet any external experience, technique or model cannot be successfully integrated by mere
adopting or reproduction; it needs to be reinterpreted or reinvented in such a way that it can be absorbed through
the filter of the society's cultural identity and value system, In other words, any traditional society, if it aims at
sustainable development, should endeavor to maintain a mutually enriching relationship between the external
modernization and the internal tradition.
Issue 93: "The only responsibility of corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, is to make as much
money as possible for their companies. "
Do businesses have obligations to society beyond the minimal requirements imposed by law? According to
economist Milton Friedman, there is one and only one social responsibility of business—to use its resources and
engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say,
engages in open and free competition without deception and fraud. In my opinion, although making profits is an
important and necessary responsibility of companies, business executives have an unshirkable social responsibility
beyond obeying the law and creating profits.
Corporate executives should assume a social responsibility for a variety of important reasons. First, business
is involved in social issues whether it wants to be or not. Whichever industry they are in, corporate executives are
confronted with two basic questions: (1) How should they behave as they pursue their goal of making profits? (2)
What positions should they take on issues of public policy that affect both business and society? And if they like,
they have another question to consider: What charitable efforts should they undertake that are not related to their
normal business activities? Second, business has the resources to deal with some of the most difficult problems
that the society confronts. For instance, it is hard to imagine how individual citizens and their government can
manage to solve such serious problems as pollution and energy crisis without the business's conscious and active
efforts as well as cooperation in this direction. Finally, business is a major beneficiary of every improvement in
society. In return, it should repay the society with community service, with community development, with
employee development or with philanthropy.
Similarly, when profit-making and social responsibility conflict at times, the latter should take precedence
over the former. Consider, for instance, a company that unknowingly leaks into the ground a toxic substance that
threatens to contaminate local groundwater. While the company may favor an inexpensive containment program,
community leaders may want the company to go further by cleaning up and restoring their environment-even if the
expense will force the company to leave and take jobs from the community. Whatever the company decides, it
should not assume that protecting profits automatically outweighs social obligation.
As a matter of fact, more often than not commitment to social responsibility benefits a company's long-term
45
pursuit of profits. Nothing is more important to the long-term success of any business than its reputation.
Recognizing the significance of social commitment, many companies encourage employees to take on community
projects. One of the most noted programs of this type is the Xerox Social Service Leave Program. Qualified Xerox
employees may apply for a six-month to one-year paid leave to work on a community-service program. Afterward,
they are guaranteed their old job back or a similar one. Another example is Shao Yifu, one of the wealthiest
tycoons in Hong Kong, who makes donations to help major Chinese universities construct teaching buildings. To
acknowledge his contribution, the universities agreed to engrave his name on each of the donated buildings,
usually the most distinguishing ones on the campus. College students—the future backbones of the business world
—certainly know and will remember whose generosity is bringing them the well-equipped laboratories and
comfortable classrooms. Such commitment to social responsibility will undoubtedly add to a company's publicity
and success in the long run.
All in all, it is either irresponsible or out of date or counterproductive for corporate executives to deny any
social responsibility. The question today is how business should fulfill their social responsibility, not whether that
responsibility exists. Actually, wise corporate executives have long enjoyed the benefits brought about by their
generous undertakings to serve the society.
二．逻辑问题范文
· 写作要领
逻辑问题分析要求你对一段所给的逻辑论证展开分析。你必须清楚，所给的逻辑论证定有逻辑错误，
你的任务是找出其中的逻辑谬误并进行分析。
在结构上，这篇作文也要有完整的开头——正文——结尾。具体安排如下：
开头——开头写一段，主要任务有二：其一，归纳所给论证的结论假设和证据；其二，指出该论证犯
有逻辑错误。这一段写三、四句即可。
正文——正文是具体分析所给论证的罗辑错误。可以写两到三段，每段集中分析一个方面的逻辑错误。
论证方面和是非问题分析一样，也要注意每段有主题句，注意使用连接词使文章上下连贯，所不同的是，
对逻辑错误进行分析时不需要刻意旁征博引，只要针对所论证中提供的数据、事实或推理逐一驳斥就行。
如果你具备一些基本的逻辑知识和概念，正文部分的逻辑分析当不会太难。
结尾——在最后一段，你必须指出如何充实或修补所给的论证。一个简单的办法就是把正文部分驳斥
的几个逻辑错误转述一遍，指出可以从这几个方面加强原论证。
语言上的基本要求与是非问题写作相同。这篇作文语言上的难点在于使用一些典型的逻辑分析语句和
词汇。这一点其实不难做到：背诵并学会使用第八章提供的有关闪光句式。
请注意从上述几个方面观察下面的范文，注意黑体字部分是可供套用的结构模式。
· 写作步骤
第一步：快速审题（2 分钟）——用快速阅读的办法抓住所给论证的结论和证据。
第二步：写第一段（5 分钟）——用早已备好的模式和句型写作。第一句指出原论证的结论，第二、三句
指出原论证的论据，第四句表明自己对原论证的判断。
第三步：写正文提纲（3 分钟）——用两、三个句子分别指出原论证的逻辑错误，这也就是正文部分的段
落主题句（topic sentence）
。
46
第四步：写正文（14 分钟）——在已写好的 topic sentence 下面展开分析，完成正文的两到三个段落。
第五步：写结尾（3 分钟）——按照已备好的模式和句型快速完成最后一段的写作。首先用一句话指出原
作者未能有效地支技自己的结论，然后用两个句子说明如加强原论证，也就是把正文 topic sentence 所指出
的逻辑错误换个角度说一下。
第六步：检查（3 分钟）——快速扫描作文。特别注意自己平常训练写作时常犯的错误。
Argument 37 The following is a memorandum from the director of personnel to the president of Get-Away
Airlines.
"Since our mechanics are responsible for inspecting and maintaining our aircraft, Get-Away Airlines should
pay to send them to the Quality-Care Seminar, a two-week seminar on proper maintenance procedures. I
recommend this seminar because it is likely to be a wise investment, given that the automobile racing industry
recently reported that the performance of its maintenance crews improved markedly after their crews had
attended the seminar. These maintenance crews perform many of the same functions as do our mechanics,
including refueling and repairing engines. The money we spend on sending our staff to the seminar will
inevitably lead to improved maintenance and thus to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for
our airline."
In this argument, the arguer concludes that sending the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines to a two-week
Quality-Care Seminar on proper maintenance procedures will automatically lead to improved maintenance and to
greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for the airline. To support the conclusion, the arguer
points out that the performance of the maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry improved markedly
after their crews had attended the seminar. In addition, the arguer reasons that since the maintenance crews of
the automobile racing industry and the mechanics of Get-Away Airlines perform many of the same functions, the
airlines will gain similar benefits from the training program. This argument suffers from several critical
fallacies.
First, the argument Is based on a false analogy. The arguer simply assumes that airplane mechanics and
automobile maintenance crews perform many similar functions, but he does not provide any evidence that their
functions are indeed comparable. As we know, the structure, operation and function of airplanes and those of
automobiles differ conspicuously. It is true that both the airplane and the automobile need refueling and engine
maintenance, but even here there exist fundamental differences: the structure and the building materials of each
other's engines are different, so is the oil they use. Therefore, even though the two-week Quality-Care Seminar
proved effective in improving the performance of the maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry, there is
no guarantee that it will work just as well for airplane mechanics.
Second, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization. Even if the maintenance of the airline has
been improved as a result of sending its mechanics to the Seminar, which is, of course, an unwarranted assumption,
it does not follow that there will be greater profits as well as greater customer satisfaction for the airline. As we
know, customer satisfaction depends on several major factors other than good maintenance of the airplane. For
instance, customers are generally concerned about the punctuality, the on-board service, the ticket price, the
luggage handling procedure and even the discount, all of which are ignored by the arguer. Besides, the arguer does
not provide any solid information concerning how the airplane can improve its profits. Unless Get-Away Airlines
can significantly increase its customers or passengers and at the same time cut down its costs, both of which are
47
unknown from this argument, there is no guarantee that it will "inevitably" harvest greater profits. Actually, the
arguer's recommendation of investing in this training program as the only way to increase customer satisfaction
and profits would most probably turn out to be ineffective and misleading.
In conclusion, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between sending Get-A way's mechanics
to the Quality-Care Seminar and improved maintenance, greater customer satisfaction and greater profits for the
airline. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide evidence that automobile maintenance
and airplane maintenance are similar in every aspect. To better evaluate the argument, we would need more
information about the relationship between improved maintenance and greater customer satisfaction along with
greater profits.
Argument 47:
The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences,
many citizens are experiencing rising costs of electricity. A recent study of household electric costs in Claria
found that families who cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electricity than did families using air
conditioners alone for cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners
spent less on electricity than those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens
of Claria should follow the study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save
money on electricity.
In this argument, the arguer recommends that Claria should advise its citizens to install both air
conditioners and fans for cooling in order to reduce the cost of electricity. To justify this claim, the arguer
provides the evidence that many citizens of Claria suffer from the rising costs of electricity. In addition, he cites
the result of a recent study that using fans alone costs more than using air conditioners alone, and that using both
air conditioners and fans costs less than either using fans or air conditioners alone. A careful examination of this
argument would reveal how groundless the conclusion is.
In the first place, the arguer fails to take into account the geographical factors in the analysis. While we
are informed that there are wide geographical differences in the nation of Claria, and that many citizens are
experiencing rising costs of electricity, the arguer fails to make clear the exact number of those citizens or their
percentage in the national population, as well as the geographical distribution of these citizens. If only a small
portion of the whole population are experiencing the rising costs of electricity while most families do not have
similar experience, then the reason might be that the former do not use electricity sparingly. In this case, the rising
costs of those families have nothing to do with what kind of electric appliance they use to cool their houses. Or if
only families living in hot areas are spending more money on cooling, then it is unwise to require citizens living in
temperate and frigid zones to install both fans and air conditioners. In the absence of all this information, it is
impossible for us to evaluate the recommended policy that is intended to help every household nationwide to
reduce their electricity cost.
In the second place, the comparison in this argument is incomplete and selective. The arguer discovers
that using fans alone is more cost effective than using air conditioners alone, and that using both fans and air
conditioners are the least expensive way of cooling. However, the arguer fails to provide any information
regarding the actual amount of time for using, respectively, fans alone, air conditioners alone, and both fans and air
conditioners in those three groups of surveyed families. It is very likely that these three groups of families are
located in three very different climatic regions of Claria, and hence the amount of days of the year during which
they need to cool their houses varies significantly. Families living in cooler areas of the nation certainly cool their
houses for fewer hours and hence use less electricity than families living in hot areas, no matter what cooling
appliance they use. Unless we are certain that the surveyed families live in the same climatic region, or that they
48
need to cool their houses for the same amount of hours in the same year although they live in different regions,
which is very unlikely, we have every reason to doubt the trustworthiness of this comparative study. Furthermore,
the arguer ignores the possibility that the families who are spending more on electricity may be using more
electricity for purposes other-than cooling. Unless the arguer also takes this factor into consideration, the
comparison is unconvincing.
To sum up, the conclusion lacks credibility because the evidence cited in the analysis does not lend
strong support to what the arguer maintains. To strengthen the argument, the arguer would have to provide
more evidence concerning the percentage of the affected families and their geographical distribution. To better
evaluate the argument, we would need more information regarding the electric expense relevant to the actual
amount of time for cooling among, respectively, the three groups of households and the amount of electricity used
for other purposes in all three groups of families under survey.
Argument 57:
The following appeared in a letter from a department chairperson to the president of Pierce
University.
"Some studies conducted by Bronston College, which is also located in a small town, reveal that both mate and
female professors are happier living in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the same
geographic area. Therefore, in the interest of attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers to our faculty
and improving the morale of our entire staff, we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of
each new faculty member we hire. Although we cannot expect all offers to be accepted or to be viewed as an
ideal job offer, the money invested in this effort will clearly be well spent because, if their spouses have a chance
of employment, new professors will be more likely to accept our offers."
In this analysis, the arguer claims that Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each
new faculty member that they hire. To substantiate the conclusion, the arguer cites the example of Bronston
College where professors prefer to have their spouse employed in the same geographical area. In addition, the
arguer assumes that this offer of a possible job for their spouse on the campus, no matter whether it will be
accepted, is the only factor that new professors consider in deciding whether to accept a university position. This
argument is unconvincing for several critical flaws.
First of all, the argument is based on a hasty generalization . According to the cited studies, professors at
Bronston College are happier living in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the local area than
when their spouses work in distant areas, which is understandable. This fact tells very little about what actual
conditions the professors often consider as important when they choose where to work. Even if we accept the
arguer's assumption that whether their spouse can find a job in the local area is the only important question that
new professors consider when they decide whether to accept an offer in a university situated in a small town, the
arguer's recommendation is still unconvincing. Only when the offer of employment to the spouse is regarded as an
ideal one and therefore accepted is it likely that the professor will consider accepting the university's offer.
Consequently, it is unwarranted to assume that new professors will accept Pierce's offer whether their spouse can
find satisfactory employment in the local area.
In addition, the arguer fails to consider several other relevant factors that may influence new
professors' decision. For instance, since Pierce's location is not ideal, the pay it offers should be high enough to
be attractive. New gifted professors are also concerned about the position they can have and the courses they are
supposed to teach in the new university. What's more, what researchers care most about might be the university's
research conditions such as laboratory equipments, adequate research funds, etc.
Finally, the arguer hints that the morale of Pierce's entire staff is low, but he fails to analyze the causes.
49
Is it because the management of the university is poor, or because the pay is too low, or because the local area
suffers from economic depression, or because the local environment is severely damaged by industrial pollution?
Under these circumstances, offering employment to the spouse would be ineffective at all for the purpose of
attracting more new professors. Furthermore, if these problems do exist, even if Pierce succeeds in hiring many of
the most gifted teachers and researchers of the country, the general morale of the whole faculty would remain low.
As it stands, the argument is not well reasoned. To make it logically acceptable, the arguer would have
to demonstrate that an offer of employment to the spouse is the only condition that new professors consider on
accepting Pierce's offer. Additionally, the arguer must provide evidence to rule out other possible causes of the
low staff morale at the university.
Argument 67: The following is a memorandum written by the director of personnel to the president of the
Cedar Corporation.
"It would be a mistake to rehire the Good-Taste Company to supply the food in our employee cafeteria next year.
It is the second most expensive caterer in the city. In addition, its prices have risen in each of the last three years,
and it refuses to provide meals for people on special diets. Just last month three employees complained to me
that they no longer eat in the cafeteria because they find the experience unbearable. Our company should
instead hire Discount Foods. Discount is a family-owned local company and it offers a varied menu offish and
poultry. I recently tasted a sample lunch at one of the many companies that Discount serves and it was delicious
—an indication that hiring Discount will lead to improved employee satisfaction."
In this argument, the arguer advocates that the Cedar Corporation should hire Discount Foods, a
family-owned local company that offers a varied menu of fish and poultry, instead of the Good-Taste Company, the
present supplier of food in Cedar's employee cafeteria. This recommendation is based on the observation that
the Good-Taste is expensive, that its prices have kept rising, that it does not serve special diets, and that three
employees complained about it. Meanwhile, the arguer assumes Discount to be a better choice for Cedar because
a sample lunch of this company that the arguer happened to taste was delicious. This argument is problematic
for two reasons.
The major problem with this argument is that the arguer fails to convince us that Cedar's present
supplier the Good-Taste should be fired. First, the fact that the Good-Taste is the second most expensive caterer
in the city may be due to its better foods, quality service and high reputation in this industry. Second, the fact that
its prices have been rising for the last three years may be due to nationwide inflation or the rising cost in the food
industry. Third, the fact that Good-Taste refuses to serve special diets does not indicate that it cannot meet the
needs of Cedar Corporation unless the arguer can demonstrate that Good-Taste served special diets at first and now
it refuses to do so, hence disappointing Cedar's employees, and that many or most of Cedar's employees are on
special diets. Finally, the arguer fails to explain why three employees complained, which makes it impossible for
us to evaluate the overall service of Good-Taste. Maybe these three people are those few on special diets. Even if
they have every reason to complain about the foods or service of the supplier on a certain day, these three people's
opinion lacks the necessary representativeness based on which we can make any general judgment concerning the
overall performance of Good-Taste.
Another point worth considering is the arguer's hasty generalization. We are informed that Discount
serves fish and poultry, but we do not know whether Cedar's employees all prefer this limited menu. We can
believe that one sample lunch that the arguer happened to taste was indeed delicious, but based on this slim
information, we can never evaluate the overall performance of Discount.
To conclude, this argument is not persuasive as it stands. Before we accept the conclusion, the arguer
50
must present more facts that Good-Taste has indeed failed to meet the requirements of Cedar Corporation. To
solidify the argument, the arguer would have to produce more evidence concerning the foods and service of
Discount and how they can better meet the needs of Cedar's employees.
Argument 77: The following is a recommendation from the dean at Foley College, a small liberal arts college,
to the president of the college.
"Since college-bound students are increasingly concerned about job prospects after graduation, Foley College
should attempt to increase enrollment by promising to find its students jobs after they graduate. Many
administrators feel that this strategy is a way for Foley to compete against larger and more prestigious schools
and to encourage students to begin preparing for careers as soon as they enter college. Furthermore, a student
who must choose a career path within his or her first year of college and who is guaranteed a job after
graduation is more likely to successfully complete the coursework that will prepare him or her for the future."
The conclusion in this argument is that Foley College can expect to increase enrollment by promising to
find jobs for students after their graduation. In support of this prediction, the arguer claims that college-bound
students are increasingly concerned about job prospects after graduation. Moreover, the arguer assumes that this
attempt has three benefits: (1) to enable Foley to compete with more famous schools; (2) to encourage students to
start career preparation early; (3) to encourage students to complete their coursework. This argument is fraught
with vague, oversimplified and unwarranted assumptions.
One major assumption in short of legitimacy is the causal relationship claimed between college-bound
students' increasing concern about job prospects after graduation and their expectation on the university to
find jobs for them. Students' increasing concern about job prospects may mean that when they choose which
university to go to they prefer those universities that can offer the majors most likely to lead to more job
opportunities and higher income after graduation. They may also be more interested in prestigious universities
because their students are more competitive and more welcomed in the job market. As is known to everyone, in a
market economy, promising to find jobs for students is impractical and hence rather doubtful. This strategy may
prove misleading and counterproductive in the end. Instead of promising jobs to students, Foley College should
devote its resources and efforts to offering more majors with good job prospects as well as attracting more
prestigious professors to enhance its reputation.
In addition, the conclusion is based on a gratuitous assumption that promising students jobs will make
students more conscious in their study. This, however, is unwarranted. When students do not have to worry
about their employment after graduation, they feel no pressure in their study; as a result, they will become more
passive and dependent and gradually lose the initiative to improve themselves. Although it is more likely that they
will complete their coursework, but when they graduate, no company would like to employ them. By then the
university's promise will turn out to be meaningless.
In summary, the conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and misleading. To make the argument
more convincing, the arguer would have to prove that college-bound students are most concerned about the
promise of jobs after graduation and that Foley College can keep its promise in the end. Moreover, I would
suspend my judgment about the credibility of the recommendation until the arguer can provide concrete
evidence that promising students jobs can actually encourage them to work harder in their study. Otherwise, the
arguer is simply begging the question throughout the argument.
51
第五章
是非问题题库
The pool of Issue Topics
____________________________________________________________________________
Present your perspective on the issue below, using relevant reasons and/or examples
to support your views.
是非问题涉及面非常广泛，按照 ETS 公布的 GRE 作文题库的顺序去复习，你一定会感到杂乱无章，
茫然不知所措，所以，编者根据话题的内容对题库中的题目进行了分类，便于你理消思路，触类旁通。每
题后留有空白，供你听课或复习时做笔记。
一、教育类
1. "A nation should require all its students to study the same national curriculum until they enter college rather than
allow schools in different parts of the nation to determine which academic courses to offer."
2. "While some leaders in government, sports, industry, and other areas attribute their success to a well-developed
sense of competition, a society can better prepare its young people for leadership by instilling in them a sense of
cooperation."
3. "In order to improve the quality of instruction at the college and university level, all faculty should be required
to spend time working outside the academic world in professions relevant to the courses they teach."
4. "Universities should require every student to take a variety of courses outside the student's field of study
because acquiring knowledge of various academic disciplines is the best way to become truly educated."
5. "Colleges and universities should offer more courses on popular music, film, advertising, and television because
contemporary culture has much greater relevance for students than do arts and literature of the past."
6. "It is primarily through formal education that a culture tries to perpetuate the ideas it favors and discredit the
ideas it fears."
7. "Some educational systems emphasize the development of students' capacity for reasoning and logical thinking,
but students would benefit more from an education that also taught them to explore their own emotions."
8. "It is often asserted that the purpose of education is to free the mind and the spirit. In reality, however, formal
education tends to restrain our minds and spirits rather than set them free.""
9. "How children are socialized today determines the destiny of society. Unfortunately, we have not yet learned
how to raise children who can help bring about a better society."
10. "Both parents and communities must be involved in the local schools. Education is too important to leave
52
solely to a group of professional educators."
11. "The purpose of education should be to provide students with a value system, a standard, a set of ideas—not to
prepare them for a specific job."
12. "Society should identify those children who have special talents and abilities and begin training them at an
early age so that they can eventually excel in their areas of ability. Otherwise, these talents are likely to remain
undeveloped."
13. "The best way to teach—whether as an educator, employer, or parent—is to praise positive actions and ignore
negative ones."
14. "Although innovations such as video, computers, and the Internet seem to offer schools improved methods for
instructing students, these technologies all too often distract from real learning."
15. "We can usually learn much more from people whose views we share than from people whose views contradict
our own. Disagreement can cause stress and inhibit learning."
16. "No field of study can advance significantly unless outsiders bring their knowledge and experience to that field
of study."
17. "Anyone can make things bigger and more complex. What requires real effort and courage is to move in the
opposite direction—in other words, to make things as simple as possible."
18. "Students should memorize facts only after they have studied the ideas, trends, and concepts that help explain
those facts. Students who have learned only facts have learned very little."
19. "Scholars and researchers should not be concerned with whether their work makes a contribution to the larger
society. It is more important that they pursue their individual interests, however unusual or idiosyncratic those
interests may seem."
20. "In any academic area or professional field, it is just as important to recognize the limits of our knowledge and
understanding as it is to acquire new facts and information."
21. "Facts are stubborn things. They cannot be altered by our wishes, our inclinations, or the dictates of our
passions."
22. "Students should bring a certain skepticism to whatever they study. They should question what they are taught
instead of accepting it passively."
23. "There is no such thing as purely objective observation. All observation is subjective; it is always guided by the
observer's expectations or desires."
24. "The human mind will always be superior to machines because machines are only tools of human minds."
53
25. "Critical judgment of work in any given field has little value unless it comes from someone who is an expert in
that field."
26. "Great advances in knowledge necessarily involve the rejection of authority."
27. "People who pursue their own intellectual interests for purely personal reasons are more likely to benefit the
rest of the world than are people who try to act for the public good."
28. "Originality does not mean thinking something that was never thought before; it means putting old ideas
together in new ways."
29. "The study of an academic discipline alters the way we perceive the world. After studying the discipline, we
see the same world as before, but with different eyes."
30. "The way students and scholars interpret the materials they work with in their academic fields is more a matter
of personality than of training. Different interpretations come about when people with different personalities look
at exactly the same objects, facts, data, or events and see different things."
31. "As we acquire more knowledge, things do not become more comprehensible, but more complex and more
mysterious."
32. "It is a grave mistake to theorize before one has data."
33. "Much of the information that people assume is 'factual' actually turns out to be inaccurate. Thus, any piece of
information referred to as a 'fact' should be mistrusted since it may well be proven false in the future."
三、行为类
34. "Although many people think that the luxuries and conveniences of contemporary life are entirely harmless,
they in fact, prevent people from developing into truly strong and independent individuals."
35. "Most cultures encourage individuals to sacrifice a large part of their own personalities in order to be like other
people. Thus, most people are afraid to think or behave differently because they do not want to be excluded."
36. "Public figures such as actors, politicians, and athletes should expect people to be interested in their private
lives. When they seek a public role, they should expect that they will lose at least some of their privacy."
37. "Creating an appealing image has become more important in contemporary society than is the reality or truth
behind that image."
38. "Most of the people we consider heroic today were, in fact, very ordinary people who happened to be in the
right place at the right time."
54
39. "The concept of 'individual responsibility' is a necessary fiction. Although societies must hold individuals
accountable for their own actions, people's behavior is largely determined by forces not of their own making."
40. "People work more productively in teams than individually. Teamwork requires cooperation, which motivates
people much more than individual competition does."
41. "A person's own habits and attitudes often limit that person's freedom more than do restrictions imposed by
others."
42. "In any realm of life—whether academic, social, business, or political—the only way to succeed is to take a
practical, rather than an idealistic, point of view. Pragmatic behavior guarantees survival, whereas idealistic views
tend to be superceded by simpler, more immediate options."
43. "It is primarily through our identification with social groups that we define ourselves."
44. "Only through mistakes can there be discovery or progress."
45. "Most people recognize the benefits of individuality, but the fact is that personal economic success requires
conformity."
46. "People who are the most deeply committed to an idea or policy are the most critical of it."
47. "No amount of information can eliminate prejudice because prejudice is rooted in emotion, not reason."
48. "The most essential quality of an effective leader is the ability to remain consistently committed to particular
principles and objectives. Any leader who is quickly and easily influenced by shifts in popular opinion will
accomplish little."
49. "Sometimes imagination is a more valuable asset than experience. People who lack experience are free to
imagine what is possible and thus can approach a task without constraints of established habits and attitudes."
50. "In any given field, the leading voices come from people who are motivated not by conviction but by the desire
to present opinions and ideas that differ from those held by the majority."
51. "What is called human nature is really a reflection of the human condition: if all people had a reasonable share
of territory and resources, such products of 'human nature' as war and crime would become extremely rare."
52. "It is always an individual who is the impetus (动力 ) for innovation; the details may be worked out by a team,
but true innovation results from the enterprise (进取心) and unique perception of an individual."
53. "We live under the illusion that we know what we want, when actually we merely want what we are supposed
to want."
54. "Success, whether academic or professional, involves an ability to survive in a new environment and—,
55
eventually,—to change it."
55. "Most people choose a career on the basis of such pragmatic considerations as the needs of the economy, the
relative ease of finding a job, and the salary they can expect to make. Hardly anyone is free to choose a career
based on his or her natural talents or interest in a particular kind of work."
56. "If a goal is worthy, then any means taken to attain it is justifiable."
57. "People often look for similarities, even between very different things, and even when it is unhelpful or
harmful to do so. Instead, a thing should be considered on its own terms; we should avoid the tendency to compare
it to something else."
58. "People are mistaken when they assume that the problems they confront are more complex and
challenging than the problems faced by their predecessors (前辈) . This illusion (幻觉) is eventually dispelled (消
除) with increased knowledge and experience."
59. "'Moderation in all things' is ill-considered advice. Rather, one should say, 'Moderation in most things,' since
many areas of human concern require or at least profit from intense focus."
60. "Most people prefer restrictions and regulations to absolute freedom of choice, even though they might deny
such a preference."
61. "Most people are taught that loyalty is a virtue. But loyalty—whether to one's friends, to one's school or place
of employment, or to any institution—is all too often a destructive rather than a positive force."
62. "Conformity almost always leads to a deadening of individual creativity and energy."
四、政治类
63. "It is often necessary, even desirable, for political leaders to withhold information from the public."
64. "There are two types of laws: just and unjust. Every individual in a society has a responsibility to obey just
laws and, even more importantly, to disobey and resist unjust laws."
65. "To be an effective leader, a public official must maintain the highest ethical and moral standards."
66. "In many countries it is now possible to turn on the television and view government at work. Watching these
proceedings can help people understand the issues that affect their lives. The more kinds of government
proceedings—trials, debates, meetings, etc.—that are televised, the more society will benefit."
67. "It is impossible for an effective political leader to tell the truth all the time. Complete honesty is not a useful
virtue for a politician."
68. "Those who treat politics and morality as though they were separate realms fail to understand either the one or
56
the other."
69. "Laws should not be stationary and fixed. Instead, they should be flexible enough to take account of various
circumstances, times, and places."
70. "The goal of politics should not be the pursuit of an ideal, but rather the search for common ground and
reasonable consensus."
五、科技类
71. "The primary goal of technological advancement should be to increase people's efficiency so that everyone has
more leisure time."
72. "Money spent on research is almost always a good investment, even when the results of that research are
controversial."
73. "Humanity has made little real progress over the past century or so. Technological innovations have taken
place, but the overall condition of humanity is no better. War, violence, and poverty are still with us. Technology
cannot change the condition of humanity."
74. "When research priorities are being set for science, education, or any other area, the most important question to
consider is: How many people's lives will be improved if the results are successful?"
75. "The function of science is to reassure (使安心); the purpose of art is to upset. Therein lies the value of each."
76. "Technology creates more problems than it solves, and may threaten or damage the quality of life."
77. "Too much time, money, and energy are spent developing new and more elaborate technology. Society should
instead focus on maximizing the use of existing technology for the immediate benefit of its citizens."
78. "Most important discoveries or creations are accidental: it is usually while seeking the answer to one question
that we come across the answer to another."
六、传媒类
79. "Unfortunately, the media tend to highlight what is sensational at the moment. Society would be better served
if the media reported or focused more fully on events and trends that will ultimately have the most long-term
significance."
80. "In the age of television, reading books is not as important as it once was. People can learn as much by
watching television as they can by reading books."
81. "The purpose of many advertisements is to make consumers want to buy a product so that they will 'be like' the
57
person in the ad. This practice is effective because it not only sells products but also helps people feel better about
themselves."
82. "Because of television and worldwide computer connections, people can now become familiar with a great
many places that they have never visited. As a result, tourism will soon become obsolete."
83. "High-speed electronic communications media, such as electronic mail and television, tend to prevent
meaningful and thoughtful communication."
84. "In this age of intensive media coverage, it is no longer possible for a society to regard any woman or man as a
hero. The reputation of anyone who is subjected to media scrutiny will eventually be diminished."
七、社会类
85. "Such nonmainstream (非主流) areas of inquiry as astrology (占星术) , fortune-telling, and psychic and
paranormal (超科学的) pursuits play a vital role in society by satisfying human needs that are not addressed by
mainstream science."
86. "Society does not place enough emphasis on the intellect—that is, on reasoning and other cognitive skills."
87. "It is through the use of logic and of precise, careful measurement that we become aware of our progress.
Without such tools, we have no reference points to indicate how far we have advanced or retreated."
88. "At various times in the geological past, many species have become extinct as a result of natural, rather than
human, processes. Thus, there is no justification for society to make extraordinary efforts, especially at a great cost
in money and jobs, to save endangered species."
89. "The absence of choice is a circumstance that is very, very rare."
90. "What society has thought to be its greatest social, political, and individual achievements have often resulted in
the greatest discontent."
91. "The well-being of a society is enhanced when many of its people question authority."
92. "Tradition and modernization are incompatible. One must choose between them."
93. "The only responsibility of corporate executives, provided they stay within the law, is to make as much money
as possible for their companies."
94. "Many problems of modern society cannot be solved by laws and the legal system because moral ehavior
cannot be legislated."
95. "Scandals—whether in politics, academia, or other areas—can be useful. They focus our attention on problems
in ways that no speaker or reformer ever could."
58
96. "Practicality is now our great idol, which all powers and talents must serve. Anything that is not obviously
practical has little value in today's world."
97. "It is easy to welcome innovation and accept new ideas. What most people find difficult, however, is accepting
the way these new ideas are put into practice."
98. "The best way to understand the character of a society is to examine the character of the men and women that
the society chooses as its heroes or its heroines."
99. "Progress is best made through discussion among people who have contrasting points of view."
100. "Imprisonment for violent crimes should be made as unpleasant as possible in order to deter potential
offenders from committing such crimes."
八、历史类
101. "The video camera provides such an accurate and convincing record of contemporary life that it has become a
more important form of documentation than written records."
102. "Most people would agree that buildings represent a valuable record of any society's past, but controversy
arises when old buildings stand on ground that modem planners feel could be better used for modem purposes. In
such situations, modem development should be given precedence over the preservation of historic buildings so that
contemporary needs can be served."
103. "The greatness of individuals can be decided only by those who live after them, not by their contemporaries."
104. "The study of history places too much emphasis on individuals. The most significant events and trends in
history were made possible not by the famous few, but by groups of people whose identities have long been
forgotten."
105. "The study of history has value only to the extent that it is relevant to our daily lives."
106. "When we concern ourselves with the study of history, we become storytellers. Because we can never know
the past directly but must construct it by interpreting evidence, exploring history is more of a creative enterprise
than it is an objective pursuit. All historians are storytellers."
107. "So much is new and complex today that looking back for an understanding of the past provides little
guidance for living in the present."
108. "The chief benefit of the study of history is to break down the illusion that people in one period of time are
significantly different from people who lived at any other time in history."
九、艺术类
59
109. "Imaginative works such as novels, plays, films, fairy tales, and legends present a more accurate and
meaningful picture of human experience than do factual accounts. Because the creators of fiction shape and focus
on reality rather than report it literally, their creations have a more lasting significance."
110. "The arts (painting, music, literature, etc.) reveal the otherwise hidden ideas and impulses of a society."
111. "Contemporary art (painting, music, literature, etc.) is absent from the lives of most people, since it is
primarily created only for the enjoyment of other artists. Art should instead be created purely for popular
understanding and appreciation."
112. "It is the artist, not the critic,* who gives society something of lasting value." *a person who evaluates works
of art, such as novels, films, music, paintings, etc.
113. "The function of art is not to keep pace with science and technology but rather to provide an escape from
these forces."
114. "As long as people in a society are hungry or out of work or lack the basic skills needed to survive, the use of
public resources to support the arts is inappropriate—and, perhaps, even cruel—when one considers all the
potential uses of such money."
115. "In order for any work of art—whether film, literature, sculpture, or a song—to have merit, it must be
understandable to most people.
十、文化类
116. "Governments must ensure that their major cities receive the financial support they need in order to thrive,
because it is primarily in cities that a nation's cultural traditions are preserved and generated."
117. "Rituals and ceremonies help define a culture. Without them, societies or groups of people have a diminished
sense of who they are."
118. "The way people look, dress, and act reveals their attitudes and interests. You can tell much about a society's
ideas and values by observing the appearance and behavior of its people."
119. "The true value of a civilization is reflected in its artistic creations rather than in its scientific
accomplishments."
十一、国际类
120. "All nations should help support the development of a global university designed to engage students in the
process of solving the world's most persistent social problems."
121. "Many of the world's lesser-known languages are being lost as fewer and fewer people speak them. The
60
governments of countries in which these languages are spoken should act to prevent such languages from
becoming extinct."
122. "With the growth of global networks in such areas as economics and communication, there is no doubt that
every aspect of society—including education, politics, the arts, and the sciences—will benefit greatly from
international influences."
123. "The surest indicator of a great nation is not the achievements of its rulers, artists, or scientists, but the general
welfare of all its people."
124. "International relations can never be completely harmonious because many cultures do not share the same
values."
125. "The material progress and well-being of one country are necessarily connected to the material progress and
well-being of all other countries."
Issue Topics （2002 年 7 月新增题）
1. "Competition is ultimately more beneficial than detrimental to society."
_____________
2. "It is more important to allocate money for immediate, existing social problems than to spend it on long-term
research that might help future generations."
_____________
3. "The most effective way to understand contemporary culture is to analyze the trends of its youth."
_____________
4. "Academic disciplines have become so specialized in recent years that scholars' ideas reach only a narrow
audience. Until scholars can reach a wider audience, their ideas will have little use."
_____________
5. "People's attitudes are determined more by their immediate situation or surroundings than by any internal
characteristic."
_____________
6. "It is necessary for everyone to read poetry, novels, mythology and other types of imaginative literature."
_____________
7. "The stability of a society depends on how it responds to the extremes of human behavior."
_____________
8. "Education will be truly effective only when it is specifically designed to meet the individual needs and interests
61
of each student."
_____________
9. "Education encourages students to question and criticize, and therefore does little to promote social harmony."
_____________
10. "College and university education should be free for all students, fully financed by the government."
_____________
11. "History teaches us only one thing: knowing about the past cannot help people to make important decisions
today."
_____________
12, "Competition for high grades seriously limits the quality of learning at all levels of education."
_____________
13. "Governments should focus more on solving the immediate problems of today rather than trying to solve the
anticipated problems of the future."
_____________
14. "The depth of knowledge to be gained from books is much richer and broader than what can be learned from
direct experience."
_____________
15. "The increasingly rapid pace of life today causes more problems than it solves."
_____________
16. "Too much emphasis is placed on role models. Instead of copying others, people should learn to think and act
independently and thus make the choices that are best for them."
_____________
17. "The media-and society in general-mistakenly expect an individual to speak for a particular group, whether or
not that individual truly represents the views of the entire group."
_____________
18. "High-profile awards such as the Nobel Prize are actually damaging to society because they reinforce an
unhealthy desire for recognition."
_____________
19. "High-profile awards such as the Nobel Prize are actually damaging to society because they suggest that only a
few people deserve such recognition."
_____________
20. "The widespread idea that people should make self-improvement a primary goal in their lives is problematic
62
because it assumes that people are intrinsically deficient."
_____________
21. "To truly understand your own culture-no matter how you define it-requires personal knowledge of at least one
other culture, one that is distinctly different from your own."
_____________
22. "Many people know how to attain success, but few know how to make the best use of it."
_____________
23. "People have been so encouraged by society to focus on apparent differences that they fail to see meaningful
similarities among ideas, individuals, and groups."
_____________
24. "As people rely more and more on technology to solve problems, the ability of humans to think for themselves
will surely deteriorate."
_____________
25. "Colleges should require students to engage in public-service activities in order to assure that each student
receives a balanced, well-rounded education."
_____________
26. "People make the mistake of treating experts with suspicion and mistrust, no matter how valuable their
contributions might be."
_____________
27. "Government should place few, if any, restrictions on scientific research and development"
_____________
28. "In any profession-business, politics, education, government-those in power should step down after five years.
The surest path to success for any enterprise is revitalization through new leadership."
_____________
29. "Spending time alone makes one a better companion to others."
_____________
30. "One can best understand the most important characteristics of a society by studying its major cities."
_____________
31. "In most professions and academic fields, imagination is more important than knowledge."
_____________
32. "The most effective way to communicate an idea or value to large groups of people is through the use of
images, not language."
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_____________
33. "The people who make important contributions to society are generally not those who develop their own new
ideas, but those who are most gifted at perceiving and coordinating the talents and skills of others."
_____________
34. "Truly profound thinkers and highly creative artists are always out of step with their time and their society."
_____________
35, "People today are too individualistic. Instead of pursuing self-centered, separate goals, people need to
understand that satisfaction comes from working for the greater good of the family, the community, or society as a
whole."
_____________
36. "Schools should be required to teach the essential interconnectedness of all human beings and thus help
eliminate wars, cultural clashes, and other forms of conflict."
_____________
37. "Major policy decisions should always be left to politicians and other government experts, who are more
informed and thus have better judgment and perspective than do members of the general public."
_____________
38. "All students should be required to take courses in the sciences, even if they have no interest in science."
_____________
39. "Patriotic reverence for the history of a nation often does more to impede than to encourage progress."
_____________
40. "Government should never censor the artistic works or historical displays that a museum wishes to exhibit."
_____________
41. "Government should preserve publicly owned wilderness areas in their natural state, even though these areas
are often extremely remote and thus accessible to only a few people."
_____________
42. "In any field of endeavor, it is impossible to make a significant contribution without first being strongly
influenced by past achievements within that field."
_____________
43. "Government funding of the arts threatens the integrity of the arts,"
_____________
44. "Young people should be encouraged to pursue long-term, realistic goals rather than seek immediate fame and
recognition."
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_____________
45. "In any field of inquiry, the beginner is more likely than the expert to make important discoveries."
_____________
46. "Technologies not only influence but actually determine social customs and ethics."
_____________
47. "Leaders are created primarily by the demands that are placed upon them."
_____________
48. "College students should be encouraged to pursue subjects that interest them rather than seek programs that
promise entry into the job market."
_____________
49. "Most people think that their deeply held values are the result of rational choice, but reason often has little to
do with the way people form values."
_____________
50. "Although, critics who write about the arts tend to deny the existence of any objective standards for evaluating
works of art, they have a responsibility to establish standards by which works of art can be judged."
_____________
5!. "It is important that nations, communities, and families continue to observe holidays and traditional
celebrations, for these repeated experiences validate and strengthen a sense of who they are as a culture."
_____________
52. "It is unfortunate but true that political decisions and activities affect all aspects of people's lives."
_____________
53. "The pressure to achieve high grades in school seriously limits the quality of learning. An educational
environment without grades would promote more genuine intellectual development."
_____________
54. "Governments should provide funding for artists so that the arts can flourish and be available to all people."
_____________
55. "For better or worse, education is a process that involves revising the ideas, beliefs, and values people held in
the past."
_____________
56. "The true strength of a country is best demonstrated by the willingness of its government to tolerate challenges
from it's own citizens."
_____________
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57. "All students should be required to take at least one course in ethics, even if taking the course means a
decreased emphasis on academic subjects."
_____________
58. "Instant communication systems encourage people to form hasty opinions and give quick replies rather than
take the time to develop thoughtful, well-reasoned points of view."
_____________
59. "The worldwide distribution of television programs and advertisements is seriously diminishing the differences
among cultures."
_____________
60. "The depth of knowledge to be gained from books is richer and broader than what can be learned from direct
experience."
_____________
61. "In any field of endeavor-the sciences, the humanities, the social sciences, industry, etc.-it is not the attainment
of a goal that matters, but rather the ideas and discoveries that are encountered on the way to the goal."
_____________
62. "It is possible to identify a person's politics within a very short time of meeting him or her. Everything about
people-their clothes, their friends, the way they talk, what they cat-reflects their political beliefs."
_____________
63. "Instant foods, instant communication, faster transportation-all of these recent developments are designed to
save time. Ironically, though, instead of making more leisure time available, these developments have contributed
to a pace of human affairs that is more rushed and more frantic than ever before."
_____________
64. "The past is no predictor of the future."
_____________
65. "Society's external rewards are no measure of true success. True success can be gauged in relation to the goals
one sets for oneself."
_____________
66. "Practical people, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are in fact the
unknowing slaves of values and ideas that were worked out by intellectuals of the past."
_____________
67. "Technology is a necessary but not always a positive force in modern life."
_____________
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68. "The problems of modern society have led many people to complain: 'We live in terrible times.' Yet, given the
choice, no one today would prefer to live in any other time."
_____________
69. "Students should be encouraged to realize that mental agility and rhetorical skill must be accompanied by
sincerity and the true conviction of their own beliefs."
_____________
70. "While most of the environmental problems we face result from the use of technology, society must depend
upon technology to find solutions to these problems."
_____________
71. "What we call progress is a matter of exchanging one problem for another."
_____________
72, "Artists should pay little attention to their critics.* Criticism tends to undermine and constrain the artist's
creativity."
*those who evaluate works of art, such as novels, films, music, paintings, etc.
_____________
73. "A crucial test of character is whether one is able to adapt to changing social conventions without sacrificing
one's principles."
_____________
74. "Many people admire idealism, but it usually leads to disappointment or danger."
_____________
75. "One of the most harmful technological innovations of all time is the automobile."
_____________
76. "The most practical and effective way to protect wilderness areas is to attract more tourists to these areas
through environmentally sensitive projects."
_____________
77, "To guarantee quality education in elementary and secondary schools, the students' parents must be actively
involved in defining the schools' educational policies."
_____________
78, "Both parents and communities must be involved in the local schools. Education is too important to delegate
solely to a group of professional educators."
_____________
79. "One often hears about the need for individuals to take responsibility for their own lives. However, the
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conditions in which people find themselves have been largely established long before people become aware of
them. Thus, the concept of personal responsibility is much more complicated and unrealistic than is often
assumed."
_____________
80. "What most people consider 'normal' or 'natural' merely reflects the unexamined beliefs and preconceptions
that this person received uncritically while growing up."
_____________
81. "Important truths begin as outrageous, or at least uncomfortable, attacks upon the accepted wisdom of the
time."
_____________
82. "It is possible to pass laws that control or place limits on people's behavior, but legislation cannot reform
human nature. Laws cannot change what is in people's hearts and minds."
_____________
83. "What most human beings really want is not discovery and change but reassurance."
_____________
84. "It is dangerous to trust only intelligence."
_____________
85. "If people disregard the great works of the past, it is because these works no longer answer the needs of the
present."
_____________
86. "Education should be equally devoted to enriching the personal lives of students and to training students to be
productive workers."
_____________
87. "Success in any realm of life comes more often from taking chances or risks than from careful and cautious
planning."
_____________
88. "It is not the headline-making political events but the seldom-reported social tranformations that have the most
lasting significance."
_____________
89. "The best preparation for life or a career is not learning to be competitive, but learning to be cooperative."
_____________
90. "Instead of encouraging conformity, society should show greater appreciation of individual differences."
_____________
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91. "Truly innovative ideas do not arise from groups of people, but from individuals. When groups try to be
creative, the members force each other to compromise and, as a result, creative ideas tend to be weakened and
made more conventional. Most original ideas arise from individuals working alone."
_____________
92. "The most elusive knowledge is self-knowledge, and it is usually acquired through solitude, rather than
through interaction with others."
_____________
93. "Unlike great thinkers and great artists, the most effective political leaders must often yield to public opinion
and abandon principle for the sake of compromise."
_____________
94. "We learn through direct experience; to accept a theory without experiencing it is to learn nothing at all."
_____________
95. "As societies all over the world have more and more access to new information, the effects on life-long
learning can only be positive."
_____________
96. "People should not be too quick in trying to take action; instead they should stop to think of the possible
consequences of what they might do."
_____________
97. "Any decision-whether made by government, by a corporation, or by an individual person-must take into
account future conditions more than present conditions."
_____________
98. "Too much emphasis has been placed on the need for students to challenge the assertions of others sc that they
can learn to criticize the views of others. In fact, the ability to compromise and work with others-that is, the ability
to achieve social harmony-should be a major goal in every school."
_____________
99. "The bombardment of visual images in contemporary society has the effect of making people less able to focus
clearly and extensively on a single issue over a long period of time."
_____________
100. "In order to produce successful original work, scholars and scientists must first study the successful work of
others to learn what contributions remain to be made."
_____________
101. "The private lives of public officials are irrelevant to their work in governing and serving the public and
therefore should not be subjected to public scrutiny and comment."
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_____________
102. "Now that computer technology has made possible the rapid accessing of large amounts of factual
information, people are less likely than ever to think deeply or originally. They feel unable to compete with-much
less contribute to-the quantity of information that is now available electronically."
_____________
103. "The increase in knowledge is forcing people to specialize. As a result, the distance between fields of
specialization has become so vast that specialists in different areas are unable to influence each other."
_____________
104. "Learning for learning's sake is an outdated concept. Today, education must serve an ulterior purpose and be
directed toward clear goals."
_____________
105. "Education is primarily a personal matter; it has little to do with school or college."
_____________
106. "Censorship is rarely, if ever, justified."
_____________
107. "To remain vigorous, any academic field needs to be led by truly independent thinkers who are willing to
ignore established boundaries and challenge long-standing assumptions."
_____________
108. "The best way to learn a new subject or skill is to study small segments or details in great depth rather than to
start by trying to develop a sense of the whole."
_____________
109. "College students-and people in general-prefer to follow directions rather than make their own decisions.
Therefore, colleges should eliminate as many choices as possible in order to offer students clear direction."
_____________
110. "The purpose of education should be to create an academic environment that is separate from the outside
world. This kind of environment is ideal because it allows students to focus on important ideas without being held
back by practical concerns."
_____________
111. "Encouraging young people to believe that they can accomplish great things if they try hard enough is both
misleading and potentially harmful."
_____________
112. "Computers and video technology can make facsimiles of original works such as paintings and historical
documents available to everyone. The great advantage of this new technology is that it will enable anyone-not just
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scholars-to conduct in-depth research without having access to the original works."
_____________
113. "Heroes and heroines are not people with outstanding strength of character; instead, they are usually just
people who happened to be in the right place at the right time."
_____________
114. "Although it is easy to respond positively to the work of another person or group, it is far more worthwhile to
give negative feedback."
_____________
115. "An individual's greatness cannot be judged by his or her contemporaries. The most objective evaluators of a
person's greatness are not his or her contemporaries but rather those who belong to a later time."
_____________
116. "Societies should try to save every plant and animal species, regardless of the expense to humans in effort,
time, and financial well-being."
_____________
117. "Most societies do not take their greatest thinkers seriously, even when they claim to admire them."
_____________
第六章
逻辑问题题库
The Pool of Argument Topics
Discuss how well reasoned you find this argument.
1. The following appeared in a memorandum written by the vice president of Nature's Way, a chain of stores
selling health food and other health-related products.
"Previous experience has shown that our stores are most profitable in areas where residents are highly concerned
with leading healthy lives. We should therefore build our next new store in Plainsville, which has many such
residents. Plainsville merchants report that sales of running shoes and exercise clothing are at all-time highs. The
local health club, which nearly closed five years ago due to lack of business, has more members than ever, and the
weight training and aerobics classes are always full. We can even anticipate a new generation of customers:
Plainsville's schoolchildren are required to participate in a 'fitness for life' program, which emphasizes the benefits
of regular exercise at an early age."
2. The following appeared in a letter sent by a committee of homeowners from the Deerhaven Acres to all
homeowners in Deerhaven Acres.
"Seven years ago, homeowners in nearby Brookville community adopted a set of restrictions on how the
community's yards should be landscaped and what colors the exteriors of homes should be painted. Since then,
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average property values have tripled in Brookville. In order to raise property values in Deerhaven Acres, we should
adopt our own set of restrictions on landscaping and housepainting."
3. The following appeared in a newspaper article about law firms in the city of Megalopolis.
"In Megalopolis, the number of law school graduates who went to work for large, corporate firms declined by 15%
over the last three years, whereas an increasing number of graduates took jobs at small, general practice firms.
Even though large firms usually offer much higher salaries, law school graduates are choosing to work for the
smaller firms most likely because they experience greater job satisfaction at smaller firms. In a survey of first-year
students at a leading law school, most agreed with the statement that earning a high salary was less important to
them than job satisfaction. This finding suggests that the large, corporate firms of Megalopolis will need to offer
graduates more benefits and incentives and reduce the number of hours they must work."
4. "Of the two leading real estate firms in our town—Adams Realty and Fitch Realty—Adams is clearly superior.
Adams has 40 real estate agents. In contrast, Fitch has 25, many of whom work only part-time. Moreover, Adams'
revenue last year was twice as high as that of Fitch, and included home sales that averaged $168,000, compared to
Fitch's $144,000. Homes listed with Adams sell faster as well: ten years ago, I listed my home with Fitch and it
took more than four months to sell; last year, when I sold another home, I listed it with Adams, and it took only
one month. Thus, if you want to sell your home quickly and at a good price, you should use Adams."
5. The following was written as a part of an application for a small business loan by a group of developers in the
city of Monroe.
"A jazz music club in Monroe would be a tremendously profitable enterprise. Currently, the nearest jazz club is 65
miles away; thus, our proposed club, the C Note, would have the local market all to itself. Plus, jazz is extremely
popular in Monroe: over 100,000 people attended Monroe's jazz festival last summer, several well-known jazz
musicians live in Monroe, and the highest-rated radio program in Monroe is 'Jazz Nightly,' which airs every
weeknight. Finally, a nationwide study indicates that the typical jazz fan spends close to $1,000 per year on jazz
entertainment. It is clear that the C Note cannot help but make money."
6. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Clearview newspaper.
"In the next mayoral election, residents of Clearview should vote for Ann Green, who is a member of the Good
Earth Coalition, rather than for Frank Braun, a member of the Clearview town council, because the current
members are not protecting our environment. For example, during .the past year the number of factories in
Clearview has doubled, air pollution levels have increased, and the local hospital has treated 25 percent more
patients with respiratory illnesses. If we elect Ann Green, the environmental problems in Clearview will certainly
be solved."
7. The following appeared in a memorandum issued by the strategic planning department at Omni Inc. "Mesa
Foods, a manufacturer of snack foods that currently markets its products within a relatively small region of the
country, has strong growth potential. Mesa enjoyed a 20 percent increase in profits last year, and its best-selling
product, Diabolique Salsa, has had increased sales over each of the past three years. Since Omni Inc. is interested
in reaching 14-to-25 year olds, the age group that consumes the most snack food, we should buy Mesa Foods, and
concentrate in particular on marketing Diabolique Salsa throughout the country."
8. The following appeared in a memorandum from a dean at Omega University.
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"Fifteen years ago, Omega University implemented a new procedure that encouraged students to evaluate the
teaching effectiveness of all their professors. Since that time, Omega professors have begun to assign higher grades
in their classes, and overall student grade averages at Omega have risen by thirty percent. Potential employers
apparently believe the grades at Omega are inflated; this would explain why Omega graduates have not been as
successful at getting jobs as have graduates from nearby Alpha University. To enable its graduates to secure better
jobs, Omega University should now terminate student evaluation of professors."
9. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a Batavia newspaper.
"The department of agriculture in Batavia reports that the number of dairy farms throughout the country is now 25
percent greater than it was 10 years ago. During this same time period, however, the price of milk at the local
Excello Food Market has increased from $1.50 to over $3.00 per gallon. To prevent farmers from continuing to
receive excessive profits on an apparently increased supply of milk, the Batavia government should begin to
regulate retail milk prices. Such regulation is necessary to ensure both lower prices and an adequate supply of milk
for consumers."
10. The following appeared in a memo from the mayor of the town of West Egg.
"Two years ago, our consultants predicted that West Egg's landfill, which is used for garbage disposal, would be
completely filled within five years. During the past two years, however, town residents have been recycling twice
as much aluminum and paper as they did in previous years. Next month the amount of material recycled should
further increase, since charges for garbage pickup will double. Furthermore, over ninety percent of the respondents
to a recent survey said that they would do more recycling in the future. Because of our residents' strong
commitment to recycling, the available space in our landfill should last for considerably longer than predicted."
11. The following appeared in a memo from a vice president of Alta Manufacturing. "During the past year, Alta
Manufacturing had thirty percent more on-the-job accidents than nearby Panoply Industries, where the work shifts
are one hour shorter than ours. Experts believe that a significant contributing factor in many on-the-job accidents is
fatigue and sleep deprivation among workers. Therefore, to reduce the number of on-the-job accidents at Alta and
thereby increase productivity, we should shorten each of our three work shifts by one hour so that our employees
will get adequate amounts of sleep."
12. The following appeared in a memo from the owner of Green Thumb Gardening Center, a small business
sewing a suburban town.
"There is evidence that consumers are becoming more and more interested in growing their own vegetables. A
national survey conducted last month indicated that many consumers were dissatisfied with the quality of fresh
vegetables available in supermarkets. And locally, the gardening magazine Great Gardens has sold out at the
Village News stand three months in a row. Thus, we at Green Thumb Gardening Center can increase our profits by
greatly expanding the variety of vegetable seeds we stock for gardeners this coming spring."
13. The following appeared in a newsletter offering advice to investors.
"Over 80 percent of the respondents to a recent survey indicated a desire to reduce their intake of foods containing
fats and cholesterol, and today low-fat products abound in many food stores. Since many of the food products
currently marketed by Old Dairy Industries are high in fat and cholesterol, the company's sales are likely to
diminish greatly and their profits will no doubt decrease. We therefore advise Old Dairy stockholders to sell their
shares and other investors not to purchase stock in this company."
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14. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper from a citizen of the state of Impecunia.
"Two years ago our neighboring state, Lucria, began a state lottery to supplement tax revenues for education and
public health. Today, Lucria spends more per pupil than we do, and Lucria's public health program treats far more
people than our state's program does. If we were to establish a state lottery like the one in Lucria, the profits could
be used to improve our educational system and public health program. The new lottery would doubtless be
successful, because a survey conducted in our capital city concludes that citizens of Impecunia already spend an
average of $50 per person per year on gambling."
15. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Walnut Grove town newspaper.
"Walnut Grove's town council has advocated switching from EZ Disposal (which has had the contract for trash
collection services in Walnut Grove for the past ten years) to ABC Waste, because EZ recently raised its monthly
fee from $2,000 to $2,500 a month, whereas ABC's fee is still $2,000. But the town council is mistaken; we should
continue using EZ. EZ collects trash twice a week, while ABC collects only once. Moreover, EZ—which, like
ABC, currently has a fleet of 20 trucks—has ordered additional trucks. Finally, EZ provides exceptional service:
80 percent of respondents to last year's town survey agreed that they were 'satisfied' with EZ's performance."
16. The following appeared in an editorial in a Prunty County newspaper.
"In an attempt to improve highway safety, Prunty County recently lowered its speed limit from 55 miles per hour
to 45 on all major county roads. But the 55 mph limit should be restored, because this safety effort has failed. Most
drivers are exceeding the new speed limit and the accident rate throughout Prunty County has decreased only
slightly. If we want to improve the safety of our roads, we should instead undertake the same kind of road
improvement project that Butler County completed five years ago: increasing lane widths and resurfacing rough
roads. Today, major Butler County roads still have a 55 mph speed limit, yet there were 25 percent fewer reported
accidents in Butler County this past year than there were five years ago."
17. The following appeared in a letter from the manager of a rock band named Double Rice.
"One year ago, tickets for Double Rice's concerts in stadiums around the country took, on average, at least 24
hours to sell out, if they sold out at all. But the band has been enjoying a surge in nationwide popularity among 14
to 25 year olds, and the 30,000 tickets for a recent concert in Megalopolis sold out in 12 minutes. Clearly the ticket
sales in Megalopolis are a result both of the band's increased popularity and of the advertising campaign run in
Megalopolis by the Ad Lib advertising agency. Thus, in order to ensure that the band's success in Megalopolis is
repeated across the country, the band should hire Ad Lib to duplicate the Megalopolis ad campaign on a
nationwide scale."
18. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Balmer Island Gazette.
"The population of Balmer Island increases to 100,000 duing the summer months. To reduce the number of
accidents involving mopeds and pedestrians, the town council of Balmer Island., should limit the number of
mopeds rented by each of the island's six moped and bicycle rental companies from 50 per day to 30 per day
during the summer season. By limiting the number of rentals, the town council is sure to attain the 50 percent
reduction in moped accidents that was achieved last year in the neighboring island of Torseau, when Torseau's
town council enforced similar limits on moped rentals."
19. The following appeared in a memo from the new vice president of Sartorian, a company that manufactures
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men's clothing.
"Five years ago, at a time when we had difficulties in obtaining reliable supplies of high-quality wool fabric, we
discontinued production of our deluxe alpaca overcoats. Now that we have a new fabric supplier, we should
resume production. This coat should sell very well: since we have not offered an alpaca overcoat for five years and
since our major competitor no longer makes an alpaca overcoat, there will be pent-up customer demand. Also,
since the price of most types of clothing has risen in each of the past five years, customers should be willing to pay
significantly higher prices for alpaca overcoats than they did five years ago, and our company profits will
increase."
20. The following appeared in a memo from the president of a company that builds and sells new homes in Steel
City.
"Over the past five years, the population of Steel City has increased by more than 20 percent, and family incomes
in Steel City have risen much faster than the national average. Nationwide, sales of houses priced above $150,000
have increased more than have sales of lower-priced houses. Such data indicate that we should make changes in
our business to increase company profits. First, we should build fewer low-priced houses than we did last year and
focus instead on building houses designed to sell at above $150,000. Second, we should hire additional workers so
that we can build a larger total number of houses than we did last year."
21. A recent sales study indicated that consumption of seafood dishes in Bay City restaurants has increased by 30
percent over the past five years. Yet there are no currently operating city restaurants that specialize in seafood.
Moreover, the majority of families in Bay City are two-income families, and a nationwide study has shown that
such families eat significantly fewer home-cooked meals than they did a decade ago but at the same time express
more concern about eating healthily. Therefore, a new Bay City restaurant specializing in seafood will be quite
popular and profitable.
22. The following appeared in a memo from the president of Viva-Tech, a manufacturer of high-tech medical
equipment.
"In order to reduce costs, we should close some of our existing small assembly plants and build a large central
plant. Grandview would be an ideal location for this new plant. First, of the locations that we have considered,
Grandview has the largest adult population, so that we will be able to staff our plant quickly and easily. Second,
since the average wage earned by workers in Grandview is less than that in the other locations, we should be able
to keep production costs low. Last, as an inducement for us to build there, Grandview's town council has offered to
allow us to operate for the first three years without paying city taxes."
23. The following appeared in a memo from the mayor of the town of Hopewell.
"Two years ago, the town of Ocean View built a new municipal golf course and resort hotel. During the past two
years, tourism in Ocean View has increased, new businesses have opened there, and Ocean View's tax revenues
have risen by 30 percent. The best way to improve Hopewell's economy, and generate additional tax revenues, is to
build a golf course and resort hotel similar to those in Ocean View."
24. The following appeared in a memo from the chairperson of the school board in the town of Saluda. "For the
past five years, Mr. Charles Schade has been the music director at Steel City High School, and during that time the
school band from Steel City High has won three regional band competitions. In addition, the quality of the music
rehearsal facilities and musical instruments at Steel City High has improved markedly over the past five years.
75
Because of such successes at Steel City High, the Saluda school board should hire Mr. Schade to plan and direct
the general music education programs for the entire Saluda school system."
25. The following appeared as part of a memo from the president of Automate, a company that manufactures
automobiles.
"It has come to my attention that Sparks, Inc., the manufacturing company that just moved into our state, is
advertising job openings at salaries that are twice as high as those paid to our experienced assembly-line workers.
Some of our employees have already left to work for Sparks. In order to keep our best staff, we must pay them
salaries equal to those Sparks pays its employees. Otherwise we will continue to lose employees in the future,
because Sparks must staff the additional new plants that it plans to build in the state."
26. The following is a memo from the superintendent of the Mylar school district.
"A recent six-month study, in which breakfast was made available at school for 100 schoolchildren ages five to
twelve, found that children on the breakfast plan were less likely than other children to be absent from or late for
school. Clearly, eating breakfast before school plays a role in reducing student absenteeism and tardiness. It is also
well known that children who regularly eat a healthful breakfast tend to perform better in school. Therefore, in
order to reduce absenteeism and tardiness and to improve academic performance in all of Mylar's elementary and
secondary schools, we should provide breakfasts for all students before each school day."
27. The following appeared in a popular health and fitness magazine.
"A ten-year study of a group of 552 men from Elysia showed that long-term consumption of caffeinated black tea
was associated with a much lower risk of stroke. Of these men, those who drank more than three cups of black tea
a day had a 70 percent lower risk of stroke than those who drank no tea. These results suggest that
health-conscious people should consume at least three cups of black tea a day, beginning early in life."
28. The following appeared in a report of the Committee on Faculty Promotions and Salaries at Elm City
University.
"During her seventeen years as a professor of botany, Professor Thomas has proved herself to be well worth her
annual salary of $50,000. Her classes are among the largest at the university, demonstrating her popularity among
students. Moreover, the money she has brought to the university in research grants has exceeded her salary in each
of the last two years. Therefore, in consideration of Professor Thomas' demonstrated teaching and research abilities,
we recommend that she receive a $10,000 raise and a promotion to Department Chairperson; without such a raise
and promotion, we fear that Professor Thomas will leave Elm City University for another college."
29. The following appeared in a newsletter distributed at a recent political rally.
"Over the past year, the Consolidated Copper Company (CCC) has purchased over one million square miles of
land in the tropical nation of West Fredonia. Mining copper on this land will inevitably result in pollution and
environmental disaster, since West Fredonia is home to several endangered animal species. But such disaster can
be prevented if consumers simply refuse to purchase products that are made with CCC's copper until the company
abandons its mining plans."
30. The article entitled 'Eating Iron' in last month's issue of Eating for Health reported that a recent study found a
correlation between high levels of iron in the diet and an increased risk of heart disease. Further, it is well
established that there is a link between large amounts of red meat in the diet and heart disease, and red meat is high
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in iron. On the basis of the study and the well-established link between red meat and heart disease, we can
conclude that the correlation between high iron levels and heart disease, then, is most probably a function of the
correlation between red meat and heart disease.
31. The following appeared as a letter to the editor of a national newspaper.
"Your recent article on corporate downsizing* in the United States is misleading. The article gives the mistaken
impression that many competent workers who lost jobs as a result of downsizing face serious economic hardship,
often for years, before finding other suitable employment But this impression is contradicted by a recent report on
the United States economy, which found that since 1992 far more jobs have been created than have been
eliminated. The report also demonstrates that many of those who lost their jobs have found new employment.
Two-thirds of the newly created jobs have been in industries that tend to pay above-average wages, and the vast
majority of these jobs are full-time."
*Downsizing is the process in which corporations deliberately reduce the number of their employees.
32. According to a poll of 200 charitable organizations, donations of money to nonprofit groups increased by
nearly 25 percent last year, though not all charities gained equally. Religious groups gained the most (30 percent),
followed by environmental groups (23 percent), whereas educational institutions experienced only a very small
increase in donations (3 percent). This poll indicates that more people are willing and able to give money to
charities but that funding for education is not a priority for most people. These differences in donation rates must
result from the perception that educational institutions are less in need of donations than are other kinds of
institutions.
33. A new study collected data that shows that people who snore are more likely to gain weight than are people
who do not snore. It is well known that many people who snore also stop breathing frequently during the night for
a few seconds, a condition called sleep apnea. The interruption of breathing wakes the person—often so briefly
that the waking goes unnoticed—and can leave the person too tired during the day to exercise. Anyone who snores,
therefore, should try to eat less than the average person and to exercise more
34. The following appeared in the editorial section of a local newspaper.
"The librarians in our town's school system have reported that the number of trips that our students make to their
school library on a voluntary basis has decreased significantly in recent years. For example, the average
seventh-grade student visited the school library five times last year, but four of those visits were part of required
classroom activities. This shows that our students are reading less than in the past. To address this problem, our
town needs to improve the atmosphere of the libraries so that they will be comfortable places in which to work. If
students view the libraries as uncomfortable, then they are unlikely to want to spend much time there."
35. The following appeared in an editorial in a business magazine.
"Although the sales of Whirlwind video games have declined over the past two years, a recent survey of
video-game players suggests that this sales trend is about to be reversed. The survey asked video-game players
what features they thought were most important in a video game. According to the survey, players prefer games
that provide lifelike graphics, which require the most up-to-date computers. Whirlwind has just introduced several
such games with an extensive advertising campaign directed at people 10 to 25 years old, the age-group most
likely to play video games. It follows, then, that the sales of Whirlwind video games are likely to increase
dramatically in the next few months."
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36. The following appeared in the editorial section of Monroetown's local newspaper.
"Mayor Brown was recently re-elected by a clear majority of 52 percent of Monroetown's voters. Her re-election,
however, does not show that most people in our town favored Mayor Brown's proposal for tax reduction over that
of her opponent, Mr. Greene, who proposed raising taxes to improve education. It has been shown that voters
nationwide tend to re-elect people already in office, regardless of candidates' proposals. In fact, a local survey after
the election showed most people in Monroetown disagreed with Mayor Brown's proposal. Clearly most people in
Monroetown favor improving education and therefore approve of Mr. Greene's proposal despite the fact that they
did not vote for him."
37. The following is a memorandum from the director of personnel to the president of Get-Away Airlines. "Since
our mechanics are responsible for inspecting and maintaining our aircraft, Get-Away Airlines should pay to send
them to the Quality-Care Seminar, a two-week seminar on proper maintenance procedures. I recommend this
seminar because it is likely to be a wise investment, given that the automobile racing industry recently reported
that the performance of its maintenance crews improved markedly after their crews had attended the seminar.
These maintenance crews perform many of the same functions as do our mechanics, including refueling and
repairing engines. The money we spend on sending our staff to the seminar will inevitably lead to improved
maintenance and thus to greater customer satisfaction along with greater profits for our airline."
38. The following is a letter to the editor of an environmental magazine.
"The decline in the numbers of amphibians worldwide clearly indicates the global pollution of water and air. Two
studies of amphibians in Yosemite National Park in California confirm my conclusion. In 1915 there were seven
species of amphibians in the park, and there were abundant numbers of each species. However, in 1992 there were
only four species of amphibians observed in the park, and the numbers of each species were drastically reduced.
The decline in Yosemite has been blamed on the introduction of trout into the park's waters, which began in 1920
(trout are known to eat amphibian eggs). But the introduction of trout cannot be the real reason for the Yosemite
decline because it does not explain the worldwide decline."
39. The following is a letter to the editor of the Atticus City newspaper.
"Former Mayor Durant owes an apology to the city of Atticus. Both the damage to the River Bridge, which
connects Atticus to Hartley, and the traffic problems we have long experienced on the bridge were actually caused
20 years ago by Durant. After all, he is the one who approved the construction of the bridge. If he had approved a
wider and better-designed bridge, on which approximately the same amount of public money would have been
spent, none of the damage or problems would have occurred. Instead, the River Bridge has deteriorated far more
rapidly over the past 20 years than has the much longer Derby Bridge up the river. Even though the winters have
been severe in the past several years, this is no excuse for the negligence and wastefulness of Durant."
40, The following is a letter to the head of the tourism bureau on the island of Tria.
"Erosion of beach sand along the shores of Tria Island is a serious threat to our island and our tourist industry. In
order to stop the erosion, we should charge people for using the beaches. Although this solution may annoy a few
tourists in the short term, it will reduce the number of people using the beaches and will raise money for
replenishing the sand. Replenishing the sand, as was done to protect buildings on the nearby island of Batia, will
help protect buildings along our shores, thereby reducing these buildings' risk of additional damage from severe
storms. And since the areas along the shore will be more attractive as a result, the beaches will be preserved and
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the area's tourist industry will improve over the long term."
41. The following is from an editorial in the Midvale Observer, a local newspaper.
"Ever since the 1950's, when television sets began to appear in the average home, the rate of crimes committed by
teenagers in the country of Alta has steadily increased. This increase in teenage crime parallels the increase in
violence shown on television. According to several national studies, even very young children who watch a great
number of television shows featuring violent scenes display more violent behavior within their home environment
than do children who do not watch violent shows. Furthermore, in a survey conducted by the Observer, over 90
percent of the respondents were parents who indicated that prime-time television—programs that are shown
between 7 p.m. and 9 p.m.—should show less violence. Therefore, in order to lower the rate of teenage crime in
Alta, television viewers should demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence shown during
prime time."
42. The following appeared in the editorial section of a health and fitness magazine.
"In a study of the effects of exercise on longevity, medical researchers tracked 500 middle-aged men over a
20-year period. The subjects represented a variety of occupations in several different parts of the country and
responded to an annual survey in which they were asked: How often and how strenuously do you exercise? Of
those who responded, the men who reported that they engaged in vigorous outdoor exercise nearly every day lived
longer than the men who reported that they exercised mildly only once or twice a week. Given the clear link that
this study establishes between longevity and exercise, doctors should not recommend moderate exercise to their
patients but should instead encourage vigorous outdoor exercise on a daily basis."
43. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.
"Too much emphasis is placed on the development of reading skills in elementary school. Many students who are
discouraged by the lonely activity of reading turn away from schoolwork merely because they are poor readers.
But books recorded on audiocassette tape provide an important alternative for students at this crucial stage in their
education, one the school board should not reject merely because of the expense involved. After all, many studies
attest to the value of allowing students to hear books read aloud; there is even evidence that students whose parents
read to them are even more likely to become able readers. Thus, hearing books on tape can only make students
more eager to read and to learn. Therefore, the school board should encourage schools to buy books on tope and to
use them in elementary education."
44. The following is taken from an advertisement placed in a weekly business magazine by the Dickens Academy.
"We distributed a survey to senior management at International Mega-Publishing, Inc. The result of the survey
clearly indicates that many employees were well prepared in business knowledge and computer skills, but lacked
interpersonal skills to interact gracefully with customers. International Mega-Publishing decided to improve
customer satisfaction by sending their newly hired employees to our one-day seminars. Since taking advantage of
our program, International Mega-Publishing has seen a sharp increase in sales, an indication that the number of
their disgruntled customers has declined significantly. Your company should hire Dickens and let us turn every
employee into an ambassador for your company."
45. The following is a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.
"As a local merchant, I wish to support the development of a ski resort in the state park north of our township.
Along with many other merchants who favor the proposal by Ski the Slopes, Incorporated. I would, of course,
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experience a growth in my business. But I also know how much more prosperous, not to mention lively and
interesting, our community would be if tourism increased. Since the main opposition comes from a few
environmentalists* who do not even live in this community, I see no reason to give in to their views. The First
National Bank has finally researched the project and agreed to fund it. As a result, I see no reason to delay
development of the resort."
*Environmentalists are people who advocate the preservation of the natural environment.
46. The Trash-Site Safety Council has recently conducted a statewide study of possible harmful effects of garbage
sites on the health of people living near the sites. A total of five sites and 300 people were examined. The study
revealed, on average, only a small statistical correlation between the proximity of homes to garbage sites and the
incidence of unexplained rashes among people living in these homes. Furthermore, although it is true that people
living near the largest trash sites had a slightly higher incidence of the rashes, there was otherwise no correlation
between the size of the garbage sites and people's health. Therefore, the council is pleased to announce that the
current system of garbage sites does not pose a significant health hazard. We see no need to restrict the size of such
sites in our state or to place any restrictions on the number of homes built near the sites.
47. The nation of Claria covers a vast physical area. But despite wide geographic differences, many citizens are
experiencing rising costs of electricity. A recent study of household electric costs in Claria found that families who
cooled their houses with fans alone spent more on electricity than did families using air conditioners alone for
cooling. However, those households that reported using both fans and air conditioners spent less on electricity than
those households that used either fans or air conditioners alone. Thus, the citizens of Claria should follow the
study's recommendation and use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.
48. As people grow older, an enzyme known as PEP increasingly breaks down the neuropeptide chemicals
involved in learning and memory. But now, researchers have found compounds that prevent PEP from breaking
neuropeptides apart. In tests, these compounds almost completely restored lost memory in rats. The use of these
compounds should be extended to students who have poor memory and difficulty in concentrating—and therefore
serious problems in school performance. Science finally has a solution for problems neither parents nor teachers
could solve.
49. In a study of reading habits of Leeville citizens conducted by the University of Leeville, most respondents said
they preferred literary classics as reading material. However, a follow-up study conducted by the same researchers
found that the type of book most frequently checked out of each of the public libraries in Leeville was the mystery
novel. Therefore, it can be concluded that the respondents in the first study had misrepresented their reading habits.
50. A recent study shows that people living on the continent of North America suffer 9 times more chronic fatigue
and 31 times more chronic depression than do people living on the continent of Asia. Interestingly, Asians, on
average, eat 20 grams of soy per day, whereas North Americans eat virtually none. It turns out that soy contains
phytochemicals called isoflavones, which have been found to possess disease-preventing properties. Thus, North
Americans should consider eating soy on a regular basis as a way of preventing fatigue and depression.
51. The following is taken from the editorial section of the local newspaper in Rockingham.
"In order to save a considerable amount of money, Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and
replaced by the larger and more energy-efficient building that some citizens have proposed. The old town hall is
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too small to comfortably accommodate the number of people who are employed by the town, In addition, it is very
costly to heat the old hall in winter and cool it in summer. The new, larger building would be more energy efficient,
costing less per square foot to heat and cool than the old hall.
Furthermore, it would be possible to rent out some of the space in the new building, thereby generating income for
the town of Rockingham."
52. Claitown University needs both affordable housing for its students and a way to fund the building of such
housing. The best solution to this problem is to commission a famous architect known for experimental and
futuristic buildings. It is common knowledge that tourists are willing to pay money to tour some of the architect's
buildings, so it can be expected that tourists will want to visit this new building. The income from the fees charged
to tourists will soon cover the building costs. Furthermore, such a building will attract new students as well as
donations from alumni. And even though such a building will be much larger than our current need for student
housing, part of the building can be used as office space.
53. The following appeared in a business magazine.
"As a result of numerous consumer complaints of dizziness and nausea, Promofoods requested that eight million
cans of tuna be returned for testing last year. Promofoods concluded that the cans did not, after all, contain
chemicals that posed a health risk. This conclusion is based on the fact that the chemists from Promofoods tested
samples of the recalled cans and found that, of the eight chemicals most commonly blamed for causing symptoms
of dizziness and nausea, five were not found in any of the tested cans. The chemists did find that the three
remaining suspected chemicals are naturally found in all other kinds of canned foods."
54. The following appeared in a local newspaper.
"People should not be misled by the advertising competition between Coldex and Cold-Away, both popular
over-the-counter cold medications that anyone can purchase without a doctor's prescription. Each brand is accusing
the other of causing some well-known, unwanted side effect: Coldex is known to contribute to existing high blood
pressure and Cold-Away is known to cause drowsiness. But the choice should be clear for most health-conscious
people: Cold-Away has been on the market for much longer and is used by more hospitals than is Coldex. Clearly,
Cold-Away is more effective."
55. A folk remedy* for insomnia, the scent in lavender flowers, has now been proved effective. In a recent study,
30 volunteers with chronic insomnia slept each night for three weeks on lavender-scented pillows in a controlled
room where their sleep was monitored. During the first week, volunteers continued to take their usual sleeping
medication. They slept soundly but wakened feeling tired. During the second week, the volunteers discontinued
their medication. As a result, they slept less soundly than the previous week and felt even more tired. During the
third week, the volunteers slept longer and more soundly than in the previous two weeks. This shows that over a
short period of time lavender cures insomnia.
*A folk remedy is usually a plant-based form of treatment common to traditional forms of medicine, ones that
developed before the advent of modem medical services and technology.
56. Typically, as people age, their bone mass decreases, making them more vulnerable to bone fractures. A recent
study concludes that the most effective way to reduce the risk of fractures in later life is to take twice the
recommended dose of vitamin D and calcium daily. The three-year study followed a group of French women in
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their eighties who were nursing-home residents. The women were given daily supplements of twice the
recommended dose of vitamin D and calcium. In addition, the women participated in a light weightlifting program.
After three years, these women showed a much lower rate of hip fractures than is average for their age.
57. The following appeared in a letter from a department chairperson to the president of Pierce University. "Some
studies conducted by Bronston College, which is also located in a small town, reveal that both male and female
professors are happier living in small towns when their spouses are also employed in the same geographic area.
Therefore, in the interest of attracting the most gifted teachers and researchers to our faculty and improving the
morale of our entire staff, we at Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty
member we hire. Although we cannot expect all offers to be accepted or to be viewed as an ideal job offer, the
money invested in this effort will clearly be well spent because, if their spouses have a chance of employment, new
professors will be more likely to accept our offers."
58. For the past five years, consumers in California have been willing to pay twice as much for oysters from the
northeastern Atlantic Coast as for Gulf Coast oysters. This trend began shortly after harmful bacteria were found in
a few raw Gulf Coast oysters. But scientists have now devised a process for killing the bacteria. Once consumers
are made aware of the increased safety of Gulf Coast oysters, they are likely to be willing to pay as much for Gulf
Coast as for northeastern Atlantic Coast oysters, and greater profits for Gulf Coast oyster producers will follow.
59. The following appeared in a memo from the marketing director of "Bargain Brand" Cereals. "One year ago we
introduced our first product, "Bargain Brand" breakfast cereal. Our very low prices quickly drew many customers
away from the top-selling cereal companies. Although the companies producing the top brands have since tried to
compete with us by lowering their prices, and although several plan to introduce their own budget brands, not once
have we needed to raise our prices to continue making a profit. Given our success selling cereal, Bargain Brand
should now expand its business and begin marketing other low-priced food products as quickly as possible."
60. The Mozart School of Music should obviously be the first choice of any music student aware of its reputation.
First of all, the Mozart School stresses intensive practice and training, so that students typically begin their training
at a very young age. Second, the school has ample facilities and up-to-date professional equipment, and its faculty
includes some of the most distinguished music teachers in the world. Finally, many Mozart graduates have gone on
to be the best known and most highly paid musicians in the nation.
61. The following is a memorandum issued by the publisher of a newsmagazine, Newsbeat, in the country of Dinn.
"Our poorest-selling magazine issues over the past three years were those that featured international news stories
on their front covers. Over the same period, competing news-magazines have significantly decreased the number
of cover stories that they devote to international news. Moreover, the cost of maintaining our foreign bureaus to
report on international news is increasing. Therefore, we should decrease our emphasis on international news and
refrain from displaying such stories on our magazine covers."
62. The following recommendation was made by the president and administrative staff of Grove College, a private
institution, to the college's governing committee.
"We recommend that Grove College preserve its century-old tradition of all-female education rather than admit
men into its programs. It is true that a majority of faculty members voted in favor of coeducation, arguing that it
would encourage more students to apply to Grove. But eighty percent of the students responding to a survey
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conducted by the student government wanted the school to remain all female, and over half of the alumni who
answered a separate survey also opposed coeducation. Keeping the college all-female, therefore, will improve
morale among students and convince alumni to keep supporting the college financially."
63. The following appeared in a letter to the school board in the town of Centerville.
"All students should be required to take the driver's education course at Centerville High School. In the past two
years several accidents in and around Centerville have involved teenage drivers. Since a number of parents in
Centerville have complained that they are too busy to teach their teenagers to drive, some other instruction is
necessary to ensure that these teenagers are safe drivers. Although there are two driving schools in Centerville,
parents on a tight budget cannot afford to pay for driving instruction. Therefore an effective and mandatory
program sponsored by the high school is the only solution to this serious problem."
64. The following is a memorandum from the sales director to the president of the Healthy-and-Good food
company.
"A recent study indicates that Venadial, a new margarine currently produced only in the country of Alta, actually
reduces cholesterol levels. Derived from the resin of pine trees, Venadial works by activating a metabolic response
that is not yet well understood. However, cholesterol levels fell ten to fifteen percent among participants in the
study who consumed Venadial daily, and the risk of heart attack by one-third. In addition, the new margarine is so
popular that stores in Alta are unable to keep it on their shelves. Therefore, if our company obtains the exclusive
right to sell Venadial internationally, our profits are sure to increase substantially within a very short time."
65. The following is a letter that recently appeared in the Oak City Gazette, a local newspaper.
"Membership in Oak City's Civic Club—a club whose primary objective is to discuss local issues—should
continue to be restricted to people who live in Oak City. People who work-in Oak City but who live elsewhere
cannot truly understand the business and politics of the city. It is important to restrict membership to city residents
because only residents pay city taxes and therefore only residents understand how the money could best be used to
improve the city. At any rate, restricting membership in this way is unlikely to disappoint many of the nonresidents
employed in Oak City, since neighboring Elm City's Civic Club has always had an open membership policy, and
only twenty-five nonresidents have joined Elm City's Club in the last ten years."
66. The following appeared in the annual report from the president of the National Brush Company. "In order to
save money, we at the National Brush Company have decided to pay our employees for each brush they produce
instead of for the time they spend producing brushes. We believe that this policy will lead to the production of
more and better brushes, will allow us to reduce our staff size, and will enable the company factories to operate for
fewer hours—resulting in savings on electricity and security costs. These changes will ensure that the best workers
keep their jobs and that the company will earn a profit in the coming year."
67. The following is a memorandum written by the director of personnel to the president of the Cedar Corporation.
"It would be a mistake to rehire the Good Taste Company to supply the food in our employee cafeteria next year. It
is the second most expensive caterer in the city. In addition, its prices have risen in each of the last three years, and
it refuses to provide meals for people on special diets. Just last month three employees complained to me that they
no longer eat in the cafeteria because they find the experience 'unbearable.' Our company should instead hire
Discount Foods. Discount is a family-owned local company and it offers a varied menu of fish and poultry. I
recently tasted a sample lunch at one of the many companies that Discount serves and it was delicious—an
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indication that hiring Discount will lead to improved employee satisfaction."
68. The following is a recommendation from the personnel director to the president of Acme Publishing Company.
"Many other companies have recently stated that having their employees take the Easy Read Speed-Reading
Course has greatly improved productivity. One graduate of the course was able to read a five-hundred-page report
in only two hours; another graduate rose from an assistant manager to vice president of the company in under a
year. Obviously, the faster you can read, the more information you can absorb in a single workday. Moreover, Easy
Read costs only $500 per employee—a small price to pay when you consider the benefits to Acme. Included in this
fee is a three-week seminar in Spruce City and a lifelong subscription to the Easy Read newsletter. Clearly, Acme
would benefit greatly by requiring all of our employees to take the Easy Read course."
69. From a letter to the editor of a city newspaper.
"One recent research study has indicated that many adolescents need more sleep than they are getting, and another
study has shown that many high school students in our city are actually dissatisfied with their own academic
performance. As a way of combating these problems, the high schools in our city should begin classes at 8:30 A.M.
instead of 7:30 A.M., and end the school day an hour later. This arrangement will give students an extra hour of
sleep in the morning, thereby making them more alert and more productive. Consequently, the students will
perform better on tests and other assignments, and their academic skills will improve significantly."
70. Butter has now been replaced by margarine in Happy Pancake House restaurants throughout the southwestern
United States. Only about 2 percent of customers have complained, indicating that 98 people out of 100 are happy
with the change. Furthermore, many servers have reported that a number of customers who still ask for butter do
not complain when they are given margarine instead. Clearly, either these customers cannot distinguish margarine
from butter, or they use the term "butter" to refer to either butter or margarine. Thus, to avoid the expense of
purchasing butter, the Happy Pancake House should extend this cost-saving change to its restaurants in the
southeast and northeast as well.
71. Many employees of major United States corporations are fearful that they will lose their jobs in the near future,
but this fear is largely unfounded. According to a recent study, a majority of companies expected to make new
hires in the coming year, while fewer companies expected to lay off employees. In addition, although it is very
disturbing to be laid off, the proliferation of programs and of workshops designed to improve job-finding skills has
made being laid off far less painful than it once was.
72. In the Bayhead Public Library, books that are rarely borrowed continue to take up shelf space year after year,
while people who want to read a recent novel frequently find that the library's only copy is checked out. Clearly,
the library's plan to replace books that are borrowed no more than once a year with sufficient copies of more recent
books will solve this problem. The protest we have heard since this plan was made public has come from a small,
and thus unrepresentative, group of some thirty people and so should therefore be ignored.
73. The following appeared in a letter from the owner of the Sunnyside Towers apartment building to its manager.
"One month ago, all the showerheads on the first five floors of Sunnyside Towers were modified to restrict the
water flow to approximately 1/3 of its original force. Although actual readings of water usage before and after the
adjustment are not yet available, the change will obviously result in a considerable savings for Sunnyside
Corporation, since the corporation must pay for water each month. Except for a few complaints about low water
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pressure, no problems with showers have been reported since the adjustment. Clearly, restricting water flow
throughout all the 20 floors of Sunnyside Towers will increase our profits further."
74. The following is a recommendation from the director of personnel to the president of Professional Printing
Company.
"In a recent telephone survey of automobile factory workers, older employees were less likely to report that having
a supervisor present increases their productivity. Among workers aged 18 to 29, 27 percent said that they are more
productive in the presence of their immediate supervisor, compared to 12 percent for those aged 30 or over, and
only 8 percent for those aged 50 or over. Clearly, if our printing company hires mainly older employees, we will
increase productivity and save money because of the reduced need for supervisors."
75. The following appeared as part of an article in a health magazine.
"A new discovery warrants a drastic change in the diets of people living in the United States. Two scientists have
recently suggested that omega -3 fatty acids (found in some fish and fish oils) play a key role in mental health. Our
ancestors, who ate less saturated fat and more polyunsaturated fat, including omega -3 fatty acids, were much less
likely to suffer from depression than we are today. Moreover, modern societies—such as those in Japan and
Taiwan—that consume large quantities of fish report depression rates lower than that in the United States. Given
this link between omega -3 fatty acids and depression, it is important for all people in the United States to increase
their consumption of fish in order to prevent depression."
76. A new report suggests that men and women experience pain very differently from one another, and that doctors
should consider these differences when prescribing pain medications. When researchers administered the same
dosage of kappa options—a painkiller—to 28 men and 20 women who were having their wisdom teeth extracted,
the women reported feeling much less pain than the men, and the easing of pain lasted considerably longer in
women. This research suggests that kappa opioids should be prescribed for women whenever pain medication is
required, whereas men should be given other kinds of pain medication. In addition, researchers should reevaluate
the effects of all medications on men versus women.
77. The following is a recommendation from the dean at Foley College, a small liberal arts college, to the president
of the college.
"Since college-bound students are increasingly concerned about job prospects after graduation, Foley College
should attempt to increase enrollment by promising to find its students jobs after they graduate. Many
administrators feel that this strategy is a way for Foley to compete against larger and more prestigious schools and
to encourage students to begin preparing for careers as soon as they enter college. Furthermore, a student who
must choose a career path within his or her first year of college and who is guaranteed a job after graduation is
more likely to successfully complete the coursework that will prepare him or her for the future."
78. The following is a letter to the editor of the Glenville Gazette, a local newspaper.
"Over the past few years, the number of people who have purchased advance tickets for the Glenville Summer
Concert series has declined, indicating lack of community support. Although the weather has been unpredictable in
the past few years, this cannot be the reason for the decline in advance ticket purchases, because many people
attended the conceits even in bad weather. Clearly, then, the reason for the decline is the choice of music, so the
organizers of the concert should feature more modern music in the future and should be sure to include music
composed by Richerts, whose recordings Glenville residents purchase more often than any other contemporary
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recordings. This strategy will undoubtedly increase advance ticket purchases and will increase attendance at the
concerts."
79. The following is a letter from a professor at Xanadu College to the college's president.
"The development of an extensive computer-based long-distance learning program will enhance the reputation of
Xanadu College. This program would allow more students to enroll in our courses, thereby increasing our income
from student tuition. Traditional courses could easily be adapted for distance learners, as was shown by the
adaptation of two traditional courses for our distance learning trial project last year. Also, by using computer
programs and taped lectures, faculty will have fewer classroom obligations and more time to engage in extensive
research, thereby enhancing the reputation of Xanadu."
80. The following is a letter to the editor of the Roseville Gazette.
"Despite opposition from some residents of West Roseville, the arguments in favor of merging the townships of
Roseville and West Roseville are overwhelming. First, residents in both townships are confused about which
authority to contact when they need a service; for example, the police department in Roseville receives many calls
from residents of West Roseville. This sort of confusion would be eliminated with the merger. Second, the savings
in administrative costs would be enormous, since services would no longer be duplicated: we would have only one
fire chief, one tax department, one mayor, and so on. And no jobs in city government would be lost—employees
could simply be reassigned. Most importantly, the merger will undoubtedly attract business investments as it did
when the townships of Hamden and North Hamden merged ten years ago."
81. The Department of Education in the state of Attra recommends that high school students be assigned
homework every day. Yet a recent statewide survey of high school math and science teachers calls the usefulness
of daily homework into question. In the district of Sanlee, 86 percent of the teachers reported assigning homework
three to five times a week, whereas in the district of Marlee, less than 25 percent of the teachers reported assigning
homework three to five times a week. Yet the students in Marlee earn better grades overall and are less likely to be
required to repeat a year of school than are the students in Sanlee. Therefore, all teachers in our high schools
should assign homework no more than twice a week, if at all.
82. A recent study suggests that people who are left-handed are more likely to succeed in business than are
right-handed people. Researchers studied photographs of 1,000 prominent business executives and found that 21
percent of these executives wrote with their left hand. So the percentage of prominent business executives who are
left-handed (21 percent) is almost twice the percentage of people in the general population who are left-handed (11
percent). Thus, people who are left-handed would be well advised to pursue a career in business, whereas people
who are right-handed would be well advised to imitate the business practices exhibited by left-handers.
83. The following is a letter from an editor at Liber Publishing Company to the company's president
"In recent years, Liber has unfortunately moved away from its original mission: to publish the works of regional
small-town authors instead of those of big-city authors. Just last year, 90 percent of the novels we published were
written by authors who maintain a residence in a big city. Although this change must have been intended to
increase profits, it has obviously backfired, because Liber is now in serious financial trouble. The only way to
address this problem is to return to our original mission. If we return to publishing only the works of regional small
town authors, our financial troubles will soon be resolved."
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84. The country Myria, which charges fees for the use of national parks, reports little evidence of environmental
damage. This strongly suggests that for the country Illium, the best way to preserve public lands is to charge
people more money when they are using national parks and wilderness areas for activities with heavy
environmental impact. By collecting fees from those people who overuse public lands, Illium will help preserve
those lands for present and future generations.
85. Statistics collected from dentists indicate that three times more men than women faint while visiting the dentist.
This evidence suggests that men are more likely to be distressed about having dental work done than women are.
Thus, dentists who advertise to attract patients should target the male consumer and emphasize both the
effectiveness of their anesthetic techniques and the sensitivity of their staff to nervous or suffering patients.
86. The citizens of Forsythe have adopted healthier lifestyles. Their responses to a recent survey show that in their
eating habits they conform more closely to government nutritional recommendations than they did ten years ago.
Furthermore, there has been a fourfold increase in sales of food products containing kiran, a substance that a
scientific study has shown reduces cholesterol. This trend is also evident in reduced sales of sulia, a food that few
of the healthiest citizens regularly eat.
87. Humans arrived in the Kaliko Islands about 7,000 years ago, and within 3,000 years most of the large mammal
species that had lived in the forests of the Kaliko Islands had become extinct. Yet humans cannot have been a
factor in the species' extinctions, because there is no evidence that the humans had any significant contact with the
mammals. Further, archaeologists have discovered numerous sites where the bones of fish had been discarded, but
they found no such areas containing the bones of large mammals, so the humans cannot have hunted the mammals.
Therefore, some climate change or other environmental factor must have caused the species' extinctions.
88. The following appeared in a newspaper feature story.
"At the small, nonprofit hospital in the town of Saluda, the average length of a patient's stay is two days; at the
large, for-profit hospital in the nearby city of Megaville, the average patient stay is six days. Also, the cure rate
among patients in the Saluda hospital is about twice that of the Megaville hospital. The Saluda hospital has more
employees per patient than the hospital in Megaville, and there are few complaints about service at the local
hospital. Such data indicate that treatment in smaller, nonprofit hospitals is more economical and of better quality
than treatment in larger, for-profit hospitals."
89. The following appeared as a letter to the editor of a farming publication.
"With continuing publicity about the need for healthful diets, and with new research about the harmful effects of
eating too much sugar, nationwide demand for sugar will no doubt decline. Therefore, farmers in our state should
use the land on which they currently grow sugar cane to grow peanuts, a food that is rich in protein and low in
sugar. Farmers in the neighboring country of Palin greatly increased their production of peanuts last year, and their
total revenues from that crop were quite high."
90. The following appeared in a recommendation from the president of Amburg's Chamber of Commerce. "Last
October the city of Belleville installed high intensity lighting in its central business district, and vandalism there
declined almost immediately. The city of Amburg has recently begun police patrols on bicycles in its business
district but the rate of vandalism there remains constant. Since high intensity lighting is apparently the most
effective way to combat crime, we should install such lighting throughout Amburg. By reducing crime in this way,
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we can revitalize the declining neighborhoods in our city."
91. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Parkville Daily Newspaper.
"Throughout the country
last year, as more and more children below the age of nine participated in youth-league softball and soccer, over
80,000 of these young players suffered injuries. When interviewed for a recent study, youth-league softball players
in several major cities also reported psychological pressure from coaches and parents to win games. Furthermore,
education experts say that long practice sessions for these sports take away time that could be used for academic
activities. Since the disadvantages apparently outweigh any advantages, we in Parkville should discontinue
organized athletic competition for children under nine."
92. It is known that in recent years, industrial pollution has caused the Earth's ozone layer to thin, allowing an
increase in the amount of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the Earth's surface. At the same time, scientists have
discovered, the population of a species of salamander that lays its eggs in mountain lakes has declined. Since
ultraviolet radiation is known to be damaging to delicate tissues and since salamander eggs have no protective
shells, it must be the case that the increase in ultraviolet radiation has damaged many salamander eggs and
prevented them from hatching. This process will no doubt cause population declines in other species, just as it has
in the salamander species.
93. The following appeared in a memorandum from the planning department of an electric power company.
"Several recent surveys indicate that homeowners are increasingly eager to conserve energy and manufacturers are
now marketing many home appliances, such as refrigerators and air conditioners, that are almost twice as
energy-efficient as those sold a decade ago. Also, new technologies for better home insulation and passive solar
heating are readily available to reduce the energy needed for home heating. Therefore, we anticipate that the total
demand for electricity in our area will not increase, and may decline slightly. Since our three electric generating
plants in operation for the past 20 years have always met our needs, construction of new generating plants should
not be necessary."
94. The following appeared in a memo from the human resources department of Rifco Computer Company to the
company president.
"In order to prevent conflicts in the workplace, Rifco Computer Company should require all its employees to
attend workshops that teach the technique of active listening, a technique in which people express feelings without
assigning blame. This technique has clearly benefited Terland Publishing Company: five years ago, two hundred
recently hired Terland employees volunteered to participate in a one-day active-listening workshop. Five years
later, only five percent of these employees had filed formal complaints with the human resources department,
whereas the company as a whole had a fifteen percent complaint rate during that period."
95. The following recommendation was made by the Human Resources Manager to the board of directors of the
Fancy Toy Company.
"In the last three quarters of this year, under the leadership of our president, Pat Salvo, our profits have fallen
considerably. Thus, we should ask for her resignation in return for a generous severance package. In Pat's place, we
should appoint Rosa Winnings. Rosa is currently president of Starlight Jewelry, a company whose profits have
increased dramatically over the past several years. Although we will have to pay Rosa twice the salary that Pat has
been receiving, it will be well worth it because we can soon expect our profits to increase considerably."
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96. The following is a letter to the editor of a news magazine.
"Clearly, the successful use of robots on missions to explore outer space in the past 20 years demonstrates that
robots could be increasingly used to perform factory work more effectively, efficiently, and profitably than human
factory workers. The use of robots in factories would offer several advantages. First, robots never get sick, so
absenteeism would be reduced. Second, robots do not make mistakes, so factories would increase their output.
Finally, the use of robots would also improve the morale of factory workers, since factory work can be so boring
that many workers would be glad to shift to more interesting kinds of tasks."
97. The following appeared in a memorandum to faculty from the academic vice president of Waymarsh
University.
"So that we can better accomplish Waymarsh University's academic goals, we should adopt the job-opportunity
(job-op) program offered at Plateau Technical College and strongly encourage all students at Waymarsh to
participate in it. The success of the job-op program at Plateau is evident: over the past two years, more than 75% of
the freshmen at Plateau have enrolled in the optional job-op program. Moreover, at Plateau, the grades of job-op
students are consistently higher than those of other students, 90% of the job-op students receive job offers within a
month after their graduation, and most former job-op students report much success in their careers."
98. The following appeared in a memorandum from the new president of the Patriot car manufacturing company.
"In the past, the body styles of Patriot cars have been old-fashioned, and our cars have not sold as well as have our
competitors' cars. But now, since many regions in this country report rapid increases in the numbers of newly
licensed drivers, we should be able to increase our share of the market by selling cars to this growing population.
Thus, we should discontinue our oldest models and concentrate instead on manufacturing sporty cars. We can also
improve the success of our marketing campaigns by switching our advertising to the Youth Advertising agency,
which has successfully promoted the country's leading soft drink."
99. The following appeared in a memorandum from the owner of Armchair Video, a chain of video rental stores.
"Because of declining profits, we must reduce operating expenses at Armchair Video's ten video rental stores.
Raising prices is not a good option, since we are famous for our special bargains. Instead, we should reduce our
operating hours. Last month our store in downtown Marston reduced its hours by closing at 6:00 P.M. rather than
9:00 P.M. and reduced its overall inventory by no longer stocking any film released more than two years ago.
Since we have received very few customer complaints about these new policies, we should now adopt them at all
other Armchair Video stores as our best strategies for improving profits."
100. In each city in the region of Treehaven, the majority of the money spent on government-run public school
education comes from taxes that each city government collects. The region's cities differ, however, in the value
they place on public education. For example, Parson City typically budgets twice as much money per year as Blue
City does for its public schools—even though both cities have about the same number of residents. It seems clear,
therefore, that Parson City residents care more about public school education than do Blue City residents.
101. The following appeared in a letter to the Grandview City Council from a local business leader. "During last
year's severe drought, when the water supply in the Grandview city reservoir fell to an extremely low level, the
city council imposed much more rigid water-rationing rules. But just after these rules were imposed, industrial
growth in the area declined. This clearly shows that the new rationing rules have hurt industry in Grandview.
Therefore, to promote the health of the local economy, the city council should now stop water rationing."
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102. The following appeared in a magazine article about planning for retirement. "Because of its spectacular
natural beauty and consistent climate, Clearview should be a top choice for anyone seeking a place to retire. As a
bonus, housing costs in Clearview have fallen significantly during the past year, and real estate taxes remain lower
than those in neighboring towns. Nevertheless, Clearview's mayor promises many new programs to improve
schools, streets, and public services. Retirees in Clearview can also expect excellent health care as they grow older,
since the number of physicians in the area is far greater than the national average."
103. The following appeared in a brochure promoting the purchase of local franchises for a national chain of gyms.
"Now is the time to invest in a Power-Lift Gym franchise so that you can profit from opening one of our gyms in
your town. Consider the current trends: Power-Lift Gyms are already popular among customers in 500 locations,
and national surveys indicate increasing concern with weight loss and physical fitness. Furthermore, last year's
sales of books and magazines on personal health totaled more than $50 million, and purchases of home exercise
equipment almost doubled. Investing now in a Power-Lift Gym franchise will guarantee a quick profit"
104. The following appeared in a memorandum from the president of Hyper-Go Toy Company.
"Last year, sales of our Fierce Fighter toy airplane declined sharply, even though the toy had been a top seller for
three years. Our customer surveys show that parents are now more worried about youthful violence and are
concerned about better education for their children. Therefore, to maintain profits we should discontinue all our
action toys and focus exclusively on a new line of educational toys. Several other toy companies have already
begun marketing educational toys and report sales increases last year of 200 percent. And since the average family
income is growing, sales of new Hyper-Go toys should also increase."
105. The following appeared in a memorandum from a vice president of the Megamart department store chain.
"For the third year in a row, the average household income in our country has risen significantly. That prosperity
means that families are likely to be spending more time and money on leisure activities. Megamart stores should
therefore concentrate on enlarging and promoting its line of products typically used in leisure activities: athletic
and outdoor equipment, televisions, gourmet cooking equipment, and luggage and travel accessories."
106. The following appeared in an article in a magazine for writers.
"A recent study showed that in describing a typical day's conversation, people make an average of 23 references to
watching television and only 1 reference to reading fiction. This result suggests that, compared with the television
industry, the publishing and bookselling industries are likely to decline in profitability. Therefore, people who wish
to have careers as writers should acquire training and experience in writing for television rather than for print
media."
107. The following article appeared in a recent issue of a college newspaper.
"Among all students who graduated from Hooper University over the past five years, more physical science majors
than social science majors found permanent jobs within a year of graduation. In a survey of recent Hooper
University graduates, most physical science majors said they believed that the prestige of Hooper University's
physical science programs helped them significantly in finding a job. In contrast, social science majors who found
permanent employment attributed their success to their own personal initiative. Therefore, to ensure that social
science majors find permanent jobs, Hooper University should offer additional social science courses and hire
several new faculty members who already have national reputations in the social sciences."
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108. The following appeared in a corporate planning memo at ABC Cereal Company, the makers of Better Bran
cereal.
"Sales of Better Bran have declined in recent years, for reasons that management has now identified. First, Better
Bran is a cereal with high sugar content, and recent research studies have found that most consumers say they are
concerned about the amount of sugar added to their breakfast cereal. Second, the price of Better Bran has increased
by 5% in each of the last three years. Therefore, to increase our company's profits we need to reduce the amount of
sugar in Better Bran and lower Better Bran's price."
109. The following appeared as part of a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.
"During her three years in office, Governor Riedeburg has shown herself to be a worthy leader. Since she took
office, crime has decreased, the number of jobs created per year has doubled, and the number of people choosing
to live in our state has increased. These trends are likely to continue if she is reelected. In addition, Ms. Riedeburg
has promised to take steps to keep big companies here, thereby providing jobs for any new residents. Anyone who
looks at Ms. Riedeburg's record can tell that she is the best-qualified candidate for governor."
110. The following appeared as part of a memo from the manager of an automobile manufacturing company.
"Because the demand for our automobiles is expected to increase dramatically, we need to open a new
manufacturing plant as soon as possible in order to continue to thrive. Our marketing projections indicate that 80
million people will want to buy our automobiles, yet our existing plant can only produce 40 million automobiles.
The new plant can be opened on a part-time basis, with workers from our existing site rotating responsibilities,
until an operational staff can be trained. A major airplane manufacturer was extremely successful using this
part-time rotating strategy when it opened its new plant five years ago."
111. The following appeared as an editorial in a local newspaper.
"In order to attract visitors to Central Plaza downtown and to return the plaza to its former glory, the city should
prohibit skateboarding there and instead allow skateboarders to use an area in Monroe Park. At Central Plaza,
skateboard users are about the only people one sees now, and litter and defaced property have made the plaza
unattractive. In a recent survey of downtown merchants, the majority supported a prohibition on skateboarding in
the plaza. Clearly, banning skateboarding in Central Plaza will make the area a place where people can congregate
for fun or for relaxation."
112. The following appeared in a newsletter from a political organization.
"In order to promote economic growth in the city, city residents should vote 'yes' on the state government's
proposal to build a new expressway linking the outlying suburbs directly to the city center. A direct link to the city
center will enable downtown businesses to receive deliveries more frequently, so that downtown retailers will no
longer run out of stock and city manufacturers will not be affected by shortages of materials. Booming businesses
will attract qualified workers from all over the state, workers who will be able to take advantage of the new
expressway to commute to work in our city. In addition to these advantages, hundreds of workers will be employed
to build the expressway, further stimulating the local economy!"
113. The following appeared in a recommendation from the planning department of the city of Transopolis.
"Ten years ago, as part of a comprehensive urban renewal program, the city of Transopolis adapted for industrial
use a large area of severely substandard housing near the freeway. Subsequently, several factories were constructed
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there, crime rates in the area declined, and property tax revenues for the entire city increased. To further revitalize
the city, we should now take similar action in a declining residential area on the opposite side of the city. Since
some houses and apartments in existing nearby neighborhoods are currently unoccupied, alternate housing for
those displaced by this action will be readily available."
114. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a local newspaper.
"The members of the town school board should not be reelected because they are not concerned about promoting
high-quality education in the arts in our local schools. For example, student participation in the high school drama
club has been declining steadily, and this year the school board refused to renew the contract of the drama director,
even though he had received many awards for his original plays. Meanwhile, over $300,000 of the high school
budget goes to athletic programs, and the head football coach is now the highest-paid member of the teaching
staff."
115. The following appeared in a memo from the sales manager of Eco-Power, a company that manufactures tools
and home appliances.
"Many popular radio and television commercials use memorable tunes and song lyrics to call attention to the
products being advertised. Indeed, a recent study of high school students showed that 85 percent could easily
recognize the tunes used to advertise leading soft drinks and fast-food restaurants. Despite our company's
extensive advertising in magazines during the past year, sales of our home appliances declined. Therefore, to boost
company profits, we should now switch to advertisements featuring a distinctive song."
116. The following appeared in a memo from the vice president of a company that builds shopping malls
throughout the country.
"The surface of a section of Route 101, paved two years ago by McAdam Road Builders, is now badly cracked and
marred by dangerous potholes. In another part of the state, a section of Route 66, paved by Appian Roadways more
than four years ago, is still in good condition. Appian Roadways has recently purchased state-of-the-art paving
machinery, and it has hired a new quality-control manager. Because of its superior work and commitment to
quality, we should contract with Appian Roadways rather than McAdam Road Builders to construct the access
roads for all our new shopping malls."
117. The following appeared in a newspaper feature story.
"There is now evidence that the relaxed manner of living in small towns promotes better health and greater
longevity than does the hectic pace of life in big cities. Businesses in the small town of Leeville report fewer days
of sick leave taken by individual workers than do businesses in the nearby large city of Mason City. Furthermore,
Leeville has only one physician for its one thousand residents, but in Mason City the proportion of physicians to
residents is five times as high. And the average age of Leeville residents is significantly higher than that of Mason
City residents. These findings suggest that people seeking longer and healthier lives should consider moving to
small communities."
118. The following appeared in a memorandum from the general manager of KNOW radio station. "Several factors
indicate that radio station KNOW should shift its programming from rock-and-roll music to a continuous news
format. Consider, for example, the number of older people in our listening area has increased dramatically, while
the total number of our listeners has recently declined. Also, music stores in our area report decreased sales of
recorded music. Finally, continuous news stations in neighboring cities have been very successful, and a survey
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taken just before the recent election shows that local citizens are interested in becoming better informed about
politics."
119. The following appeared as part of an article in a local Beauville newspaper.
"According to a government report, last year the city of Dillton reduced its corporate tax rate by 15 percent; at the
same time, it began offering relocation grants and favorable rates on city utilities to any company that would
relocate to Dillton. Within 18 months, two manufacturing companies moved to Dillton, where they employ a total
of 300 people. Therefore, the fastest way for Beauville to stimulate economic development and hence reduce
unemployment is to provide tax incentives and other financial inducements that encourage private companies to
relocate here."
120. The following appeared in a memorandum from the president of Mira Vista College to the college's board of
trustees.
"At nearby Green Mountain College, which has more business courses and more job counselors than does Mira
Vista College, 90 percent of last year's graduating seniors had job offers from prospective employers. But at Mira
Vista College last year, only 70 percent of the seniors who informed the placement office that they would be
seeking employment had found full-time jobs within three months after graduation, and only half of these
graduates were employed in their major field of study. To help Mira Vista's graduates find employment, we must
offer more courses in business and computer technology and hire additional job counselors to help students with
their resumes and interviewing skills."
121. The following appeared as an editorial in the local newspaper of Dalton.
"When the neighboring town of Williamsville adopted a curfew four months ago that made it illegal for persons
under the age of 18 to loiter or idle in public places after 10 p.m., youth crime in Williamsville dropped by 27
percent during curfew hours. In Williamsville's town square, the area where its citizens were once most outraged at
the high crime rate, not a single crime has been reported since the curfew was introduced. Therefore, to help
reduce its own rising crime rate, the town of Dalton should adopt the same kind of curfew. A curfew that keeps
young people at home late at night will surely control juvenile delinquency and protect minors from becoming
victims of crime."
122. The following appeared in a memo written by a dean at Buckingham College.
"To serve the housing needs of our students, Buckingham College should build a new dormitory. Buckingham's
enrollment is growing and, based on current trends, should double over the next fifty years, thus making existing
dormitories inadequate. Moreover, the average rent for an apartment in our town has increased in recent years.
Consequently, students will find it increasingly difficult to afford off-campus housing. Finally, an attractive new
dormitory would make prospective students more likely to enroll at Buckingham."
123. The following appeared in a memo at the XYZ company.
"When XYZ lays off employees, it pays Delany Personnel Firm to offer those employees assistance in creating
resumes and developing interviewing skills, if they so desire. Laid-off employees have benefited greatly from
Delany's services: last year those who used Delany found jobs much more quickly than did those who did not.
Recently, it has been proposed that we use the less-expensive Walsh Personnel Firm in place of Delany. This would
be a mistake because eight years ago, when XYZ was using Walsh, only half of the workers we laid off at that time
found jobs within a year. Moreover, Delany is clearly superior, as evidenced by its bigger staff and larger number
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of branch offices. After all, last year Delany's clients took an average of six months to find jobs, whereas Walsh's
clients took nine."
124. The following appeared as an editorial in the student newspaper of Groveton College.
"To combat the recently reported dramatic rise in cheating among college and university students, these institutions
should adopt honor codes similar to Groveton's, which calls for students to agree not to cheat in their academic
endeavors and to notify a faculty member if they suspect that others have cheated. Groveton's honor code replaced
an old-fashioned system in which students were closely monitored by teachers and an average of thirty cases of
cheating per year were reported. The honor code has proven far more successful: in the first year it was in place,
students reported twenty-one cases of cheating; five years later, this figure had dropped to fourteen. Moreover, in a
recent survey conducted by the Groveton honor council, a majority of students said that they would be less likely
to cheat with an honor code in place than without."
第七章
提纲大全
一、是非问题提纲
1. Position: While there is good reason to argue for a required national curriculum for all schools, national
government should refrain from violating the cultural rights of ethnic groups.
A. On the one hand, a national curriculum contributes to preserving a unified national culture and national
cohesion.
B. On the other hand, in a multi-cultural society, different ethnic communities should be given the opportunity to
preserve and promote their traditional cultures.
C. The best way out of this dilemma is to combine a required national core curriculum with additional ethnic
courses.
2. Position: A sense of cooperation is a fundamental quality for leadership.
A. The ultimate responsibility of a leader is to facilitate other people's development as well as his or her own.
B. The leader's task is to create an environment that is conducive to self-motivation.
C. A leader who is arrogant, insensitive to co-workers and unable to control ambition is sure to perish.
3. Position: Working experience in relevant professions enables college and university faculty to offer practical
instruction to students.
A. An important goal of college and university education is to cultivate qualified workers for various fields of the
society.
B. The working experience in the practical world helps college and university teachers to design their courses
according to the needs of the professional fields.
C. However, the teachers in some disciplines such as mathematics, literature, history, philosophy, etc., may find it
difficult to combine their teaching with relevant professional fields.
4. Position: I strongly hold that students should be encouraged to take courses beyond their major.
A. The separation of liberal arts and natural sciences in present universities has become a barrier to true education
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for students.
B. By exploring subjects outside their own major, students may find new academic fields where lie their real
interest and potential gift.
C. Since various academic disciplines are interrelated, the study of courses outside the students' own field may
benefit the study of their own major.
5. Position: The recommended policy in the title statement does not stand careful examination.
A. Contemporary popular culture on the mass media is usually profit-oriented and is produced for temporary
consumption.
B. By contrast, arts and literature of the past constitute the cultural heritage of human civilization and therefore
have greater relevance for students than popular culture.
6. Position: Generally speaking, a culture attempts to strengthen its position through formal education.
A. The textbooks of schools in all cultures most clearly indicate what each culture values or devalues.
B. True education should aim at cultivating students' critical thinking rather than stuffing students' brains with
cultural stereotypes and prejudices.
7. Position: Teaching students to explore their own emotions as well as their reasoning ability can help them
develop an integrated personality.
A. The current educational system tends to train students as automatons, neglecting their spiritual needs, which has
resulted in serious emotional problems.
B. The cultivation of a whole human being depends on a balanced development of both intelligence and emotion.
C. It is widely believed today that very often EQ is more important than IQ for a person to gain success in life.
8. Position: Formal education might restrain our minds and spirits on the surface, but it helps to set free our
potential in the long run.
A. Formal education emphasizes the learning of basic skills, methodologies and knowledge of various disciplines,
which might be mechanical and dull.
B. However, this basic training provides a necessary foundation, based on which we can freely imagine and create.
C. Admittedly, there exist many aspects in formal education that need reforming.
9. Position: There indeed exist some serious problems with our education system that hinder the construction of a
better society in the future.
A. It cannot be denied that how we educate children today determines the orientation of society.
B. Unfortunately, today's schools put too much emphasis on memorizing dead facts rather than cultivating
creativity.
C. To make matters worse, parents are more concerned about helping their children to win in whatever
competitions rather than to cooperate with others for the common good of the society.
10. Position: Educators, parents and communities can and should join efforts to create a healthy learning
environment for children.
A. First of all, we should never look down upon the key role that professional educators play in fostering the
younger generation.
B. Meanwhile, both parents and communities can make significant contributions to school education.
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C. Without a constructive family and community environment, it would be almost impossible for school education
to fulfill its noble mission.
11. Position: Modern education has a double purpose to serve—to cultivate students' mind and to prepare them for
the job market.
A. The fundamental function of education at any level is to develop the personality of individuals and the
significance of their life to themselves and to others.
B. When education aims only at job preparation, it deteriorates into training.
C. There is the need and the possibility to combine life preparation and job preparation in school education.
12. Position: In principle, I would support the idea of providing special education to children with special talents
and abilities.
A. Mixing highly-talented children with ordinary children in the same class would result in a huge waste of
intelligence on the part of the former.
B. The results of some experiment schools can be cited to support this recommendation.
C. Meanwhile, both the school and family should pay attention to the all-around development of the gifted
children.
13. Position: While I disagree that completely ignoring people's negative actions is a good way of teaching, I
believe that praising is far more effective in persuading people to improve performance.
A. People may not be as good as you tell them they are, but they will try harder thereafter.
B. Sharp, insulting and open criticism usually arouses animosity and confrontation, which will eventually block
the communication process.
C. However, completely ignoring people's negative actions equals irresponsibility.
14. Position: CAI (computer assisted instruction) has several advantages over traditional ways of teaching.
A. First of all, the computer has the ability to accommodate individual differences in learning speed.
B. In addition, the computer provides students with a stress-free learning environment.
C. A third advantage of CAI is that the computer can give a student immediate feedback.
D. The possibility of students being distracted from learning by new teaching equipment should not be used as an
excuse to prevent teachers and students from benefiting from technological progress.
15. Position: We can benefit more from contradicting views.
A. First, contradicting views help us see the flaws of our own point of view.
B. Second, contradicting views can provide us with new solutions and new perspectives.
C. By contrast, people who share our view have nothing new to contribute.
16. Position: There is no doubt that different disciplines are interrelated and that the knowledge of one field can
shed light on the studies of other fields.
A. Knowledge of statistics was introduced into the fields of sociology and history, contributing to the researches in
those fields.
B. Literary critics borrow new ideas formulated by philosophers to further their studies.
C. When biology and chemistry met, biochemistry came into being.
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17. Position: Grasping the essence of things does require great effort and courage.
A. In management, an excellent leader is one who can remain calm, seize the strategic point of the problem and
give clear instructions when faced with complex alternatives.
B. The development process of the computer serves as a typical example of the difficulty in making things small
and easy to handle.
C. In addition, great thinkers and scientists are those who can summarize the enormous amount of complex
findings made by previous researchers and formulate a new and simple theory.
18. Position: Requiring students to memorize facts that they do not understand does little good to their studies.
A. Admittedly, the study of every subject involves memorizing basic facts.
B. However, if students do not comprehend the facts that they are supposed to recite, they will soon forget them.
C. In the last analysis, the major objective of education is not to learn facts by heart, but to sharpen students'
critical thinking—the ability to analyze facts and to make sound judgment.
19. Position: Provided that the results of their research do no harm to the larger society, scientists should enjoy
academic freedom in their pursuit of truth or their individual interests.
A. It is almost impossible to evaluate the direct social significance of theoretical researches.
B. Many scientists in history made significant contributions to society by simply pursuing individual interests or
by seeking truth out of curiosity.
C. On the other hand, in an age when science has a deepening impact upon every aspect of the larger society, it is
necessary that scientists concern themselves with the social influence of their inventions.
20. Position: It is more important to acquire new facts and information than to recognize the limits of our
knowledge and understanding.
A. New facts and information add to our knowledge, constantly deepening and broadening our understanding of
the unknown.
B. The solution to one problem may lead to the appearance of more problems in the world of knowledge, which,
however, invites further exploration and more progress as a result.
C. Overemphasizing the limits of our knowledge and understanding may hinder our effort to ceaselessly explore
new frontiers of knowledge.
21. Position: The title statement oversimplifies the way we deal with facts.
A. All facts exist in relation to us as observers; without observers, facts do not make sense even though they may
exist.
B. The description and interpretation of facts depend in a large sense on the observer's perspective, judgment,
interests, values, etc.
C. Still, a basic requirement of any field of study is respecting facts.
22. Position: Students should be ready to doubt, to challenge established authority.
A. Skepticism, or critical thinking, helps us uncover bias and prejudice and distinguish between opinion and fact.
B. Real understanding comes from thorough investigation.
C. When students actively participate in the learning process, they learn more efficiently and more effectively.
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23. Position: While it is true that there is no purely objective observation, overemphasizing the subjectivity of any
observation may result in nihilism.
A. In social sciences and humanities, we should be fully aware that the observers' expectations and desires could
hardly be separated from their observation.
B. However, natural sciences are based on the principle that the findings of one scientist should be subject to the
scrutiny of the whole scientific community.
C. Overemphasizing subjectivity may result in extreme relativism.
24. Position: Machines can outdo human beings in many cases,
but they are and will always remain under
human control.
A. In terms of memory and computing as well as other technical operations, computers can do much better than
human beings.
B. However, in terms of creation, machines can never surpass human intelligence, for it is illogical that "inferior"
human minds can create "superior" artificial intelligence.
C. Still, it is necessary for human beings to guard against the abuse of advanced technology and see to it that
machines are created to serve human needs.
25. Position: We should respect critical judgment of work from anyone regardless of his or her background.
A. Ordinary consumers or users often know better the defects of a product than the expert who designed it.
B. In the realm of politics, the right to judge belongs to ordinary people instead of political experts of any sort.
C. Any group actions without the intellectual as well as physical participation of the ordinary members are liable to
fail.
26. Position: True, significant breakthroughs in knowledge come only after old authorities are rejected.
A. In science, when Einstein replaced Newton as an authority, physics as well as astronomy witnessed a great leap
forward.
B. In humanities, the Renaissance movement in the 16th century—a great progress in Western intellectual history
—marked the rejection of medieval authorities.
C. The history of any field of study is a record of authorities being replaced one by one.
27. Position: It is hard to say whether the world benefits more from people who pursue their own intellectual
interests or those who intend to serve the public.
A. It seems that more often than not natural scientists succeed in their fields by simply pursuing personal
intellectual interests.
B. However, in social sciences, many great thinkers who made great contributions to society did commit
themselves to great social ideals.
28. Position: Originality conies from both thinking something that was never thought before and putting old ideas
together in new ways.
A. Originality is especially expressed in the ability to make connections, to make associations, to turn things
around and express them in new ways.
B. Originality also emerges out of personal commitment to raise new questions, explore new possibilities and be
willing to implement ideas that may not be in tune with the conventional way of doing things.
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29. Position: The study of an academic discipline not only alters the way we perceive the world, but also changes
the way we interact with the world.
A. Academic disciplines provide us with various new methodologies to interpret our world, which reshapes our
understanding of the reality.
B. With the change in our perception of the world, the way we interact with our world will also be changed
correspondingly.
30. Position: While we admit the influence of personality in academic work, doing so should not lead to denying
the significance of training.
A. It should be confessed that one's personality may exert some impact on his or her academic pursuits.
B. However, any field of study involves the mastery of certain recognized methods, which is key for researchers
who intend to make achievements in that field.
C. Extensive training, therefore, is a necessary and important part of an academic career.
31. Position: As our knowledge of the world accumulates, we arrive at a higher stage of civilization although the
world may appear more complex and more mysterious.
A. The world in the eyes of primitive tribes was much simpler and thus more "comprehensible" in a sense and
certainly more backward.
B. If we compare the known part of the world to the space within a circle, the unknown part of the world around
the circle grows as the circle of our knowledge expands.
C. There is no need to feel frustrated about the increasingly more complex and more mysterious world that we
confront because our knowledge in total keeps growing and correspondingly we are becoming better equipped to
cope with the problems that emerge.
32. Position: Inductive reasoning might be more important and certainly more popular than deductive reasoning,
which, however, does not necessarily imply doing the latter is "a grave mistake."
A. The scientific revolution in the 17th century introduced into the academic world a new way of thinking—basing
arguments on the accumulation of facts, observation and experimentation—which led to great scientific advances
in the following centuries.
B. On the other hand, sometimes making bold assumptions about the unknown is not only necessary but also
worthwhile.
33. Position: The speaker in the title statement exaggerates the uncertainty as to whether we can trust factual
information.
A. It is true that what people assume to be factual may turn out to be inaccurate.
B. The process of arriving at truth is a gradual one; therefore, proving the inaccuracy of facts is not a disaster but a
progress.
C. The right attitude towards facts is to accept them and at the same time remain alert to their fallibility.
34. Position: It should be admitted that luxuries and conveniences tend to spoil people.
A. It is true that people everywhere ceaselessly pursue a luxurious and convenient life.
B. However, if young people indulge in the luxuries and conveniences of contemporary life, they may lose the
qualities of diligence, endurance, courage, curiosity, etc.
C. Only by taking challenges in life can one learn to become a strong and independent individual.
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35. Position: Traditional societies tend to require individuals to conform to customs and group needs, which harms
the growth of independent and creative individuals.
A. In traditional societies, people conform to the same mode of thinking and behavior.
B. On the contrary, in industrialized societies such America, individuals are encouraged to think and behave
differently, as a result of which the society is reduced to a collection of atomistic individuals who are isolated from
one another.
C. In an ideal society, individuals should be encouraged both to stand independently and to cooperate reciprocally.
36. Position: Like it or not, public figures are bound to lose some of their privacy.
A. It seems to be part of human nature to be curious about other people's privacy, not to mention the privacy of
public figures.
B. The personal lives of celebrities provide the best materials for feature stories on the profit-oriented mass media.
C. However, at least theoretically, the privacy of celebrities should be respected by the mass media as well as the
larger society.
37. Position: With the increasing marketization of every aspect of our lives, an appealing public image has indeed
taken precedence over the reality or truth behind that image.
A. In business, advertising determines to a large extent the sales of any product.
B. In politics, the presidential election—a symbol of democracy—has turned out to be an advertising campaign.
C. In the cultural realm, what the mass media engage in is image-making.
D. However, fortunately, images will soon break up if there is no essential content to support them.
38. Position: Demystifying heroes is a double-edged sword, which is puzzling our age of mass society.
A. On the one hand, it helps lift ordinary people to a higher plateau to think that the so-called heroes are actually
the same as everybody else.
B. On the other hand, the death of heroes could also result in smugness, a psychic obstacle that hinders ordinary
people from ameliorating their qualities or personalities.
39. Position: While I admit that people's behavior is largely influenced by external forces out of their control, I
insist that individuals should be held responsible for their own actions.
A. Organizational management rests on the basic assumption that individuals should and can take responsibility in
accordance with their specific roles in an organization.
B. Many political, social as well as familial problems result from the lack of a sense of individual responsibility.
C. Admittedly, the fact that individuals, as social animals, are molded by the social environment in which they
grow up, should draw our attention to the government's responsibility in constructing and maintaining a social
environment contributive to the healthy growing of individuals.
40. Position: While teamwork is productive, it does not necessarily motivate people more than individual
competition does.
A. In a team, members offer different perspectives and solutions to problems, leading to innovation and creativity.
B. The cooperative atmosphere of a team provides every member with spiritual support.
C. However, common sense tells us that individual competition can also motivate people to work productively. It is
part of human nature to seek for fame and honor.
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41. Position: It is truth that, more often than not, a person is restricted by his or her own habits and attitudes rather
than by external forces.
A. Removing a bad habit from within is usually more difficult than overcoming an external obstacle.
B. A person's mode of thinking sets the boundary of his or her observation and actions.
C. With the right attitude, all the setbacks in the world will not make one a failure; however, with the wrong mental
attitude, all the help in the world will not make one a success.
42. Position: In this practical and competitive world, being practical is essential to one's survival; yet an ideal
gives us a direction in our pursuit of success.
A. Any human undertaking irrespective of the hard facts and laws of reality is destined to failure.
B. However, ideals give us hope and enthusiasm, lifting us to new heights and helping us to overcome
self-imposed limitations.
C. A person or a nation can be both idealistic and pragmatic at the same time.
43. Position: We don't have to look very far to see the truth of this argument.
A. As social animals, we live in groups and therefore are necessarily connected with other individuals in society.
B. To define ourselves academically, we can cite the university we attend.
C. When we identify ourselves with a religious group, we find our faith.
D. When we identify ourselves with a political group, we are aware of our political concerns.
44. Position: Any discovery or progress results from ceaseless efforts to overcome one setback after another.
A. Mistakes help us find out what is unworkable and hence we can approach the right solution.
B. Fearing making mistakes prevents us from trying new things and taking risks.
C. The right attitude toward mistakes is not to try to avoid them, but to learn from them.
45. Position: Both individuality and conformity contribute to personal economic success.
A. On the one hand, to succeed in the business world, one has to conform to the rigid rules of company
bureaucracy as well as professional ethics.
B. On the other hand, individuality in terms of product designing, service styles, advertising strategy, etc., has
proven to be an effective knack of business success.
46. Position: The seemingly paradoxical statement does make sense in Western intellectual history.
A. In the history of Christianity, Martin Luther, who was most deeply committed to his faith, turned out to be the
most critical of the Roman papacy, and launched the Reformation movement in the 16th century, which forever
changed the landscape of Christianity.
B. One way to understand the Marxist radicals who most mercilessly attack capitalism is to view them as people
who are most concerned about democracy and freedom.
C. The reason of this ironical phenomenon might be that only when one is most deeply committed to an idea or
policy can he or she become most concerned about its perfection.
47. Position: While I admit that prejudice is related to emotion, I insist that information can at least alleviate if not
eliminate prejudice.
A. Prejudice refers to unreasonable feelings, opinions, or attitudes, especially of a hostile nature, directed against a
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racial, religious, or national group. Persons within the group are viewed not in terms of their individual merit but
according to the superficial characteristics that mark them part of the group.
B. Psychologists have identified the highly prejudiced individual as an authoritarian personality, who tends to
overgeneralize and thinks in bipolar terms; such persons are highly conventional, moralistic, and uncritical of
higher authority.
C. The only effective way to deal with prejudice might be communication, through which new and conflicting
information is juxtaposed to stimulate self-examination.
48. Position: An effective leader should not only stick to certain principles and objectives, but also pay attention to
the opinions of the public.
A. A leader without principles and objectives is an opportunist and will fail to win the support of the public sooner
or later.
B. However, if a leader completely ignores popular opinion, he or she may also lose the public support.
C. Moreover, principles and objectives should be subject to modification according to the dictates of
circumstances.
49. Position: Since experience and imagination supplement each other, they are equally important. A. Experience
with no imagination is like a bird that has no wings because imagination helps to lift experience to a higher
plateau.
B. Imagination with no experience is like water without a source or a tree without roots because experience is raw
materials needed to actualize imagination.
50. Position: The speaker exaggerates the impact of people's desire to differentiate themselves from others.
A. In the scientific community, it would be ridiculous to think that a scientist proposes a new theory simply in
order to show that his idea differs from those held by the majority.
B. A person who is not committed to and convinced by an idea will not be able to stick to it in the face of the
opposition of the majority; neither can he or she convince the majority and become an opinion leader.
C. Admittedly, opinion leaders in any field are usually people with strong individuality and ambition.
51. Position: While I agree that the human condition has much bearing with "human nature," I doubt whether
ensuring all people a reasonable share of territory and resources can eliminate wars and crimes in the world.
A. Perhaps most wars and crimes in the world result from the unreasonable distribution of wealth and land.
B. The problem is: who is to dictate how much is "a reasonable share"?
C. Still we should work to bring out a world where all people have equal opportunity to success and can live a
decent life through honest labor.
52. Position: Teamwork and individual work do not necessarily conflict with each other; they are both crucial to
innovation.
A. Brainstorming, which is widely used in management for problem-solving, serves as a typical example of how
teamwork and individual work can complement each other.
B. Meanwhile, cooperation is becoming more and more important for completing large projects in any field.
C. Of course, history is filled with examples of inventions and discoveries made by individuals.
53. Position: In the last analysis, we have to admit that our behavior is subject to the influence of various external
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social and cultural forces.
A. In an age of consumption, advertising defines to a large extent what we want.
B. The cultural environment in which we are born and grow up also determines what we want.
C. In such a mass society and digital age, it is highly necessary for us to return to ourselves now and then and
reflect what we really want.
54. Position: There are various ways to define success and hence different approaches to achieve success.
A. People can succeed by surviving and changing a new environment.
B. On the other hand, excelling in an old environment can also lead to success.
55. Position: It is true that most people have to be pragmatic in choosing a career, but I believe that people should
choose to do what they enjoy and what they are good at.
A. In an over-populated world, the job market is always the buyer's market, which makes it almost impossible for
job seekers to choose their careers at will.
B. However, to be successful means to know what you are doing, to like what you are doing and to believe what
you are doing.
56. Position: Although the idealist way is to achieve the noblest goal through the noblest means, in reality we
sometimes have to resort to low means in order to attain high goals.
A. Theoretically, the means taken should be consistent with the ends in view.
B. However, in order to restore peace and social order, individual states or the international community has
repeatedly used force in history.
C. We should be alert to the possibility that individuals, organizations or governments tend to plead a worthy goal
in excuse of their contemptible means and private interests.
57. Position: Focusing on the similarities between different things may blind us from seeing their unique
characteristics.
A. Classification helps us grasp the essential features of complex phenomena.
B. However, putting different things into separate categories may lead to an oversimplication of the complexities
of things.
C. Considering a thing on its own terms is a wise principle that we can apply to a variety of fields of our lives.
58. Position: The common notion that people today confront more complex and challenging problems than their
predecessors is unfounded.
A. When we compare the problem we face today and those faced by our predecessors, we should heed both the
complexity of the problems and the availability of resources for solving the problems.
B. Different eras in history were faced with different problems that were hardly comparable.
C. We should not look for excuses for failing to fulfil our own responsibility in meeting the challenges posed by
our age.
59. Position: While moderation could be regarded as a wise piece of advice in most cases, intense focus is
necessary in many areas of human concerns.
A. In politics as well as interpersonal relationships, following the advice of moderation might be a safe way to
success.
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B. However, in severe competitions such as sports, moderation can only lead to mediocrity.
C. In addition, there is no place for moderation in the field of science and technology, where extreme precision is
the norm.
60. Position: People accept certain restrictions and regulations in order to guarantee as much freedom as possible.
A. A society without any restrictions and regulations will soon deteriorate into a state of constant conflicts or even
war.
B. Restrictions and regulations are made to ensure order, stability and security.
C. At the same time, we should be alert to the danger of enslaving ourselves with restrictions and regulations.
61. Position: Loyalty to individual or organization could become an obstacle to personal achievements.
A. Loyalty refers to faithful adherence to a person, an institution, a cause or the like.
B. Our loyalty to a former friend who now sides with our opponents would hinder us from making right dicisions
and taking necessary actions.
C. An organization to which we belonged in the past may have changed its nature and therefore no longer deserves
our loyalty.
62. Position: A society where conformity is the norm must be lacking in creativity and vitality.
A. Conformity tends to stifle curiosity and experiment, blocking to way to discovery and invention.
B. Rebellion against established practices and authorities is the secret of success in academic as well as
professional fields.
C. However, it is necessary to conform to just laws and the long-tested moral codes, without which a society might
become a plate of sands or a jungle.
63. Position: Whether political leaders should withhold information from the public depends on whether doing so
benefits the public.
A. In a democratic society, theoretically speaking, the public has the right to access any information concerning
their interests.
B. In reality, "the right to know" is very often denied by the authority or neglected by the public themselves, which
does harm to the society as a whole.
C. Under certain circumstances when national interests are at stake, it might be necessary for political leaders to
withhold some key information.
64. Position: Disobeying and resisting unjust laws is just as important as obeying just laws.
A. Undoubtedly, every citizen should obey just laws, which preconditions a stable and orderly society.
B. Yet it is more important for individuals to resist unjust laws, for doing so will help improve the legal system of a
nation.
C. In a democratic society, individuals should be allowed to challenge unjust laws through civil disobedience.
65. Position: I would support the idea that a public official should be a moral example to the public.
A. Nowadays people are more concerned about a public official's talents and achievements in his official career.
B. Trivializing the moral standards of the public official would harm the morality of the whole society.
C. A official without high ethical and moral standards will not be able to lead the public effectively.
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66. Position: The television has made it possible for the public to view government at work, which is a great
progress for the democratic cause.
A. The television provides ordinary people with an unprecedented channel to learn about politics.
B. Live broadcast of government proceedings helps the public to supervise their political representatives, forcing
public officials to fulfilling their promises.
C. Besides, the television can also contribute to the public participation in social reforms.
67. Position: Honesty is still a virtue for a politician though it might not be useful all the time.
A. A common notion is that politics is a struggle for power, in the process of which everyone tries to cheat and
outwit others.
B. Another argument often cited to defend dishonesty in politics is: Means justify ends.
C. The virtue of honesty may often prove useless for a politician, but it will prove useful for the public.
68. Position: It is impossible to separate politics from morality.
A. Politicians themselves should behave morally while they engage in politics.
B. The ultimate goal of politics is to foster a good society, which is a highly ethical undertaking.
C. Ignoring the moral concerns of politics could result in political corruption and opportunism.
69. Position: Ultimately, laws should be adaptable to the changing circumstances, times, and places.
A. On the one hand, laws should remain relatively stable and consistent; otherwise individuals in society would not
know what course to take.
B. On the other hand, laws are liable to become outdated since the society keeps advancing.
C. Another reason why laws could become inapplicable is that a particular law is already obsolete at the time of
making due to the legislators' lack of relevant knowledge.
70. Position: Although the pursuit of an ideal is not totally irrelevant to politics, the search for common ground
and reasonable consensus should take precedence over the former.
A. Individuals and groups engaging in politics are people with particular interests that almost always contradict
each other.
B. The goal of democratic politics is to seek compromise and mutual agreement among involved interest groups.
C. It should be admitted that some ultimate basic values such as liberty, equality and the pursuit of happiness
should be upheld as ideals to guide the political process.
71. Position: The primary goal of technological advancement is to make the world a more comfortable place to
live in.
A. Technology has helped to make people's work more efficient and their life more colorful.
B. The unprecedented advancement in technology today has also caused some unexpected negative effects to
human society.
C. It is important to
remember that the goal of technology is people—their quality of life.
72. Position: Investing in research will benefit the society sooner or later.
A. It is generally agreed that science is the most dynamic productive force in modem times.
B. Sometimes the result of a research can cause much controversy in society. (Cloning is a typical example)
C. There is good reason to remain optimistic, believing that the side effects of a research result will be overcome
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and that truth rather than falsehood or ignorance serves human interests best in the long run.
73. Position: Technology cannot change the condition of humanity; human beings themselves can.
A. The past century witnessed unprecedented war and violence as well as unprecedented technological progress.
B. Technology can change the physical conditions of human existence.
C. However, only through our ceaseless conscious efforts as well as our firm belief in mutual respect and tolerance
can we essentially improve human conditions, bringing about a world of mutual understanding, trust and
cooperation.
74. Position: We should consider both the short-term and long-term interests of society when we set research
priorities.
A. Undoubtedly, the ultimate aim of any scientific or educational undertaking is to facilitate people's lives.
B. However, we should realize that human beings have short-terra interests and long-term interests.
C. Thus, we should keep a balance between theoretical research and applied research when we set research
priorities.
75. Position: The speaker oversimplifies the function of either science or art.
A. While science not only reassures us by providing answers to our questions and solutions to our problems, it also
upsets us by arousing our curiosity about the unknown and creating new problems to bother us.
B. On the other hand, art can upset us by exposing the hidden problems in our lives; it can also reassure us by
relaxing us and by soothing our worries and anxieties.
76. Position: It is true that technology may threaten or damage the quality of life, but I am optimistic that
technology has solved more problems than it has caused and will remain under our control.
A. Technology has greatly increased human beings' power to harness natural force for human purposes.
B. Technology has dramatically improved the living conditions of human beings.
C. Admittedly, technology is a double-edged sword, which, if misused, might undermine the quality of our lives
and even threaten our existence.
77. Position: Human beings should take into consideration both their long-term interests and short-term interests
in developing technology.
A. On the one hand, we should maximize the use of existing technology in solving more urgent problems
confronting human beings.
B. On the other hand, it is necessary to invest more resources in developing more advanced technology to cope
more effectively with the existing problems.
C. It should be admitted that large sums of time, money and energy are being wasted today to research in and
produce more destructive weapons against human lives.
78. Position: Accidental discoveries and inventions were numerous in the history of science.
A. Benjamin Franklin, an early American scientist, invented the lightening rod by sheer accident.
B. The falling of an apple from an apple tree to the ground set Newton into thinking and finally led to his
discovery of the gravity of the earth.
C. Penicillin was also an accidental discovery.
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79. Position: The mass media should focus on more meaningful events and trends that concern the long-term
interests of society.
A. The media are full of sensational events every day to attract the audience for their advertising shots.
B. Profit motive on the part of the media and curiosity about novel and surprising news on the part of the audience
are the two major factors that have led to the dominance of sensational events on the media.
C. However, to better serve the society, the media should devote more time or space to discussing more serious
social problems in order to mobilize the social resources to find out solutions.
80. Position: Watching television cannot replace reading books as a way of learning.
A. Television tends to create passive viewers by providing instant culture.
B. Television works better as a means of entertainment instead of education.
C. Reading books remains the most efficient way for people to acquire information and knowledge.
81. Position: Employing celebrities for advertising has proved to be an effective way to sell products.
A. In every society, celebrities are employed to promote products.
B. Celebrity advertising appeals to false authority and emotion for effectiveness.
C. Although celebrity advertising proves effective for producers as well as advertisers, it does not necessarily make
consumers feel better about themselves.
82. Position: No evidence indicates that tourism will soon die out due to the arrival of the information age.
A. There is no doubt that television and the Internet have provided people with un unprecedented opportunity to
learn about every comer of the earth without ever stepping out of their houses.
B. However, traveling has incomparable advantages over passively viewing sceneries or episodes on television or
computer screens.
C. Empirical evidence indicates that international tourism is actually growing rapidly.
83. Position: Although high-speed electronic media bring convenience to people's communication, it cannot
replace face-to-face communication.
A. High-speed electronic communications media can perform most functions that traditional media have provided.
B. High-speed electronic communications media have obvious advantages over traditional way of communications:
high speed, vividness and economy.
C. However, high-speed electronic communications media tend to create passive, isolated and indifferent
communicators, preventing people from effective face-to-face interaction.
84. Position: The rising of the mass media has certainly contributed to the death of heroes.
A. The intensive media coverage shortens or even deletes the physical as well as psychological distance—a
precondition of the existence of heroes—between the audience and the figures on the media.
B. The media are especially good at exposing the private lives of famous people, who otherwise might become
heroes.
C. Finally, the media have the power to mass-produce celebrities, in which case none of them has the hope of
becoming a hero.
85. Position: Before mainstream science can answer all questions that puzzle people, those nonmainstream areas
of inquiry will continue to play important roles in our society.
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A. The believers of astrology and fortunetelling are usually uneducated people and the underclass of the society.
B. One of the major functions of the nonmainstream areas of inquiry is to comfort people who worry about their
future.
C. The nonmainstream areas of inquiry can also satisfy people's curiosity about the unknown world.
86. Position: It is my belief that modern society is suffering more from the monopoly of the cold logic.
A. In education, the standardized reasonable tests are doing more to discipline or, in other words, to restrain rather
than to free students' mind.
B. In industry, the assembly line or the more recent computerization of office is trying to format our mind and
behavior.
C. Therefore, in an age of information and technology it is more imperative for us to emphasize the cultivation of
emotion and imagination.
87. Position: Logical and statistical measurement is not the only way to evaluate our progress.
A. We live in a digital age, in which almost everything is measured in statistical terms.
B. Logic and statistics do provide us with useful tools to indicate our achievements.
C. However, it is unreasonable to evaluate the artistic and intellectual progress of a society in purely logical and
mathematical terms.
88. Position: Since human processes have greatly accelerated the extinction of many species, human beings should
spare no efforts to save endangered species.
A. Natural processes did eliminate some species through natural selection; however, it did not break the balance of
the ecosystem.
B. Due to human processes, including pollution and exterminatory exploitation of natural resources, our natural
environment is being threatened, and the extinction of rare species has been accelerated.
C. Since the diversity of species is beneficial for human beings, effective measures must be adopted to protect
endangered species.
89. Position: The speaker oversimplifies the issue of choice.
A. On the one hand, economic progress has greatly contributed to people's freedom of choice in terms of
consumption and life styles.
B. On the other hand, culturally speaking, diversity is disappearing due to the trend of globalization.
C. Another phenomenon worth pointing out is that people in developed countries enjoy more freedom of choice
than people in the developing world.
90. Position: Benefits gained by one part of the citizens usually cause discontent on the part of other citizens,
which is unavoidable in a complex society.
A. Different values and interests in a society are somehow irreconcilable.
B. The widening income gap between the wealthy few and the poor majority has been a target of blame in every
industrial society.
C. The stability of a society depends on the compromise of various interests and values.
91. Position: Challenging authority leads to progress in every field and the improvement of a society.
A. Challenging political authority forces politicians and the government to be more democratic, efficient,
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responsible and honest.
B. Challenging academic authority promotes academic progress.
C. However, a society in which individuals show no respect at all to any form of authority faces the danger of
disintegration.
92. Position: It is my belief that tradition and modernization can coexist and contribute to the development of each
other.
A. Tradition refers to the beliefs, values, customs, way of life, crafts, etc., that are handed down from generation to
generation in a society.
B. Modernization refers to the process of urbanization, industrialization and democratization, or in a large sense,
westernization.
C. Many traditional wisdoms are still relevant and can inspire us to search for solutions to present problems.
D. The correct way to modernize a culture is to transform or reform its tradition rather than to uproot its tradition.
93. Position: Corporate executives should take more responsibilities than simply staying within the law.
A. Admittedly, corporate executives should make every effort to increase the profits of their companies.
B. Besides making as much money as possible, corporate executives should be aware of businesses' social
responsibilities.
C. Taking some social responsibilities will benefit companies in the long run.
94. Position: Legal measures cannot replace moral nurture in maintaining a harmonious society.
A. The legal system is intended to force people to abide by certain social rules and to commit no crimes, which is
the precondition of any stable and orderly society.
B. Morality encourages people to do good or at least motivates them to consciously act in accordance with law.
C. A harmonious society necessitates the joint efforts of legal restraint and moral admonition.
95. Position: Scandals can give an impetus to social reforms.
A. Media coverage of scandals is the most effective way to draw the public attention to certain social problems.
B. Numerous examples in history indicate that exposing a scandal often contributes to a social effort to solve the
relevant problem.
C. Fear of scandals can force a government or a political party to improve its public performance.
96. Position: Practicalism has become the mainstream of contemporary world culture, threatening the balanced
thriving of human life.
A. In this practical age, practicality has indeed become a great idol in every field of our life.
B. After the Cold War, world countries have lost enthusiasm in great ideals, which is not necessarily a negative
effect.
C. Meanwhile, there has been a puzzling growth of interest among many people in unpractical things such as
religion, adventure, traveling, arts, ect., which implies a growing concern about spiritual life in a technological
civilization.
97. Position: Putting new ideas into practice might be more difficult than simply showing approval of them.
A. The application of a new invention or a new idea in reality would greatly affect people's habitual way of living,
which is where the first difficulty lies.
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B. The second difficulty comes from the fact that applying a new invention or a new idea will harm the vested
interests of some people.
C. However, it should be confessed that understanding and accepting a new idea could be extremely difficult as
well.
98. Position: The character of a society's heroes or heroines typically reflects the character of the society.
A. A hero or a heroine is regarded as the model or ideal of a society.
B. Once a hero or heroine is chosen, he or she will exert a strong and lasting impact on the members of a society.
99. Position: The communication between people who have entirely different ideas can most effectively contribute
to the discovery of new ideas.
A. When people who have the same viewpoints discuss together, they are very likely to be trapped in a certain
mode of thinking—a shortcut to prejudice.
B. People with different ideas can enlighten each other.
C. To make possible the communication between people who have contrasting views, they should learn to tolerate
different opinions.
100. Position: Prisoners are entitled to basic human rights that society should respect.
A. The ultimate aim of imprisonment is to reform prisoners so that they could reenter society as qualified citizens
rather than maltreat them.
B. Giving cruel punishment to violent criminals does not necessarily deter potential offenders from committing
such crimes.
C. The society should make efforts to eradicate the roots of crimes.
101. Position: Video documentation is not necessarily more important than written records.
A. Admittedly, video documentation can be more vivid and direct than written records.
B. However, limited by time and space, video documentation provides very limited information.
C. By contrast, written documents can provide detailed, systematic and in-depth information about a historical
subject.
102. Position: Preserving historic buildings should take precedence over modern development.
A. Historic buildings serve as standing history textbooks.
B. Historic buildings can become valuable tourist resources.
C. Once destroyed, historic buildings can never be restored.
D. We can find ways to integrate the preservation of historic buildings with modem development.
103. Position: It takes decades, even centuries for people to fully feel, understand and evaluate the greatness of
individuals in history.
A. In politics, the greatness of the Founding Fathers of the United States came to be fully realized only after their
major contribution—the Constitution—had endured the test of times and proved to be the solid foundation of
American democracy.
B. In the history of arts and literature, many of the great figures that we admire today died in obscurity.
C. One of the most important reasons might be that great people usually go ahead of their times.
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104. Position: One can hardly say for sure that history was created by ordinary people.
A. It is true that traditional history books give too much space to the great figures in history.
B. However, we should not deny the significant roles that the great figures played in the making of history.
C. Understandably, historians today should do more work to let us hear the voices of the forgotten majority.
105. Position: The study of history has much value beyond benefiting our daily lives.
A. The society as a whole can learn to avoid repeating mistakes by studying the grave mistakes in human history.
B. The study of history can also help us understand our present society.
C. Great figures in history serve as examples to inspire us in our lives as well as in our careers.
106. Position: Although exploring history can be a creative enterprise, saying that all historians are storytellers is
misleading.
A. It should be admitted that the study of history is not a purely objective pursuit.
B. However, there are marked differences between historians who adhere to a strict set of academic rules and
storytellers who mainly rely on the use of imagination.
107. Position: The dramatic changes taking place in our lives do not make the study of history completely
irrelevant.
A. Changes in every field of society are taking place in an unprecedented rate.
B. It is true that the study of history usually cannot provide direct solutions to present problems.
C. However, knowledge of history helps us understand the problems that puzzle us today.
D. We can also learn to avoid repeating mistakes made by our predecessors.
108. Position: The speaker suggests that people in one period of time are more or less the same as people who
lived at other time in history, which is unwarranted.
A. In terms of faith and values, modern people differ greatly from people who lived in the Middle Ages in the
West.
B. In terms of life styles, contemporary Americans have almost nothing in common with their puritan
ancestors—the first settlers in the New World.
C. Even in the same period of time in history, people living in one culture could be different in many ways from
people in another culture,
109. Position: I am in favor of the opinion that imaginative works have a more lasting significance than factual
accounts.
A. Factual accounts focus on the particularities of a specific event in a specific period of history.
B. On the contrary, while fiction writers do describe the particular characteristics of a particular event in a
particular period of history, their focus is on the common concerns of all generations such as love and hate,
happiness and grief, success and failure as well as the basic human relationships.
C. As a result, people of different times could be moved by the same work.
110. Position: Artists are apt at revealing the inner world of human beings.
A. The arts aim at depicting the feelings and attitudes of individuals in a society.
B. Paintings and music most vividly embody the spirits and character of a society.
C. By reading literature, we get to know not only the experience of a society, but also the hidden ideas and
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impulses of the society.
111. Position: We should do justice to both high-brow art and popular art.
A. There is no denying the fact that most people today have not much interest in contemporary art, which is a great
pity.
B. One of the reasons why contemporary art is losing its audience is that many artists today choose to isolate
themselves from the public.
C. However, it is naive to claim that there should be only one form of art, that is, the popular art.
112. Position: While we value the contribution of the artist, there is no need to trivialize the significance of the
critic's work.
A. It is common knowledge that without artists there would be no works of art of any sort.
B. However, it is usually the critic who discovers the artist, makes him or her known to the public, and records his
or her achievements in the history of art.
C. Additionally, the critic's criticism helps the artist to improve his or her work.
113. Position: The function of art is more than just helping contemporary people to escape from the pressure and
alienation imposed by science and technology.
A. Understandably, art provides people with an imagined world in which they could relax or "escape" from the real
world dominated by science and technology.
B. On the other hand, one could also see that art has indeed kept pace with and has benefited from the development
of science and technology.
C. If we are doomed to live with science and technology, the most important function of art should be humanizing
science and technology.
114. Position: The speaker unfairly assumes that the arts are useless and hence supporting the arts is a waste of
money.
A. In the first place, without public support, some artists may find it difficult to survive in the market.
B. In the second place, artists play an irreplaceable role in our society—enriching our lives.
C. Finally, artists provide spiritual support to the hungry and the unemployed, enabling them to confront the
challenges of life.
115. Position: The value of a work of art should be assessed in terms of its aesthetic merit rather than the number
of people who can understand it.
A. In a society where most people are poorly educated or even uneducated, art is a luxury that most people either
have no access to or simply cannot appreciate.
B. Popular arts that have the largest audience do not necessarily have the highest artistic value.
C. Both popular arts and high-brow arts should have the right to develop and thrive.
116. Position: I am inclined to argue that the rural areas of a nation deserve more attention from the government.
A. First of all, due to the impact of globalization, the cities of the world are being homogenized; as a consequence,
a nation's cultural traditions might be better preserved and generated in the rural area.
B. In addition, the increasing trend of urbanization has resulted in the poverty of the countryside, threatening the
survival of a nation's traditional cultures.
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117. Position: We don't have to go very far to see the truth of this argument.
A. First of all, every culture is characterized by a unique set of rituals and ceremonies.
B. Furthermore, we know who we are through understanding and observing a particular set of rituals and
ceremonies prescribed by our culture.
C. Meanwhile, in every culture of the world, traditional rituals and ceremonies are declining, indicating the
modern trend of secularization and globalization.
118. Position: It is reasonable to say that people's dressing manners reveal the ideas and values characteristic of
their culture.
A. People of different countries dress differently:
the French dress romantically; the Americans dress colorfully;
the Japanese dress formally.
B. Changes in people's dressing styles coincide with value changes of a society.
C. The phenomenon that blue jeans or some other fashions have become international indicates the global trend
towards cultural homogeneity.
119. Position: We praise a civilization both for its artistic creations and for its scientific accomplishments.
A. Western civilization serves as a typical example of a balanced development of arts and science.
B. By contrast, the Chinese civilization has bequeathed the world a rich legacy of artistic creations, but its
scientific accomplishments are insignificant.
C. A dynamic civilization should aim at promoting the prosperity of both the arts and science.
120. Position: It is meaningful for world nations to cooperate with each other in establishing an international
university where teachers and students from all over the world work together for the good of all nations.
A. The world's most persistent social problems include environmental pollution, energy crisis, conflicts and wars
between nations, and so on.
B. An effective way to solve these problems is to promote mutual understanding and cooperation among the youth
worldwide.
C. Numerous problems such as location, working language, curriculum, etc., have to be solved before this global
university comes into operation.
121. Position: The government of a country should make great efforts to protect its endangered language.
A. Many languages of the world are becoming extinct.
B. The disappearance of a language results in the death of a culture, an irreversible loss for human civilization.
C. Not only the relevant government but also UNESCO should take action to preserve the world's lesser known
languages that are facing extinction.
122. Position: Globalization caused by the growth of global networks does not equally benefit every society as
well as every aspect of society.
A. Education and sciences might be the two areas that benefit most from cross-cultural communication and
international cooperation.
B. However, in politics, globalization has actually widened the gap between rich countries and poor countries,
paralyzing many national governments of the developing world.
C. Moreover, in the realm of arts, diversity and originality are being threatened by the blurring of national
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boundaries and cultural identifications in the face of the accelerating speed of transportation, and the
homogenizing effect of the global media and multinational corporations.
123. Position: I would whole-heartedly support the idea that a great nation is mainly characterized by the general
welfare of all its people.
A. Too often we focus our attention on the achievements of a nation's rulers, artists, or scientists.
B. However, the greatness of a nation depends on to what extent it can meet the needs of all its people.
C. In a great nation, every individual is entitled to equal opportunity for personal development and the success of
every individual would contribute to the welfare of the whole society.
124. Position: Whether one believes that individual nations could coexist harmoniously depends on whether he or
she is an optimist or a pessimist.
A. It is true that many cultures in the world hold different values.
B. It is also true that different cultures of the world are communicating more often and more effectively with each
other today than centuries ago.
C. Real harmony depends not on sameness but on diversity.
D. The best way to promote harmony among individual nations is to encourage communication, tolerance and
mutual respect.
125. Position: In my opinion, human civilization has reached a stage at which different countries of the world
should view themselves as neighbors of the same village.
A. In terms of economy, different countries of the world today are closely connected with each other through the
global market and the global financial system.
B. The deterioration of global environment should help us realize that people of different countries are actually in
the same boat.
C. What's more, global media have made it impossible for us to isolate ourselves from the rest parts of the world.
二.逻辑问题提纲
说明：下列每题标号后的黑体句，表明该论题的原始结论，便于你复习时查找和记忆。
1. Nature's Way should build a new store in Plainsville.
A. In the first place, the argument is based on the gratuitous assumption that the residents in Plainsville who are
enthusiastic about sports and exercise will automatically become Nature's Way's customers.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to take into account other relevant factors that might affect the business of
Nature's Way in Plainsville, such as the presence of competitors, the population of the area, the eating habits of the
local residents, etc.
2. Deerhaven Acres should adopt a set of restrictions on landscaping and housepainting.
A. First of all, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this" in assuming that adopting a set
of restrictions regarding the landscaping of yards and the painting of the exteriors of homes has resulted in the
tripling of the property values in Brookville.
B. In addition, based on a false analogy, the arguer unfairly assumes that Deerhaven Acres could necessarily raise
its property values by simply coping the policy of Brookville.
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3. The large firms should offer law school graduates more benefits.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to convince us that it was the lack of job satisfaction that resulted in the 15%
decline in the number of law school graduates who went to work for large corporate firms.
B. In the second place, the result of the survey of first-year students at a leading law school does not lend strong
support to the assumption that the smaller firm in the city of Megalopolis could offer more job satisfaction to
graduates who choose to work there.
C. Finally, no evidence is provided as to why the large, corporate firms should offer graduates more benefits and
incentives and reduce the number of work hours and how taking these actions could lead to job satisfaction.
4. You should use Adams to sell your home.
A. The arguer unfairly assumes that Fitch Realty necessarily sells homes more slowly than Adams Realty.
B. Another assumption in short of legitimacy is that Adams can sell every home at a better price than Fitch.
5. The C Note cannot help but make money.
A. Although over 100,000 people attended Monroe's jazz festival last year, in the absence of detailed statistics, it is
impossible to tell how many of these 100,000 people are local Monroe people and how many of them are typical
jazz fans who each spend $1000 per year on jazz entertainment.
B. In addition, whether the proposed club can have the local market all to itself is still open to doubt since 65 miles
is not such a big obstacle for jazz fans who have private cars.
6. We should elect Ann Green to solve the environmental problems.
A. To begin with, the arguer fails to convince us that the current members of the Clearview town council are not
protecting the environment.
B. Next, the arguer does not provide concrete evidence to demonstrate that Frank Braun is not concerned about and
should be responsible for the listed environmental problems.
C. Finally, the assumption that all the environmental problems in Clearview will be solved with the election of Ann
Green as mayor of the city is totally unfounded.
7. Omni Inc. should buy Mesa Foods.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to provide substantial evidence that Mesa Foods can keep its current rate of
increase in profit.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to offer information about whether the 14-25 year olds, the age group that
Omni Inc is most interested in, have been the targeted consumers of the snack foods produced by Mesa.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to consider the possibility that people all over the country might have no interest in
Diabolique, Mesa's best selling local product.
8. Omega should terminate student evaluation.
A. In the first place, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this" in assuming that student
evaluation has resulted in the 30% increase in the overall student grade averages at Omega.
B. In the second place, the arguer is begging the question is assuming that Omega graduates have not been very
successful at finding employment due to their inflated grades.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to take into account other factors that might help Omega graduates to secure better jobs.
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9. The Batavia government should begin to regulate retail milk prices.
A. First, the arguer unfairly assumes that farmers have been receiving excessive profits.
B. In addition, the assumption that there has been an increased supply of milk during the past ten years is open to
doubt.
C. Finally there is no guarantee that regulating retail milk prices will lead to an adequate supply of milk for
consumers.
10. West Egg's landfill should last longer than expected.
A. The arguer fails to rule out the possibility that the growth of population at West Egg may lead to more garbage
disposal, which could offset the decrease of garbage disposal caused by garbage recycling.
B. Another unwarranted assumption is that the amount of material recycled should continue to increase.
C. Finally, in the absence of the procedure of the survey, the result of the survey tells us little about the overall
attitude of the residents toward recycling in the future.
11. Alta should shorten work shifts.
A. First of all, the arguer fails to take into account other factors that might be responsible for the higher percentage
of on-the-job accidents at Alta Manufacaturing.
B. In the second place, the experts' opinion does not lend direct support to what the arguer assumes.
C. Finally, the arguer ignores the potential negative impact that shortening work shifts would incur on Alt's
productivity.
12. Green Thumb can increase profits by expanding the variety of vegetable seeds.
A. The fact that many consumers-nationwide—were dissatisfied with the quality of fresh vegetables available in
the supermarkets does not ensure that the residents in the suburban town where Green Thumb locates would prefer
to grow their own vegetables.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to convince us that the gardening magazine Great Gardens has actually become
popular among all the local residents of the suburban town.
13. Old Dairy stockholders should sell their share and other investors should not purchase stock.
A. To begin with, the argument is based on a hasty generalization that Old Dairy would necessarily fail to market
many of its food products that are high in fat and cholesterol.
B. Furthermore, the arguer fails to convince us that Old Dairy's overall sales and profits would necessarily decline
in the future.
14. Impecunia should establish a state lottery.
A. To begin with, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this."
B. In addition, the assumption that a state lottery would necessarily succeed at the state of Impecunia is open to
doubt.
15. Walnut Grove should continue using EZ Disposal.
A. The arguer fails to provide necessary evidence about whether residents care more about the frequency of the
collection service than about the amount of money they are charged.
B. The fact that many residents are satisfied with EZ's performance does not eliminate the possibility that these
residents will be just as, if not more, satisfied with ABC's performance.
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C. The argument fails to point out the percentage of people who responded to the survey.
D. The fact that EZ has ordered additional trucks tells us little about EZ's performance.
16. Prunty County should restore its 55mph limit and imitate Butler County's road improvement project.
A. Fist, the arguer fails to warrant the assumption that the safety effort of Prunty County has failed.
B. Second, the assumption that Butler's road improvement project
succeeded in lowering its rate of accidents is
open to doubt.
C. Finally, the argument is based on a false analogy.
17. Double Rice rock band should hire Ad Lib advertising agency.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the advertising campaign run by Ad
Lib and the tickets sales of a recent concert in Megalopolis.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to convince us that Double Rice's recent concert achieved real success in
Megalopolis.
C. Last but not least, the arguer ignores other factors that might hinder the nationwide success of Double Rice.
18. Balmer Island should limit the number of mopeds.
A. In the first place, it is questionable that the measure adopted by the neighboring island of Torseau to limit the
number of rentals will achieve similar success at Balmer Island.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to take into account other relevant measures—enhancing the road condition,
increasing police force, etc.—which may be more effective in reducing accident rates involving mopeds and
pedestrians.
C. In the absence of any information concerning the causes of accidents in Balmer Island, the arguer is begging the
question in recommending limits on the number of mopeds rented during just one season of the whole year.
19. Sartorian should resume the production of deluxe alpaca overcoats.
A. The arguer assumes that there will be pent-up customer demand for deluxe alpaca overcoats, which is
unwarranted.
B. Another problem with this argument is that the arguer fails convince us that Sartorian would necessarily boost
its profits by selling deluxe alpaca overcoats.
20. We should build more high-priced houses and hire additional workers.
A. First, the arguer unfairly assumes that with the increase in the population of Steel City, more people will
purchase high-priced houses.
B. Second, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the faster-than-national- average growth in
family incomes of Steel City and the assumption that more people in this city will be able to afford high-priced
houses.
C. Finally, the fact that nationwide sales of houses priced above $150,000 have increased more than have sales of
lower-priced houses tells very little about the demand in the local housing market.
21. A new Bay City restaurant specializing in seafood will be quite popular and profitable.
A. The result of the recent sales study about consumption of seafood dishes does not imply that there is a big
market demand for a restaurant specializing in seafood.
B. In addition, the result of the nationwide study does not lend strong support to what the arguer claims.
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22. Viva-Tech should build a large central plant.
A. The arguer fails to provide evidence that building a large central plant is more cost-effective than keeping some
of the existing small assembly plants.
B. The arguer ignores other relevant factors worth considering in choosing an ideal location for the new high-tech
central plant.
23. Hopewell should build a golf course and resort hotel.
A. The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between building a new municipal golf course and resort hotel
in the town of Ocean View two years ago and subsequent increase in tourism, the opening of new businesses and
the growth of tax revenues.
B. Moreover, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy.
24. The Saluda school board should hire Mr. Schade to plan and direct the general music education
programs.
A. In the first place, the arguer commits a fallacy of concurrence in assuming that Mr. Schade has been a
successful music director because during his service in the past five years at Steel City High the school band has
won three regional band competitions.
B. In the second place, the improvement in the quality of the music rehearsal facilities and musical instruments at
Steel City High tells nothing about Professor Schade's performance or his ability as a music director.
C. Finally, the conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and probably misleading because the arguer fails to
provide any substantial evidence that Professor Schade is qualified for the proposed position as planner and
director of the general music education programs for the entire Saluda school system.
25. Automate should pay workers salaries equal to those Sparks pays its employees.
A. First, the comparison made between the salary level of Sparks and that of Automate is incomplete.
B. Second, the arguer unfairly suggests that some of Automate's employees have left to work for Sparks because of
the latter's higher salaries.
C. Third, the arguer fails to convince us that Automate would continue to lose employees if it does not raise
workers' salaries.
D. Finally, the arguer fails to take into account other factors that would motivate employees to switch from one
company to another.
26. Marlar school district should provide breakfast for all students.
A. The argument is based on a survey whose representativeness is open to doubt.
B. Another problem with the argument is that the arguer appeals to the so-called "common sense" that children
with good breakfast performs better, a conclusion which requires further support.
C. Last but not least, the arguer fails to take into account factors other than breakfast, which might account for the
absenteeism and tardiness of the students.
27. Health-conscious people should drink at least three cups of black tea.
A. For one thing, the arguer fails to demonstrate that long-term consumption of caffeinated black tea would
necessarily result in a much lower rate of stroke.
B. For another, the arguer fails to convince us that drinking no tea would necessarily result in higher rate of stroke.
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28. Elm City University should raise professor Thomas' pay and promote him to Department Chairperson.
A. First, the reasoning that Professor Thomas is popular among students and hence is a talented teacher because
her classes are among the largest in the university is open to doubt.
B. Second, the fact that Professor Thomas attracted some small research grants during the last two years tells little
about her research ability.
C. The arguer oversimplifies the issue of promoting Professor Thomas to Department Chairperson.
29. Environmental disaster can be prevented if consumes refuse to purchase products made with CCC's
copper.
A. First of all, the argument is based on the problematic assumption that mining copper in the nation of West
Fredonia will inevitably cause pollution and environmental disaster.
B. In addition, The arguer commits a fallacy of begging the question in assuming that consumers would be willing
to refuse to purchase products made with CCC's copper.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to take into account other measures that might help prevent the environmental disaster.
30. The correlation between high iron levels and heart disease is most probably a function of the correlation
between red meat and heart disease.
A. In the first place, the arguer unfairly equates the correlation between high levels of iron in the diet and an
increased risk of heart disease to a causal relationship.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to rule out other possible kinds of content in red meat that might account for
heart disease.
31. The article on corporate downsizing gives the mistaken impression.
A. First of all, the fact that many of those who lost their jobs have found new employment does not rule out the
possibility that they suffered serious economic hardship before finding other suitable employment.
B. In addition, the fact that since 1992 more jobs have been created than have been eliminated does not indicate
that the number of jobs available could meet the demand of unemployed workers.
C. Finally, the arguer does not rule out the possibility that many workers might have to accept under-average-wage
jobs (one-third of the total new jobs), and that many others may have to take part-time jobs.
32. Educational institutions are less in need of donations.
A. First, the result of the survey does not necessarily imply that more people are willing and able to give money to
charities.
B. Second, the arguer fails to convince us that funding for education is not a priority for most people because he
does not take into account the base amount of donations each group received the year before last.
C. Granted that the educational institutions received the smallest amount of donations last year, we cannot ensure
mat it was the donators' perception suggested by the arguer that resulted in the differences.
33. Anyone who snores should try to eat less than the average person and to exercise more.
A. In the first place, the arguer commits a fallacy of overgeneralization in claiming that anyone who snores should
try to eat less and exercise more simply because people who snore are more likely to gain weight.
B. In the second place, the arguer commits a fallacy of begging the question in assuming that anyone who snores
should eat less than the average person and exercise more.
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34. The town should improve the atmosphere of the libraries.
A. In the first place, the arguer unfairly assumes that the students are reading less than in the past.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to convince us that simply improving the atmosphere of the libraries would
necessarily make the students visit the library more frequently.
35. The sales of Whirlwind video games are likely to increase.
A. First, the arguer fails to analyze the reasons why the sales of Whirlwind video games declined over the past two
years.
B. Second, the advertising campaign directed at people 10 to 25 years old may turn out to be ineffective.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to take into account other factors that might affect the sales of the newly introduced
life-like video games.
36. Most people in Monroetown approve of Mr. Greene's proposal for raising taxes to improve education.
A. The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the generalization that people nationwide tend to
re-elect people already in office and the assumption that Mayor Brown was re-elected for the same reason.
B. Another assumption in short of legitimacy is the causal relationship claimed between most people's
disagreement with Mayor Brown's proposal and their favoring Mr. Green's proposal—a fallacy of false dilemma.
37. Get-Away Airlines should pay to send its mechanics to the Quality-Care Seminar.
A. First, the assumption that the Quality-Care Seminar contributed to the improved performance of the
maintenance crews in the automobile racing industry is open to doubt.
B. Second, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy.
C. Finally, no evidence is supplied as to how the Quality-Care Seminar could contribute to greater customer
satisfaction and greater profits for Get-Away Airlines.
38. The decline in the numbers of amphibians worldwide clearly indicates the global pollution of water and
air.
A. The arguer fails to rule out the possibility that the introduction of trout has caused the decline in amphibian
population in Yosemite National Park.
B. The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the global pollution of water and air and the decline
in the numbers of amphibians worldwide.
39. Former Mayor Durant should be responsible for the damage to the River Bridge and the traffic
problems.
A. First, the arguer unfairly assumes that none of the damage or problems would have occurred if Durant had
approved a wider and better-designed bridge.
B. Second, the arguer ignores other factors that might have made the River Bridge deteriorate much more rapidly
than Derby Bridge over the past 20 years.
40. We should charge people for using the beaches.
A. The arguer fails to see the possibility that the tourist industry of Tria Island may decline in the long run as well
as in the short run since tourists are most likely to travel to other islands that do not charge for the use of beaches.
B. Another point worth considering is that the arguer's conclusion rests on the questionable assumption that
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replenishing the sand, a method adopted by the nearby island of Batia with success, applies to Tria Island in
reducing the rate of erosion and in protecting the buildings along the shores.
41. Television viewers in Alta should demand that television programmers reduce the amount of violence
shown during prime time.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the increase in violence shown on
television and the increase in teenage crime in Alta.
B. In the second place, granted that the increase in violence on TV could result in the increase in teenage crime,
there is no guarantee that reducing the amount of violence shown during prime time would necessarily contribute
to the aim of lowering the rate of teenage crime in Alta.
42. Doctors should not recommend moderate exercise to their patients.
A. In the absence of the actual number of respondents, the reliability and representativeness of the result of the
survey is open to doubt.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between longevity and exercise.
C. In the third place, the survey did not include the group of women.
D. Another assumption in short of legitimacy is the false analogy between healthy people who participated in the
survey and patients who suffer from certain diseases.
43. The school board should encourage schools to buy books on tape and to use them in elementary
education.
A. First, the arguer ignores the negative effects that hearing books on tape might cause.
B. Second, the arguer fails to take into account other measures that schools might take to keep students from
turning away from schoolwork.
44. Your company should hire Dickens and let us turn every employee into an ambassador for your
company.
A. The arguer does not provide substantial evidence to demonstrate how the one-day seminars of the Dickens
Academy contributed to the increased sales of International Mega-Publishing.
B. Neither does the arguer convince us that the company's customer satisfaction really improved after its new
employees received training from the seminars.
C. In addition, granted that International Mega-Publishing did benefit from the seminars offered by Dickens, there
is good reason to doubt that all other companies should follow suit.
45. There is no reason to delay development of the ski resort.
A. The local merchant is appealing to false authority by citing the fact that the First National Bank has researched
the project and agreed to fund it and therefore the town should develop the ski resort.
B. The local merchant also ignores the negative effects of developing tourism.
C. In addition, the local merchant unfairly trivializes the opposition of some environmentalists simply because the
opponents do not live in the community.
46. We see no need to restrict the size of garbage sites or the number of homes built near the sites.
A. First, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that garbage sites do cause unexplained rashes among some
people living close to the sites.
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B. Second, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that the larger the trash sites are, the more likely they will
cause rashes.
47. The citizens of Claria should use both air conditioners and fans in order to save money on electricity.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to take into account the geographical factors in the analysis.
B. In the second place the comparison in this argument is incomplete and selective.
48. The use of compounds should be extended to students who have poor memory and difficulty in
concentrating.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to provide evidence regarding whether poor memory and difficulty in
concentration among students stem from the same factor that causes poor memory among the old.
B. In the second place, the argument is based on a hasty generalization that the compounds tested on rats can solve
all the serious problems with students' performance at school.
49. The respondents in the first study had misrepresented their reading habits.
A. First of all, the fact that the mystery novel was the type of book most frequently checked out in public libraries
does not ensure that it is the preferred by most people.
B. Next, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that most respondents actually spent more time reading literary
classics, or read more literary classics books than the mystery novels.
50. North Americans should consider eating soy on a regular basis as a way of preventing fatigue and
depression.
A. First of all, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between Asians' eating soy per day and a lower
percentage of people suffering chronic fatigue and depression in Asia.
B. In addition, the arguer ignores other factors that might explain why a much higher percentage of people in
North America suffer chronic fatigue and depression.
51. Rockingham's century-old town hall should be torn down and replaced by the larger and more
energy-efficient building.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to take into account other relevant factors concerning the value of the
century-old town hall—the historical significance, the artistic value and the sightseeing resources—which may
outweigh its disadvantages in terms of cooling and heating.
B. One more point worth mentioning is that the arguer fails to see other possible solutions to the problem, such as
expanding the space by way of annexing or constructing a new hall while keeping the old one for tourism.
52. Claitown University should commission a famous architect known for experimental and futuristic
buildings.
A. The arguer fails to convince us that tourists will necessarily want to visit the new building used as students'
dormitories.
B. In addition, the assumption that the income from the fees charged to tourists will soon cover the building costs
is open to doubt.
C. Another assumption in short of legitimacy is that the proposed building will attract new students as well as
donations from alumni.
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53. Promofoods' cans did not contain chemicals that posed a health risk.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that other kinds of canned foods besides the eight
million recalled tuna cans might pose a health risk.
B. In the second place, in the absence of any information concerning the procedure of the survey and the size of
the sample, the result of the survey is problematic.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to convince us that the three suspected chemicals found in the cans of tuna have nothing
to do with the problem of dizziness and nausea.
54. Cold-Away is more effective.
A. The fact that Coldex contributes to existing high blood pressure and that Cold-Away causes drowsiness
conflicts with the arguer's assumption that Cold-Away is generally more effective.
B. In addition, the fact that Cold-Away has been on the market for much longer and is used by more hospitals says
little about its effects.
55. Over a short period of time lavender cures insomnia.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to provide complete statistics regarding the volunteers' sleep experience, such
as the exact hours of sleep each week and their feeling after awakening during the third week.
B. In the second place, the arguer arrives at a hasty generalization in failing to provide any necessary information
regarding whether patients ever fall into insomnia again after the 3 testing weeks.
56. The most effective way to reduce the risk of fractures in later life is to take twice the recommended dose
of vitamin D and calcium daily.
A. In the first place, the sample of the study lacks representativeness.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that it was the light weightlifting program that
resulted in the lower rate of hip fractures among the group of French women.
C. Finally, the fact that these women showed a lower rate of hip fracture after taking twice the recommended dose
of vitamin D and calcium daily does not ensure that this measure could help reduce the risk of all other kinds of
fractures.
57. Pierce University should offer employment to the spouse of each new faculty member.
A. To begin with, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy in assuming that Pierce University could simply
follow the example of Brownston College.
B. In addition, the result of the survey lends little support to the arguer's recommendation of offering employment
to the spouse of each new faculty.
C. Another problem with this argument is that the arguer oversimplifies the issue of how to improve the morale of
the entire staff at Pierce University.
58. Greater profits for Gulf Coast oysters producers will follow.
A. First of all, the arguer unfairly assumes that consumers in California would switch back to Gulf Coast oysters
once they know about the scientific discovery for killing the bacteria in oysters.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that introducing the process for killing the bacteria in
oysters might greatly increase the cost, and hence render the sales of Gulf Coast oyster producers profitless.
60. The Mozart School of Music should be the first choice.
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A. First, the arguer fails to take into account the age as well as the purpose of the students who intend to learn
music.
B. Second, the arguer does not provide any information concerning the tuition, overall level of the faculty and the
average achievements of all the graduates of the Mozart School of Music.
C. The major problem with this argument is that the arguer fails to make any comparison of the Mozart School of
Music and other music schools available to students.
61. Newsbeat should decrease its emphasis on international news and refrain from displaying such stories on
its magazine covers.
A. One major problem with the argument is that the arguer fails to consider other relevant factors—the cover
design, the wording of the headlines, the content and quality of the international news stories, the content of the
inside articles, etc—which may account for the poor selling record of the magazine issues that feature international
news stories on their front covers.
B. Another point worth considering is that the arguer fails to see the possibility that Newbeat might attract many
new readers with excellent cover stories of international news while its rivals stop doing so.
C. In addition, the arguer fails to provide any information concerning the tastes of readers.
62. Grove College should preserve its century-old tradition of all-female education.
A. To begin with, the arguer ignores the negative impact on the morale of the faculty as well as on the enrollment
of new students if Grove College refuses to adopt coeducation.
B. Additionally, the sample of the survey conducted by the student government is vague.
C. Finally, the survey regarding the attitude of the alumni is also problematic.
63. All students should be required to take the driver's education course at Centerville High School.
A. In the first place, the arguer unfairly assumes that the several accidents involving teenage drivers in the past two
years were necessarily due to their failing to take driving instruction courses.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that the recommended mandatory program might
cause more complaints among parents.
64. If the Health-and-Good food company obtains the exclusive right to sell Venadial internationally, its
profits are sure to increase.
A. In the first place, the argument depends on the gratuitous assumption that the new margarine will be as
popularly consumed in other countries as it is in Alta.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to take into account the possibility that the combined effects of the new
margarine and the particular diet and living habits of the Alta people may have contributed to the reduction of
cholesterol levels and risks of heart attack.
C. In the third place, the arguer provides no information regarding the costs of producing, transporting, and
marketing this new margarine as well as the presence of other competing medicines in the market, in the absence
of which it is impossible to predict whether the business can make huge profits.
65. Membership in Oak City's Civil Club should continue to be restricted to people who live in Oak City.
A. The arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the fact that only residents pay city taxes and the
assumption that only residents understand the business and politics of the city.
B. In addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy in assuming that restricting membership is unlikely to
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disappoint many of the nonresidents employed in Oak City.
C. Finally, the arguer ignores the possibility that nonresidents of Oak City might contribute to the objective of the
city's Civil Club.
66. The National Brush Company should pay its employees for each brush they produce.
A. To begin with, the arguer unfairly assumes that paying employees for each brush they produce will
automatically lead to the production of better brushes.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between paying workers by the number of brushes
they produce and the savings on security costs of the company.
C. Finally, the arguer oversimplifies the issue of profit making in a company.
67. The Cedar Corporation should hire Discount Foods.
A. First, the arguer fails to make a complete comparison between the price of Good-Taste Company and that of
Discount Foods.
B. Second, the arguer fails to convince us that Cedar's employees would necessarily be more satisfied with
Discount Food's menu than with Good-Taste's.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to make a complete comparison between Good-Taste's complaint record and that of
Discount Foods.
68. Acme would benefit greatly by requiring all of its employees to the Easy Read course.
A. First, the argument is based on a false analogy.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to demonstrate that the Easy Read Speed-Reading Course can effectively improve a
participant's reading speed.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to convince us that all employees in Acme Publishing Company need to improve their
reading speed.
69. The city's high schools should begin classes at 8:30 A.M. instead of 7:30 A.M.
A. First of all, the arguer fails to establish a convincing causal relationship between lack of sleep and poor
academic performance.
B. Another problem with the argument is that the arguer unfairly assumes that students will sleep better when the
school hours are moved an hour later than usual.
C. In addition, the arguer does not make clear whether those adolescents who lack sleep coincide with those high
school students whose school performance is poor.
D. Finally, the arguer ignores other factors that may contribute to students' performance at school.
70. The Happy Pancake House should replace butter by margarine in its restaurants in the southeast and
northeast.
A. First, the fact that only 2 percent of customers have complained does not ensure that the rest are happy with the
change.
B. Second, the arguer commits an either-or fallacy.
71. The employees' fear of unemployment is largely unfounded.
A. The result of the study does not rule out the possibility that many employees will lose their jobs.
B. Neither does the result of the study ensure that there will be enough jobs in the market for the unemployed.
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C. Finally, whether the programs and workshops can help the unemployed to find jobs is open to doubt.
72. The library's plan to replace books that are borrowed no more than once a year with sufficient copies of
more recent books will solve this problem.
A. In the first place, it is unreasonable for the arguer to ignore the protest against replacing less frequently used
books with more copies of recent books simply because the number of the protesters is small.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to provide relevant statistics regarding the percentage of readers who wish
to read more recent books.
C. The arguer unfairly assumes that those who did not publicly protest all agree to replace the rarely borrowed
books.
73. Restricting water flow throughout all the 20 floors of Sunnyside Towers will increase its owner's profits
further.
A. The assumption that restricting the water flow on the first five floors will necessarily result in a considerable
savings is entirely unfounded.
B. In addition, the mere fact that only a few complaints about low water pressure were reported says little about
the overall attitudes of the residents on the first five floors, to say nothing of the attitudes of those living on the rest
floors of the apartment building.
74. Professional Printing Company should hire mainly older employees.
A. First, the arguer fails to compare the respective productivity of the three age groups.
B. In the absence of any information concerning the performance of other workers within the three age groups
whose opinions were not represented in the survey, any conclusion drawn so far as to which age group is more
productive is unreliable.
75. It is important for all people in the United States to increase their consumption of fish in order to
prevent depression.
A. The major defect of the argument is that the arguer oversimplifies the causal relationship between the intake of
omega-3 fatty acids and the mental health condition since there are many other relevant factors that may account
for the high rate of depression in the contemporary American society.
B. In addition, the arguer overemphasizes the importance of eating fish in explaining why the depression rate is
low in Japan and Taiwan as well as among the American ancestors.
76. Men and women should use different medications.
A. In the first place, the survey lacks credibility and therefore does not lend strong support to the argument.
B. In the second place, the arguer commits a fallacy of hasty generalization in assuming that kappa opioids could
treat all kinds of pains for women.
C. Another unwarranted assumption is that researchers should reevaluate the effects of all medications on men
versus women.
77. Foley college should attempt to increase enrollment by promising to find its students jobs after they
graduate.
A. The first unwarranted assumption is that promising to find jobs for students is an effective way for Foley to
compete against larger and more prestigious schools.
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B. The second unwarranted assumption is that promising to find jobs for students will encourage students to begin
preparing for careers as soon as they enter college.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between good job prospects and the more likelihood
for students to complete the coursework.
78. Featuring more modern music will undoubtedly increase advance ticket purchases and will increase
attendance at the Glenville Summer Concert series.
A. First, the arguer fails to convince us the Glenville Summer Concert series really lack community support.
B. Another unfounded assumption is that the reason for the decline in advance ticket purchases is the choice of
music.
C. In addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of begging the question in assuming that the local residents would
undoubtedly be interested in modern music especially the music composed by Richards.
79. The development of an extensive computer-based long-distance learning program will enhance the
reputation of Xanadu College.
A. First of all, the arguer commits of a fallacy of begging the question in assuming that this program would enable
Xanadu to increase its income from student tuition.
B. Second, the assumption that traditional courses could be easily be adapted for distance learners cannot bear
close examination.
C. Finally, the arguer ignores the negative effects of the program on the faculty. (For example, the after-class
obligations)
80. The argument in favor of merging the townships of Roseville and West Roseville are overwhelming.
A. In the first place, the argument rests on the unwarranted assumption that all problems will be automatically
solved and no new problems would emerge once the merger of the two townships is finalized.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to establish a convincing causal relationship between the merger of
townships and the increase in business investment.
81. All teachers in Attra's high schools should assign homework no more than twice a week.
A. Based on a survey of math and science teachers in only two districts, the arguer assumes that all high school
teachers in the whole state of Atta should assign homework no more than twice a week, which is a typical fallacy
of hasty generalization.
B. Besides, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between homework frequency and student
performance.
82. People who are left-handed are more likely to succeed in business than are right-handed people.
A. In the first place, the comparison made between the 1,000 prominent business executives on photographs and
the general population is unreasonable.
B. Another point worth considering is that the arguer fails to compare the performance of left-handers versus
right-handers in business and their performance in other careers.
C. Finally, the conclusion that right-handers should unconditionally imitate the business practices exhibited by
left-handers is invalid and misleading.
83. The only way to solve the financial problems of Liber Publishing Company is to return to its original
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mission.
A. First, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this."
B. Second, the arguer fails to rule out other possible measures that might help solve the company's problems. C.
Finally, authors who maintain a residence in a big city are not necessarily big-city authors.
84. For country Illium, the best way to preserve public lands is to charge people more money when they are
using national parks and wilderness areas for activities with heavy environmental impact.
A. One problem with the argument is that the arguer ignores other important factors—education levels, laws and
publicity efforts concerning the protection of environment—which may account for the little damage to the
environment in the country Myria.
B. Another problem with the argument is that the arguer fails to provide substantial evidence to support the
assumption that with the rise of fees imposed on those who use public lands with heavy environmental impact,
people will reduce, if not stop, the exploitative use of national parks and wilderness areas.
85. Dentists who advertise to attract patients should target the male consumer.
A. The arguer fails convince us that men are necessarily more likely to be distressed.
B. In addition, the assumption that male consumers are necessarily and only concerned about the effectiveness of
anesthetic techniques and the staff's sensitivity to nervous or suffering patients is open to doubt.
C. Finally, the recommended advertising strategy might alienate women consumers—a big potential market for
dentists.
86. The citizens of Forsythe have adopted healthier lifestyles.
A. First, the fact that Forsythe citizens conform more closely to government nutritional recommendations than they
did ten years ago does not necessarily mean that they have adopted healthier lifestyles.
B. Second, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that citizens outside Forsythe might have contributed to the
increase or decrease in the sales of food products.
C. Finally, the fact that few of the healthiest citizens regularly eat sulia does not guarantee that it is a healthy food.
87. Some climate change or other environmental factor must have caused the species' extinction.
A. First, the reasoning that the humans cannot have been a factor in the mammal species' extinction is open to
doubt.
B. Second, the arguer fails to provide any evidence that climatic or environmental changes have actually led to the
extinction of the mammal species.
88. Treatment in smaller, nonprofit hospitals is more economical and of better quality than treatment in
larger, for-profit hospitals.
A. To begin with, the sample of the survey is not representative.
B. Next, the arguer fails to take into account several other significant factors in assessing the economy and quality
of treatment in the two types of hospitals.
89. Farmers in our town should use the land on which they currently grow sugar cane to grow peanuts.
A. First, the conclusion relies on the unwarranted assumption that peanuts can grow well on the land where sugar
cane used to be grown.
B. Second, the arguer fails to consider the likelihood that the profits of the peanuts might dramatically decrease as
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more peanuts enter the market.
C. The arguer commits a fallacy of false dilemma in claiming that growing peanuts is the only substitute for
growing sugar cane in terms of profit.
90. We should install such lighting throughout Amburg.
A. First, the arguer ignores the possible of negative effects of installing high intensity lighting in the central
business district in the city of Belleville.
B. Second, the arguer unfairly trivializes the contribution of police patrols on bicycles in the city of Amburg.
C. Third, the arguer fails to rule out other measures that might help combat crime in Amburg.
D. Finally,
the assumption that only by reducing crime can Belleville revitalize its declining neighborhoods is
unfounded.
91. We in Parkville should discontinue organized athletic competition for children under nine.
A. First of all, the fact that over 80,000 of the young players below the age of nine who participated in
youth-league softball and soccer suffered injuries says little about the overall cases of injuries among children
under nine who participated in all kinds of organized athletic competition.
B. In addition, the assumption that all children who participated in organized athletic competition necessarily
suffer psychological pressure is unfounded.
92. The increase in ultraviolet radiation will cause population declines in other species just as it has in the
salamander species.
A In the first place, the arguer fails to take into account other possible factors—for instance, the water pollution in
the lakes in which salamanders lay eggs—which might explain the decrease of the salamander population.
B. In the second place, even if there is a relationship between ultraviolet radiation and the declining population of
salamanders, it is still open to doubt whether the same phenomenon will spread to other species since not every
species' eggs have no protective shells.
93. Construction of new generating plants should not be necessary.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to provide any evidence that homeowners will surely accept the energy-saving
home appliances.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that the total demand for electricity may increase due to
various reasons.
94. Rico Computer Company should require all its employees to attend workshops that teach the technique
of active listening.
A. In the first place, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this."
B. In the second place, the arguer ignores the informal complaints made by the two hundred employees who
participated in the active-listening workshop.
C. In the third place, the arguer fails to supply any information regarding the conflicts in the workplace in Terland
Publishing Company.
D. Finally, requiring all employees to attend the active-listening workshop is unfounded in a large sense.
95. We should appoint Rosa Winnings.
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A. One problem with the argument lies in that the arguer fails to take into account other relevant factors—
economic depression that took place in the country, heavy investments that may bring profits to the company in the
long run—that resulted in the felling of profits in the last three quarters of the year.
B. Another problem worth mentioning is that the arguer provides no evidence that the management experience of
Rosa Winnings at Starlight Jewelry, will apply to the Fancy Toy Company, which is obviously in a completely
different industry.
96. Robots could be used to perform factory work more effectively, efficiently, and profitably than human
factory workers.
A. First, the assumption that robots never get "sick" is unfounded.
B. Second, the fact that robots do not make mistakes does not ensure that factories would necessarily increase their
output.
C. Third, whether the use of robots would improve the morale of factory workers is open to doubt.
D. Finally, the arguer oversimplifies the issue of profits.
97. Waymarsh University should adopt the job-opportunity program.
A.
In the first place, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the job-op program and the
achievements of those job-op students at Plateau Technical College.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to make a complete comparison between job-op students and non-job-op
students at Plateau.
98. We should concentrate on manufacturing sporty cars.
A. The arguer is begging the question when he claims that the Patriot car manufacturing company should
discontinue its oldest models and concentrate instead on manufacturing sporty cars.
B. The arguer's assumption that Patriot can promote its marketing by turning to the Youth Advertising agency is
based on a false analogy.
99. Armchair Video should reduce its operating expenses in order to improve its profits.
A. To begin with, the assumption that raising prices is not a good option is dubious.
B. In addition, the arguer unfairly assumes that the new policies adopted by the store in downtown Marston would
necessarily increase its profits.
C. Finally, the assumption that all other Armchair Video stores should adopt the policies of the downtown Marston
store is based on a hasty generalization.
100. Parson City residents care more about public school education than do Blue City residents.
A. The arguer fails to take into account other relevant factors—for example, the total number of students in public
schools—when he compares the public school budget of Parson City and that of Blue City.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that Parson City might support its public school education
in various other ways.
101. The Grandview City Council should stop watering rationing.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to see the possibility that if water rationing had loosened, the industry of
Grandview would have been hurt even more because of less availability of water, a key factor in industry, not to
mention the negative impact that might have been caused thereof to farming as well as other aspects of local
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residents' lives.
B. In the second place, the arguer ignores other relevant factors that may account for the decline in the industrial
growth, such as the rising costs of the raw materials caused by the drought or the declining market demand for the
products of the local industry.
102. Clearview should be a top choice for anyone seeking a place to retire.
A. First, there is no guarantee that the housing costs in Clearview are necessarily lower than those in other cities.
B. Another problem with this argument is that the arguer fails to rule out the possibility that Clearview residents
may have been suffering and will continue to suffer from problems with its schools, streets and public services.
C. Another assumption that lacks credibility is that retirees in Clearview can enjoy excellent health care as
compared with other areas of the nation.
103. Investing in a Power-Lift Gym franchise will guarantee a quick profit.
A. First, the fact that Power-Lift Gyms are already popular among customers in 500 locations and that there is a
nationwide increasing concern with weight loss and physical fitness does not ensure the success of a Power-Lift
Gym franchise in any location.
B. Second, the fact that purchases of home exercise equipment almost doubled undermines the arguer's assumption
that any franchise of Power-Lift will be able to attract a growing number of customers.
C. Finally, the arguer fails to provide any substantial evidence to support the conclusion that investing in a
Power-Lift franchise will guarantee a quick profit.
104. Hyper-Go Toy Company should focus exclusively on a new line of educational toys.
A. First, the sharp decline in the sales of Fierce Fighter toy airplane does not necessarily imply that the market
demand for action toys is shrinking.
B. Second, the result of the survey among parents does not warrant the assumption that parents would buy only
educational toys for their children.
C. Third, the arguer fails to convince us that other toy companies have made profits by marketing educational toys.
D. Finally, the suggested causal relationship between the growth in average family income and the increase in the
sales of new Hyper-Go toys is entirely unfounded.
105. Megamart stores should concentrate on enlarging and promoting its line of products typically used in
leisure activities.
A. One problem with the argument is that the arguer arrives at a hasty generalization in claiming that the
consecutive rises in the average household income will necessarily lead to increases in spending on leisure
activities.
B. Another problem worth considering is that the arguer fails to provide information regarding the average
inflation rate in the country while the average household income has risen significantly.
106. The publishing and bookselling industries are likely to decline in profitability.
A. The result of the survey lends little support to the arguer's assessment of the profitability of television industry
and the publishing and bookselling industry respectively.
B. In addition, the arguer commits an either-or fallacy in assuming that all writers should write for television rather
than for print media.
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107. Hooper University should offer additional social science courses and hire several new faculty members
who already have national reputations in the social sciences.
A. The argument rests on the gratuitous assumption that more physical science majors than social science majors
found permanent jobs within a year of graduation because of the prestige of Hooper University's physical science
programs.
B. The arguer oversimplifies the reason why fewer social science majors found permanent employment.
108. ABC Cereal Company need to reduce the amount of sugar in Better Bran and lower Better Bran's
price.
A. One problematic assumption is that Better Bran's high sugar content is responsible for the decline in sales.
B. Another unwarranted assumption is that the price of Better Bran is unreasonably high.
109. Ms. Riedeburg is the best qualified candidate for governor.
A. In the first place, the arguer fails to provide information about the overall economic condition of the country, for
it is quite likely that in an economic boom jobs and immigrants increase while crime decreases in all states
regardless of each governor's leadership.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to make a comparison between Ms. Riedeburg and other candidates so as to
show how her policies about running the state outweigh those of others.
C. Finally, the conclusion is based on the groundless assumption that Ms. Riedeburg will certainly fulfill her
promises if she is reelected.
110. The automobile manufacturing plant needs to open a new plant as soon as possible.
A. The part-time strategy may prove counterproductive.
B. In addition, the arguer ignores other ways to improve the company's productivity.
111. Central Plaza should prohibit skateboarding in its downtown area.
A. First, the arguer fails to convince us that skateboarders should be responsible for the decline in the number of
visitors to Central Plaza downtown.
B. Second, the arguer fails to take into account other measures that might help attract visitors to Central Plaza
downtown.
112. City residents should vote "yes" on the state government's proposal to build a new expressway.
A. The arguer groundlessly assumes that lack of a new expressway resulted in downtown retailers' running out of
stock and shortages of materials for the city manufacturers.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to consider the possible negative effects of building a new expressway on the
economy of the city.
113. The city of Transopolis should take similar action as it did ten years ago in a declining residential area
on the opposite side of the city.
A. In the first place, the arguer commits a fallacy of "after this, therefore because of this."
B. In the second place, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy.
114. The members of the town school board should not be reelected.
A. The arguer fails to substantiate the assumption that the town school board's administration has actually resulted
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in the decline of arts education in the local schools.
B. One more point worth considering is that the arguer fails to prove that spending over $300,000 of the high
school budget on athletic programs necessarily poses threat to art programs.
115. Eco-Power should switch to advertisements featuring a distinctive song.
A. The procedure of the survey is problematic and therefore the result of the survey does not lend strong support to
the argument.
B. In addition, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy in assuming that Eco-Power could promote its home
appliances with the same advertising strategy used to promote soft drinks and fast-food restaurants.
C. Finally the arguer ignores other factors that might have resulted in the decline in the sales of Eco-Power's home
appliances.
116. The shopping malls builder should contract with Appian Roadways to construct the access roads for all
its new shopping malls.
A. The comparison made between Route 101 and Route 66 does not warrant the assumption that Mc Adam
necessarily does superior work.
B. In addition, the arguer fails to convince us that Appian is necessarily more committed to quality.
117. People seeking longer and healthier lives should consider moving to small communities.
A. In the first place, the higher proportion of physicians to residents in cities does not necessarily mean that there
are proportionately more patients there. On the contrary, the high proportion of physicians might well indicate that
citizens in large cities are entitled to better medical service.
B. In the second place, a shorter average age does not necessarily mean that people living in the large city of
Mason live a shorter life, for obviously large cities usually attract huge work force mostly consisting of young
people while many elderly people prefer to live in small towns where they can enjoy a peaceful retired life.
118. Radio station KNOW should shift its programming from rock-and-roll music to a continuous news
format.
A. First, the assumption that older people are necessarily not interested in rock-and-roll music is open to doubt.
B. Second, the arguer fails to analyze why the total number of KNOW's listeners has declined recently.
C. Third, the fact that music stores in this area report decreased sales of recorded music lends little support to the
arguer's assumption that the local people have lost their interest in rock-and-roll music.
D. Fourth, the fact that continuous news stations in neighboring cities have been very successful does not ensure
that such stations would also succeed in the city where KNOW lies.
E. Finally, the survey taken just before the recent election lacks representativeness.
119. The fastest way for Beauville to stimulate economic development and hence reduce unemployment is to
provide tax incentives and other financial inducements that encourage private companies to relocate here.
A. The arguer commits a fallacy of concurrence in claiming that reducing corporate tax rate and offering relocation
grants and favorable rates on city utilities in the city of Dillton led to the relocating of two manufacturing
companies.
B. The conclusion reached in this argument is invalid and probably misleading because the arguer fails to consider
the different backgrounds of the two cities.
C. The arguer also ignores other relevant factors that may contribute to the economic development and
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unemployment reduction at Beauville.
120. Mira Vista College should offer more courses in business and computer technology and hire additional
job counselors to help students with their resumes and interviewing skills.
A. First, the comparison between Green Mountain College and Mira Vista College is incomplete and hence we can
hardly evaluate the employment results of the graduating seniors from the two colleges.
B. Second, the arguer fails to establish a causal relationship between the fact that Green Mountain College has
more business courses and more job counselors than does Mira Vista College and the fact that 90 percent of the
former's graduating seniors had job offers from prospective employers.
C. Finally the arguer fails to provide any direct evidence regarding the factors that hinder Mira Vista's graduates
from finding employment.
121. The town of Dalton should adopt a curfew.
A. In the first place, the arguer does not provide complete statistics to indicated that the curfew in the town of
Williamsville did effectively reduce its crime rate.
B. In the second place, the arguer fails to demonstrate that juvenile delinquency should be responsible for the
rising crime rate of Dalton and that controlling juvenile delinquency would necessarily help reducing its rising
crime rate.
C. Finally, the arguer commits a fallacy of false analogy.
122. Buckingham College should build a new dormitory.
A. One problem with the argument is that in the absence of substantial evidence the assumption that the enrollment
of Buckingham can keep its current growth is quite open to doubt.
B. Another problem worth mentioning is that the arguer fails to take into account other important factors—high
quality of the teaching faculty, new co-op programs, available financial aides—which may be more attractive to
students when they choose universities.
C. Finally, lacking any information regarding the rise of housing rent in this town, we cannot assess whether
building a new dormitory will guarantee a reduction of students' accommodation fees.
123. The XYZ company should hire Delany Personnel Firm.
A. The arguer fails to convince us that XYZ's laid-off employees have benefited greatly from Delany's services.
B. In addition, the assumption that Delany is superior to Walsh is open to doubt.
124. Colleges and universities should adopt honor codes similar to Groveton's.
A. The arguer fails to convince us that Groveton's honor code is necessarily more effective than its old monitoring
system in preventing students from cheating.
B. In addition, the result of the recent survey conducted by the Groveton honor council says little as to whether the
honor code is superior to the monitoring system.
C. Last but not least, the arguer fails to provide any information concerning the causes of the dramatic rise in
cheating among the students of other colleges and universities.
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第八章
关键句式
注意：下列句子中，正黑体字为结构性词汇，表明某种有用的句型；斜黑体字为写作常用的短语及“闪
光”词汇。
一.是非问题分析论证句式
1. Whereas other societies look to the past for guidance, we cast our nets forward（面向未来) .
2. It is the belief in a brighter future that gives us optimism.
3. Even these days, when not all progress seems positive (nuclear weapons, air pollution, unemployment, etc.), the
belief remains that for every problem there is a rational solution.
4. The job of the parents is to give the children every opportunity while they are growing up and then get out of
their way.
5. What deference (尊重) people in authority do command is based on their actual powers rather than on their
age, wisdom, or dignity.
6. In a society that changes as fast as ours, experience simply does not have the value that it does in traditional
societies.
7. It has taken a long time to convince the public that free enterprise does not mean that a company should be
free to pollute the air, foul (弄脏) the rivers, and destroy the forests.
8. The assembly line reduced workers to cogs of machinery and made their jobs unutterably boring, but it
produced goods fast.
9. Food is prepackaged and shopping is impersonal, but the efficiency of the operation produces lower prices and
less shopping time.
10. As an American is always striving to change his lot, he never fully identifies with any group.
11. In America, there are no such expressions such as in China where "the fat pig gets slaughtered," or in Japan,
where "the nail that sticks out gets hammered down".
12. This freedom from the group has enabled the American to become "Economic Man"—one directed almost
purely by profit motive, mobile and unencumbered（不受阻碍的）by family or community obligations.
13. Equipped with the money, one can acquire the taste, style, and ideas that mark each class and launch a
quick ascent of the social ladder.
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14. Actually, persons in status societies who are secure in their niches (适当的位置) are allowed more eccentricity
than Americans, who rely heavily on signals that other people like them.
15. When half the population goes to college, one cannot expect the colleges to maintain the same standards as
in countries where only the elite attend.
16. Just as not every Japanese is hardworking and deferential (恭敬的) to superiors (长者、上司), not every
Chinese is devoted to family, not every American is ambitious or patriotic—or even unsophisticated.
17. No one could seriously think that anyone who grows up poor, lives in a bad neighborhood, and attends an
inferior school has an opportunity equal to that of someone more favored.
18. Americans may not have achieved equality, but at least they aspire to it, which is more than many other
nations can claim.
19. In many countries, when jobs become available for young people in distant cities, when television begins to
dominate home life, when ready-made foods appear in the markets, the culture appears more "American"—
although the resemblance could be entirely superficial.
20. Someone who looks around or down appears shifty (不可靠的) to Americans, although in fact one doesn't
stare continuously at the other person, but glances elsewhere every few seconds.
21. When the demand for something is greater than its supply, producers and suppliers will sense the possibility
of making a profit—the excess of revenues over expenses is the profit.
22. As the case illustrates, competition takes four general forms: pure competition, monopoly, monopolistic
competition，and oligopoly
(少数制造商对市场的控制）.
23. The classic example of pure competition occurs with a commodity, like wheat or corn, that has so many
producers that no one of them can control its selling price.
24. A monopoly occurs when one company alone offers a particular food or service and therefore controls the
market and price for it.
25. Private restaurants serve gourmet food for $70 per person; incentives boosted agricultural production 25
percent and industrial output 80 percent in just three years; farmers are encouraged to raise as much as they can on
their own plots, and some become almost rich in the process.（注意本句中分号的使用）
26. All these changes in China's economic life have brought changes in China's social and cultural life as well,
many of which unwanted.
27. If productivity measures the efficiency of an economy, a measure of what an economic system produces is its
gross national product (GNP), which is the current market value of all final goods and services that a nation
produces within a particular period.
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28. Current wisdom says that (当前流行的看法认为) if you want a successful product, you need first to
perform detailed market analysis, making sure that there are plenty of people who need the new product and
that your entry into the market will be able to gain a significant share of that market.
29. Started at the turn of the century, 3M (a giant American company) has been growing at a healthy rate of about
10 percent a year and it boasts of having 45,000 products on the market.
30. An entrepreneur is someone like Tom Monaghan, the man who after brushes with bankruptcy turned Domino's
Pizza into the nation's fastest-growing franchise chain.
31. The extent to which the broadcast media should be censored for offensive language and behavior involves a
conflict between our right as individuals to freely express ourselves and the duty of government to protect its
citizenry from potential harm.
32. Although we may not have conclusive scientific evidence of a cause-effect relationship, ample anecdotal
evidence establishes a significant correlation.
33. Moreover, both common sense and our experiences with children inform us that people tend to mimic the
language and behavior they are exposed to.
34. Those who advocate unbridled individual expression might point out that the right of free speech is intrinsic
to a democracy and necessary to its survival.
35. In sum, it is in our best interest as a society for the government to censor broadcast media for obscene and
offensive language and behavior.
36. While individuals have primary responsibility for learning new skills and finding work, both industry and
government have some obligation to provide them with the means of doing so.
37. The suggested reason for buying the car is obvious: it is the intelligent choice. （注意冒号的使用）
38. In conclusion, I agree that appeals to emotion are more powerful tools than arguments and reasoning for
promoting products.
39. Advertising is obviously the most influential art form in this century; it is, therefore, tempting to think that
it is the most important.
40. The lesson here is that advertising, in itself, probably will not achieve as great importance as art.
41. Requiring businesses to provide complete product information to customers promotes various consumer
interests, but at the same time imposes burdens on businesses, government, and taxpayers.
42. While I doubt that buildings determine our character or basic personality traits, I argue that they can greatly
influence our attitudes, moods, and even life styles.
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43. Numerous psychological studies show that different colors influence behavior, attitudes, and emotions in
distinctly different ways.
44. Women differ fundamentally from men in childbearing ability; related to this ability is the maternal instinct
—a desire to nurture—that is far stronger for women than for men, generally speaking.
45. In consumer-driven industries, innovation, product differentiation, and creativity are crucial to lasting
success.
46. And in technology, when there are no conventional practices or ways of thinking to begin with, companies that
fail to break away from last year's paradigm (模式）are soon left behind by the competition.
47. Whether an individual saves too little or borrows too much depends on the purpose and extent of either
activity.
48. The evidence suggests that, on balance, people today tend to concern themselves with only practical matters
that are related to their life.
49. Traditionally, saving is viewed as a virtue, while borrowing is considered as a vice.
50. However, just the opposite may be true under certain circumstances.
51. The first problem with this claim is that it is far more difficult to quantify the value of interpersonal skills,
or other human qualities, than the value of commodities such as coffee or sugar, which can be measured, weighed,
or otherwise examined prior to purchase.
52. To a large extent, the ability to work with people is a quality whose true value can be determined only after it
is purchased, then tried and tested for a period of time.
53. In my view, the final judgment should depend on a case-by-case analysis of two key factors.
54. In sum, neither modernization for its own sake nor indiscriminate(不加区别的) preservation of old buildings
should guide decisions in the controversies at issue. Instead, decisions should be made on a case-by-case basis.
55. Decisiveness is not necessarily the key factor in determining the quality of leadership. It does not guarantee
a good decision.
56. To assert that all of our actions are essentially motivated by self-interest and fear is to overemphasize one
aspect of human nature.
57. In most situations, however, following this advice would neither be wise nor sensible.
58. Rewarding employees can be a double-edged sword. On the one hand, the promise of bonuses or gifts can
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spur workers to higher achievement. On the other hand, incentives can create resentment and internal
competitiveness that are damaging to morale and to the organization.
59. I do agree that, in general, commercialism is becoming more widespread, and that one of the byproducts
may be a decline in the quality of our culture.
60. Admittedly, some level of technical competence and specific knowledge is needed to perform any job. By the
same token, however, nearly every job—even those in which technical ability would seem to be of paramount
importance—calls for some skill in working with other employees.
61. I think that this view is extreme, for it ignores two important problems that allowing too much freedom over
workplace can create.
62. In conclusion, although employees should have the freedom to arrange their work areas, this freedom is not
absolute.
63. In sum, despite compelling interests in consumer safety and product innovation, holding manufacturers
accountable for (要求……对……承担责任) all injuries caused by their products is unjustifiably costly to society
and unfair to manufacturers.
64. The primary reason why I agree that business should have a duty to the public is that society would be
worse off (情况更坏) by exonerating (免除) business from social responsibility.
65. At first glance, it would seem that increased bureaucracy creates obstacles between the citizens and those who
govern, thereby separating the two groups. Closer examination reveals, however, that in many ways government
bureaucracy actually bridges the gap, and that new technologies now allow for
ways around the gap.
66. Some would argue that because business success depends on community support, businesses have an ethical
duty to give back to the community—by donating money, facilities or services to social programs.
67. This quotation suggests that the ultimate purpose of business is to streamline (简化，提高效
率) and mechanize work, thereby minimizing it, so that people can make a living but still have time for other
things in life.
68. In determining whether we are becoming more respectful of one another's differences, one must examine
overt actions and underlying motives, as well as whether our differences are increasing or decreasing.
69. But taken too far (如果强调过分), attempting to keep up with or beat competitors brings about detrimental
(有害的) results for a company.
70. There is no doubt that hard work contributes to success, yet a person can work awfully hard and still achieve
very little.
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71. The speaker asserts that an international effort is needed to preserve the world's energy resources for future
generations.
72. While individual nations, like people, are at times willing to make voluntary sacrifices for the benefit of others,
my view is that international coordination is nevertheless necessary in light of the strong propensity of nations to
act selfishly, and because the problem is international in scope.
73. The speaker prefers a "flat" structure in which distinctions between employees based on education or
experience are not used as a basis for monetary rewards.
74. Determining whether employers should have access to personal information about employees requires that
the interests of business in ensuring productivity and stability be weighed against concerns about equity and
privacy interests.
75. Those who support censorship point out that it is necessary for all governments to ensure that dangerous
ideas or rumors which may cause civil unrest are not allowed to spread.
76. Moreover, there is a danger that books, films, etc., with pornographic contents or glamorizing (有魅力的)
crime may poison the minds of young people.
77. Especially disturbing in this context is the growth of the Internet, which is outside the control of any one
country.
78. It seems to me that there are good points in both arguments: while society as a whole, and
young people in particular, need to be protected against harmful contents in what they read and watch, there is
evidence that censorship does hamper (阻碍) creativity.
79. Experience tells us that individuals (and private corporations owned by individuals) tend to act on behalf of
their own short-term economic and political interest, not on behalf of the environment or the public at large.
80. For example, current technology makes possible the complete elimination of polluting emissions from
automobiles; however, neither automobile manufacturers nor consumers are willing or able to voluntarily make
the short-term sacrifice necessary to accomplish this goal.
81. Aside from the problems of self-interest and enforcement, environmental issues inherently involve public
health and are far too pandemic (流行全国或全世界的) in nature for individuals to solve on their own.
82. I agree with those people who support space research and want it to continue.
83. Space research, as shown, has already brought many benefits to humanity, and perhaps it will bring even more
benefits in the future, ones that we cannot even imagine now.
84. Moreover, just as individual people need challenges to make their lives more interesting, I believe that
human race itself needs a challenge, and I think that the peaceful exploration of outer space provides just such a
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challenge.
85. In conclusion, I agree that in some situations the best way to accomplish a task is through teamwork—
sharing responsibility, duties and decision-making. However, in other situations, especially those where quick
decisions are necessary or where individual experience is critical, the most effective means is for one individual to
serve as leader and assume ultimate responsibility for completing the job.
86. In the final analysis, only the authority and scope of power that a government possesses can ensure the
attainment（达到) of agreed-upon (公认的) environmental goals.
87. In sum, people everywhere have a serious interest in the healthy sexual development of children and,
therefore, in limiting children's assess to the Internet pornography.
88. Because the Internet materials are not easily confined within national borders, we can successfully regulate
children's access to adult materials on the Internet only by way of international cooperation.
89. To be granted some kind of usable talent and to be able to use it to the fullest extent of which you are capable
—this, to me, is a kind of joy that is almost unequaled (无比的).
90. It is time for us to stand and cheer for the doer, the achiever—the one who recognizes the challenge and does
something about it.
91. Crises force our attention on the disorder in our thinking and can save us as we teeter (摇摇欲坠) on the brink
of an even greater disaster.
92. Advice is like snow; the softer it falls, the longer it dwells upon, and the deeper it sinks into the mind.
93. Change is the law of life, and those who look only to the past or the present are certain to miss the future.
94. Fashions changed, changed again, changed faster and still faster: fashions in politics, in political styles, in
causes, in music, in popular culture, in myths, in education, in beauty, in heroes and idols, in attitudes, in
responses, in work, in love and friendship, in food, in newspapers, in entertainment, in fashion. What had once
lasted a generation now lasted a year; what has lasted a year lasted a month, a week, a day.
95. One of the most courageous things you can do is identify yourself, know who you are, what you believe in,
and where you want to go.
96. Realistic people with practical aims are rarely as realistic or practical in the long run of life as the dreamers
who pursue their dreams.
97. Failure, in a sense, is the highway to success because every discovery of what is false leads us to seek after
what is true.
98. Many of life's failures are people who did not realize how close they were to success when they gave up.
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99. To develop imaginative powers, we must specialize in our own fields but be alert to new ideas from any
source and continually seize and set down our inspirational flashes when they come to us.
100. One definition of an expert would be someone who doesn't admit out loud that he knows enough about a
subject to know that he doesn't really know much.
二.逻辑问题分析论证句式
1. The mere fact that ticket sales in recent years for screenplay-based movies have exceeded those for book-based
movies is insufficient evidence to conclude that writing screenplays now provides greater financial opportunity
for writers.
2. It is possible that fees paid by movie studios for screenplays will decrease in the future relative to those for
book rights.
3. The argument fails to rule out the possibility that a writer engages in both types of writing as well as other
types.
4. In any event, the advertisement provides no justification for the mutually exclusive choice that it imposes on
the writer.
5. The argument simply equates success with movie ticket sales, which is unwarranted.
6. The author assumes that physical capabilities are the only attributes necessary to operate a motor vehicle.
7. Moreover, the author provides no evidence that the realism of color photography is the reason for its
predominance.
8. This assumption presents a false dilemma, since the two media are not necessarily mutually exclusive
alternatives.
9. Common sense tells us that a photographer can succeed by working in both media.
10. The argument ignores the factors—such as initiative, creativity, technical skills, and business judgment—
that may be more important than the choice of medium in determining success in photography.
11. The major problem with the argument is that the stated similarities between Company A and B are
insufficient to support the conclusion that Company A will suffer a fate similar to Company B's.
12. Consequently, the mere fact that Company A holds a large share of the video-game hardware and software
market does not support the claim that Company A will also fail.
13. Thus, the author unfairly assumes that highly-rated public television programs are necessarily widely
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viewed, or popular.
14. While this may be true in some cases, it is equally possible that only companies with products that are
already best-sellers can afford the higher ad rates that popular shows demand.
15. Admittedly, the vice president's reasoning linking employee benefits with company profits seems reasonable
on the surface.
16. One can infer from the survey's results that a full one-third of the respondents may have viewed the current
benefits package unfavorably.
17. Lacking more specific information about how these other employees responded, it is impossible to assess
the reliability of the survey's results or to make an informed recommendation.
18. It is unlikely that the brief one-week periods under comparison are representative of longer time periods.
19. If so, even though 3 percent more accidents occurred after the change, the author's argument that changing
the speed limit increases danger for drivers would be seriously weakened.
20. The editorial fails to take into account possible differences between East and West Cambria that are
relevant to how drivers react to speed-limit changes.
21. In addition, while it is true that many voters change their minds several times before voting, and that some
remain undecided until entering the voting booth, this is not true of everyone.
22. Without knowing the extent and nature of the damage resulting from the bad publicity or the reason for the
violation, we cannot accept the author's conclusion.
23. The author's proposal is inconsistent with the author's conclusion about the consequences of adopting an
ethics code.
24. To begin with, the author fails to consider health threats posed by incinerating trash.
25. The author's conclusion that switching to incineration would be more salutary for public health would be
seriously undermined.
26. However, this is not necessarily the case.
27. The author's implicit claim that incinerators are economically advantageous to landfills is poorly
supported.
28. Consequently, unless the author can demonstrate that the city will incur expenses that are not covered by
the increased revenues from these projects, the author's concern about these issues is unfounded.
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29. First of all, while asserting that real incomes are rising, the author provides no evidence to support this
assertion.
30. But no evidence is provided to show that this explanation is correct
31. Moreover, the author fails to consider and rule out other factors that might account for proportional
decreases in spending on food.
32. The author ignores other likely benefits of agricultural technology that affect food pieces only indirectly or
not at all.
33. In the first place, a great deal of empirical evidence shows that sequels are often not as profitable as the
original movie.
34. However, unless the original cast and production team are involved in making the sequel, there is a good
chance it will not be financially successful.
35. Since the difficulties inherent in this process make it hard to predict whether the result will be a success or a
failure, the conclusion that the sequel will be profitable is presumptuous ( 武断的) .
36. This assumption overlooks other criteria for determining a bridge's importance—such as the number of
commuters using the bridge, the role of the bridge in local emergencies and disasters, and the impact that bridge
closure would have on the economies of nearby cities.
37. Without such evidence, we cannot accept the author's conclusion that no government funds should be
directed toward maintaining the Styx River bridge.
38. The fact that the nearby city has a weakening economy does not prove that the city will not contribute
significantly to tax revenues.
39. Substantiating this assumption requires examining the proper duty of government.
40. Accordingly, this assumption is simply an unproven claim.
41. The author is presenting a false dilemma by imposing an either-or choice between two courses of action
that need not be mutually exclusive.
42. It is equally possible that legislators can address both areas of concern concurrently.
43. The argument relies on the assumption that the legislators in question (所讨论的) have the opportunity to
address urban crime problems.
44. Finally, the author unfairly trivializes the severity of rural crime by simply comparing it with urban crime.
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45. It is possible that the sales trend in a particular location is not representative of sales in other regions.
46. However, the author fails to acknowledge and rule out other possible causes of such accidents.
47. A third problem with the argument is that the statistical evidence upon which It relies is too vague to be
informative.
48. If the subjects for the study were randomly chosen and represent a diverse cross section of the population
of shampoo users, the results will be reliable regardless of the number of participants.
49. Experience alone is far from being enough to guarantee minimized processing costs.
50. Given that Olympic Foods does benefit from lowered processing costs due to its years of experience, the
prediction about maximum profits is still in lack of solid ground.
51. Any adverse change in those factors will have negative impact on the company's profitability.
52. Contingencies (偶然事件) such as market changes, competition, material and labor costs, legislative moves,
and the national or international economic cycle can all lead to dropping profit.
53. Opening subsidiaries may just coincide with changes in the above mentioned factors and the consequent
impact on the company's profitability.
54. Comprehensive analysis is necessary to identify the actual cause(s) of the company's lowered profitability.
55. The other premise in the argument that centralization would improve profitability lends little support to
the argument because its own credibility is suspect.
56. There is no data available, however, to support any causal relation between the number of people
watching TV programs about the visual arts and the number of people visiting art museums.
57. We do not have any evidence suggesting that the increase or decrease of the number of TV program viewers
will cause the likewise increase or decrease in the number of museum visitors, or vise versa.
58. The statistics offered in the announcement warrants only the conclusion that the decline of The Mercury's
circulation and the alleged competitor, the lower-priced newspaper The Bugle, coexisted in the past five years.
59. Any further linkage of these two phenomena requires more evidence and is not justified by the data so
far available.
60. Therefore, any decision aimed at addressing the problem of falling circulation must be based on more
thorough investigation to gather sufficient data in order to narrow down and locate the actual cause(s) of
the problem.
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61. There is also the possibility that The Mercury's declining circulation has little to do with The Bugle.
62. Since the arguer makes a claim about workers in general, the workers sampled for the survey should be able
to represent all workers.
63. From the survey quoted in the argument, however, we find no sign of such procedures for random
sampling, and have good reason to doubt if the sample is representative enough to reflect the general attitudes
of all workers as a whole.
64. When samples are used to make general claims about a particular group, the samples should be close
enough in time to the generalization they are used to support, so that historical changes will not invalidate
the generalization.
65. If this will be the case, then the increasing number of middle-aged people in the future will not necessarily
mean the likewise increase of business volume in department stores.
66. Opinions should be judged by their own merits, and should not be dismissed merely because they are
voiced by a few people.
67. To find the exact cause or causes of economic ups or downs, examination should be applied to all the
factors that have significant impact on the economy.
68. Since no effort was made to gather information about the spending amounts of the shoppers who had not
read the ad in Gazette, the possibility cannot be excluded that the average amount spent by a shopper did not
vary significantly, whether the shopper had read the ad or not.
69. Without further investigation any claims made about the effectiveness of the radio ad are doubtful even
though the cafe did observe a better business.
70. The fact that the student performance improved after the application of interactive computer instruction does
not necessarily imply that the new teaching method is responsible for the achievements.
71. Factors such as funds, computer skills of teaching staff, relative importance of other teaching objectives all
have some bearing on the extent of the use of computer-aided instruction.
72. Economy, as we know, is influenced by the combination of a host of factors, local, national and
international, political, social, and technological.
73. But we are told nothing about the way the poll was conducted and how well it represented the public
opinions.
74. But the problem is that the two situations are not similar enough to justify the analogical deduction.
75. According to the memo, companies are urged to follow this code, but there is no evidence whatsoever to
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show any serious commitment on the part of those companies other than their overt agreement to abide by it.
76. The argument provides no direct information as to the degree to which the public's demand for restaurants
is satisfied by the supply from the industry.
77. There is no evidence whatsoever to indicate that the water is solely responsible for the health condition of
the local people.
78. But any conclusion at this stage is premature in absence of a comprehensive examination of the school's
educational competence.
79. This observed phenomenon, actually, says little more than that these two events are synchronic (同时发生
的) to each other and that is all.
80. It does not naturally warrant the conclusion that movie violence has significantly contributed, and thus is
causal to, the increased urban crimes in real life.
81. In this argument the arguer concludes that the Appogee Company should close down field offices and
conduct all its operations from a single, centralized location because the company had been more profitable in the
past when all its operations were in one location.
82. For a couple of reasons, this argument is not very convincing.
83. The arguer employs two lines of reasoning to reach this conclusion.
84. In addition, the arguer reasons that 15-year-olds are physically more capable than older drivers of performing
the various skills associated with driving a vehicle and thus should be eligible to get a license.
85. The arguer draws the conclusion that photographers who work in color hold a competitive advantage over
those who work in black-and-white.
86. To support this conclusion, the arguer claims that the greater realism of colored photos accounts for its
predominant use in magazines and portraits.
87. This editorial asserts that West Cambria should not change its highway speed limits because such changes
adversely affect driver alertness and are therefore dangerous.
88. To support this claim, the editorial cites statistics indicating that whenever East Cambria changed its speed
limits, an average of 3 percent more automobile accidents occurred during the week after the change than during
the week preceding it, even when the speed limit was lowered.
89. AS it stands, this argument suffers from three critical flaws.
90. In this argument, the planning department of an investment firm reaches the conclusion that the firm
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should encourage investment in Solario—a new manufacturer of solar-powered products.
91. The basis for this recommendation is the expectation that solar energy will soon become more cost efficient
and attractive than other forms of energy.
92. This assumption is based on recent declines in the cost of equipment used to convert solar energy into
electricity and on new technologies that are being developed for this purpose.
93. An additional reason given in support of this recommendation is that Solario's chief executive was a
member of the financial planning team for a company that has shown remarkable growth since its recent
incorporation.
94. While this argument has some merit, there are a few assumptions that deserve attention.
95. Finally, in asserting that organic farming is financially unwise because it is motivated by environmental
instead of economic concerns, the arguer unfairly assumes that a practice cannot be both environmentally and
economically beneficial.
96. The example cited, while suggestive of these trends, is insufficient to warrant their truth because there is
no reason to believe that the data drawn from this unnamed region is representative of the entire country.
97. To begin with, this argument depends on the assumption that providing a greater range of subjects and a
larger library will alleviate the students' chief sources of dissatisfaction.
98. Not only does the arguer fail to see the ecological advantages of preserving the trees, he also fails to see the
obvious economic advantages of doing so.
99. Consequently, it is unlikely that the machines pictured in the magazine will be of much use to help maximize
the fitness levels of the town's residents.
100. However, while the poll establishes a correlation between reading the ad and purchasing sale items (促销
商品), and also indicates a correlation, though less significantly, between reading the ad and buying non-sale
items (非促销商品) , it does not establish a general causal relationship between these events.
三.核心句型
1.开头
1. The arguer may be right about…, but he seems to neglect (fail) to mention (take into account) the fact that…
2. As opposed to (Contrary to) the widely (commonly / generally) held (accepted) belief (ideas / views), I believe
(argue) that….
3. Although many people believe that…, I doubt (wonder) whether the argument bears much analysis (close
148
examination).
4. The advantages of B outweigh any benefit we gained from (carry more weight than those of/are much greater
than) A.
5. Although it is commonly (widely / generally) held (felt / accepted / agreed) that…, it is unlikely to be true
that….
6. There is an element of truth in this argument (statement), but it ignores some deeper and more basic reasons.
7. It is true that (True, / To be sure, / Admittedly,)…, but this is not to say (it is unlikely / it doesn't follow / it
doesn't mean / it won't be the case) that….
8. The main (obvious / great) problem (flaw / drawback) with (in) this argument (view / remark) is that it is
ignorant of (blind to) the basic (bare) fact that….
9. It would be possible (natural / reasonable) to think (believe / take the view) that…, but it would be absurd
(wrong) to claim (argue) that….
10.
In all the discussions and debates over…, one important (basic) fact is generally overlooked (neglected).
11. There is no (every) reason for us to believe (accept / resist / reject) that….
12.
Logical (Valid / Sound) as this argument and I wholeheartedly agree with it, it appears insignificant (absurd)
when…is taken into consideration (account).
13. To assume (suggest) that…is far from being proved (to miss the point).
14.
A close (careful) inspection (examination / scrutiny) of this argument would reveal how flimsy (groundless /
fallacious) it is.
15. On the surface (At first thought), it (this) may seem a sound (an attractive) suggestion (solution / idea), but
careful weighing on the mind (on closer analysis / on second thought), we find that….
16. Too much emphasis placed on (attention paid to / importance attached to)…may obscure (overlook / neglect)
other facts….
17. The danger (problem / fact / truth / point) is that….
18. What the arguer fails to understand (consider / mention) is that….
19. We don't have to look very far to see (find out) the truth (validity) of this argument (proposition).
20. However just (logical /sound / valid) this argument may be, it only skims the surface of the problem.
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21. Among the most convincing (important) reasons given (cited / offered / identified) by people for…, one should
be stressed (emphasized / mentioned).
22. As far as I am concerned, however, I believe that….
23. 1 believe that the title statement is valid because (of)…
24. 1 agree with the above statement because I believe that….
25. Although I appreciate that…, I cannot agree with the title statement.
26. There is a public controversy nowadays over the issue of…Those who object to…argue that….But people who
favor…, on the other hand, argue that….
27. Currently (In recent years / In the past few years / For many years now), there is (has been) a(n) general
(widespread / growing / widely held) feeling towards (concern over / attitude towards / trend towards / awareness
of / realization of / illusion of / belief in)….
28.
Now it is commonly (widely / generally / increasingly) believed (thought / held / accepted / felt / recognized /
acknowledged) that….But I wonder (doubt) whether….
29. Recently the problem (issue / question) of…has been brought to public attention.
30. These days we are often told that (often hear about)…, but is this really the case?
2. 正文
1. Although the popular belief is mat …, a current.(new/recent/) study (survey/poll/investigation) indicates
(shows/demonstrates) that….
2. Common sense tells us that….
3. The increase (change / failure / success) in…mainly (largely / partly) results from (arises from / is because
of)….
4. The increase (change / failure / success) in…is due to (owing to / attributable to) the fact that….
5. Many people would claim that….
6. One may attribute (ascribe / owe) the increase (decrease / change) to…, but…is not by itself an adequate
explanation.
7. One of the reasons given for…is that….
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8. What is also worth noticing is that….
9. There are many (different / several / a number of / a variety of) causes (reasons) for this dramatic (marked /
significant) growth (change / decline / increase) in…. First,…. Second,…. Finally,….
10. There is no evidence to suggest that….
11. Why are (is / do / did)…? For one thing…. For another,….
12. Another reason why I dispute the above statement is that….
13. It gives rise to (lead to / bring / create) a host of problems (consequences).
14. There are numerous reasons why…, and I shall here explore only a few of the most important ones.
15. It will exert (have / produce) profound (far-reaching / remarkable / considerable / beneficial / favorable /
undesirable / disastrous) effect (influence) on….
16. A multitude of factors could account for (contribute to / lead to / result in / influence) the change (increase /
decrease / success / failure / development) in….
17. In 1999, it increased (rose / jumped / shot up) from 5 to 10 percent of the total (to 15 percent / by 15 percent).
18. By comparison with 1998, it decreased (dropped / fell) from 10 to 5 percent (to 15 percent / by
15 percent).
19. It accounts for 15 percent of the total.
20. There were 100 traffic accidents in April, an increase of 5 percent in a five-month period.
21. By 1999, only (less than / more than / almost / about / over / as many as) three quarters (40 percent of / one out
of five / one in four) college population (graduates / housewives) as against (as compared with) last year (1998)
preferred to (liked)….
22.
With the development (improvement / rise / growth / general recognition / acknowledgement / realization)
of…, vast changes awaits this country's society.
23. Now people in growing (ever-increasing / significant) numbers are beginning (coming / getting) to believe
(realize / recognize / understand / accept / see / be aware) that….
24. According to a(n) recent (new / official) study (survey / report / poll),….
25. History (Our society) is filled (abounds) with the examples of…..
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26. The story (case / instance / situation) is not rare (isolated / unique), it is one of many examples (typical of
dozens).
27. A (one) recent (new / general / nationwide) study (survey / poll / investigation) conducted (taken) at a
university by (officials / scientists / experts) indicates (reveals / suggests / shows / proves / demonstrates) that….
28. According to (As can be seen in / As is shown in) the figures (statistics / findings / data / graph / table) released
(provided) by the government (an institute), it can be learned (seen /predicted) that….
29. There is (no) good (every / little / sufficient / considerable / strong) evidence (proof) to show that (as to /
against / in favor of)….
30. Personal experience (Examples I heard / read of) leads me to conclude that….
31. We must admit the undeniable fact that….
32. No one can deny (ignore / doubt / overlook / obscure / brush aside) the fact that….
33. Experience (Evidence) suggests (shows) that….
34. Take for example…who (that)….
35. The same is true of….
36. As the saying goes, "…."
3.结尾
1. From what has been discussed above (Taking into account all these factors / Judging from all evidence offered),
we may draw (reach / come to / arrive at) the conclusion that….
2. All the evidence discussed in the above analysis supports (justifies / confirms / warrants / points to) my
conclusion that….
3. It is high time that we place (lay / put) great (special / considerable) emphasis on the improvement (development
/ increase / promotion) of….
4. It is high time that we put an end to the deep-seated (unhealthy / undesirable / deplorable) situation (tendency /
phenomenon) of….
5. We must look (search / all / cry) for an immediate action (method / measure), because the present (current)
situation (phenomenon / tendency / state / attitude) of …, if permitted (allowed) to continue (proceed), will surely
(certainly) lead to (result in) the end (destruction / heavy cost) of….
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6. There is no easy (immediate / effective) solution (approach / answer / remedy) to the problem of…, but…might
be useful (helpful / beneficial).
7. No easy method (solution / recipe / remedy) can be at hand (found / guaranteed) to solve (resolve / tackle) the
problem of..., but the common (general / public) recognition of (realization of / awareness of / commitment to) the
necessity (importance / significance) of…might be die first step towards change (on the right way / in the right
direction).
8. Following these methods (suggestions) may not guarantee the success in (solution to)…, but the pay-off will be
worth the effort.
9. Obviously (Clearly / No doubt), if we ignore (are blind to) the problem, there is every chance that….
10. Unless there is a common realization of (general commitment to)…, it is very likely (the chances are good)
that….
11. There is little doubt (no denying) that serious (special / adequate / immediate / further) attention must be called
(paid / devoted) to the problem of….
12. It is necessary (essential / fundamental) that effective (quick / proper) action (steps / measures / remedies)
should be taken to prevent (correct / check / end / fight) the situation (tendency / phenomenon).
13. It is hoped (suggested / recommended) that great (continuous / persistent / sustained / corporate) efforts should
be make to control (check / halt / promote) the growth (increase / rise) of….
14. It is hoped that great efforts should be directed to (expended on / focused on) finding (developing /
improving)….
15. It remains to be seen whether…, but the prospect (outlook) is not quite encouraging (that rosy).
16. Anyhow, wider (more) education (publicity) should be given to the possible (potential / grave / serious /
pernicious) consequences (effects) of….
17. To reverse (check / control) the trend (tendency) is not a light task (an easy job), and it requires (demands
/involves /entails) a different state of mind towards (attitude towards /outlook on)….
18. For these reasons, I strongly recommend that….
19. For the reasons given above, I feel that….
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第九章
写作工具箱
下面的材料旨在丰富学生在是非问题写作方面的思想和语言，考生在复习时可以先分类阅读这些篇章，
然后再尝试写相关方面的作文题。
对于文章中用黑体字突出的部分，特别建议你熟读、背诵，因为它们在语言和观点上都值得吸收。学
习语言的人应该明白，表达能力和思想深度都靠日积月累，潜移默化。从某种意义上说，提高英语写作能
力无捷径可走，你必须大段大段地背诵英语文章才能逐渐形成语感和用英语进行表达的能力。这一关，没
有任何人能代替你过，新东方也帮不了你。
因此，建议你下点苦功夫，把背单词的精神拿出来背文章。何况，我并不要求你背了之后永远牢记在
心；你可以这个星期背，下个星期忘。这没有关系，相信你的大脑具有神奇的能力。在你背完工具箱里的
文章后，你会惊讶地发现：I can think in English now。
经常有学生告诉我：不知道背什幺好。现在我可以告诉各位：背诵下面的文章错不了，至少对 GRE 的
写作来说有立竿见影的效果！可别再找借口了哦！
Section One:
Education
1. Proverbs
· A graduation ceremony is an event where the commencement speaker tells thousands of
students
dressed in identical caps and gowns that individuality is the key to success.
· The primary purpose of a liberal education is to make one's mind a pleasant place in which to spend one's
time.
· Next in importance to freedom and justice is popular education, without which neither freedom nor
justice can be permanently maintained.
· The classroom—not the trench—is the frontier of freedom now and forevermore. Education's purpose is
to replace an empty mind with an open one.
· It is the purpose of education to help us become autonomous, creative, inquiring people who have the will
and intelligence to create our own destiny.
· You see, real ongoing, lifelong education doesn't answer questions; it provokes them. People will pay more
to be entertained than educated.
· The most important function of education at any level is to develop the personality of the individual and
the significance of his life to himself and to others. This is the basic architecture of a life; the rest is
ornamentation and decoration of the structure.
· The essence of our effort to see that every child has a chance must be to assure each an equal opportunity,
not to become equal, but to become different-to realize whatever unique potential of body, mind, and spirit
he or she possesses.
· A great teacher never strives to explain his vision—he simply invites you to stand beside him and see for
yourself.
· If you can read and don't, you are an illiterate by choice.
2. Damaging Research
A study by the National Parent-Teachers Organization revealed that in the average American school,
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eighteen negatives are identified for every positive that is pointed out. The Wisconsin study revealed that
when children enter the first grade, 80 percent of them feel pretty good about themselves, but by the time
they get to the sixth grade, only 10 percent of them have good self-images.
3. Education and Citizenship
An important aspect of education in the United States is the relationship between education and
citizenship. Throughout its history this nation has emphasized public education as a means of transmitting
democratic values, creating equality of opportunity, and preparing new generations of citizens to function in
society. In addition, the schools have been expected to help shape society itself. During the 1950s, for example,
efforts to combat racial segregation focused on the schools. Later, when the Soviet Union launched the first
orbiting satellite, American schools and colleges came under intense pressure and were offered many incentives to
improve their science and mathematics programs so mat the nation would not fall behind the Soviet Union in
scientific and technological capabilities.
Education is often viewed as a tool for solving social problems, especially social inequality. The schools, it is
thought, can transform young people from vastly different backgrounds into competent, upwardly mobile adults.
Yet these goals seem almost impossible to attain. In recent years, in fact, public education has been at the center of
numerous controversies arising from the gap between the ideal and the reality. Part of the problem is that different
groups in society have different expectations. Some feel that students need better preparation for careers in a
technologically advanced society; others believe children should be taught basic job-related skills; still
others believe education should not only prepare children to compete in society but also help them maintain
their cultural identity (and, in the case of Hispanic children, their language). On the other hand, policymakers
concerned with education emphasize the need to increase the level of student achievement and to involve parents
in their children's education.
Some reformers and critics have called attention to the need to link formal schooling with programs designed
to address social problems. Sociologist Charles Moscos, for example, is a leader in the movement to expand
programs like the Peace Corps, Vista, and Outward Bound into a system of voluntary national service. National
service, as Moscos defines it, would entail "the full-time undertaking of public duties by young people whether as
citizen soldiers or civilian servers-who are paid subsistence wages" and serve for at least one year. In return for this
period of service, the volunteers would receive assistance in paying for college or other educational expenses.
Advocates of national service and school-to-work programs believe that education does not have to be
confined to formal schooling. In devising strategies to provide opportunities for young people to serve their society,
they emphasize the educational value of citizenship experiences gained outside the classroom. At this writing there
is little indication that national service will become a new educational institution in the United States, although the
concept is steadily gaining support among educators and social critics.
4. The Teacher's Role
Given the undeniable importance of classroom experience, sociologists have done a considerable amount of
research on what goes on in the classroom. Often they start from the premise that, along with the influence of peers,
students' experiences in the classroom are of central importance to their later
development One study examined the impact of a single first-grade teacher on her students' subsequent adult status.
The surprising results of this study have important implications. It is evident that good teachers can make a big
difference in children's lives, a fact that gives increased urgency to the need to improve the quality of
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primary-school teaching. The reforms carried out by educational leaders like James Comer suggest that when good
teaching is combined with high levels of parental involvement the results can be even more dramatic.
Because the role of the teacher is to change the learner in some way, the teacher-student relationship is
an important part of education. Sociologists have pointed out that this relationship is asymmetrical or
unbalanced, with the teacher being in a position of authority and the student having little choice but to
passively absorb the information provided by the teacher. In other words, in conventional classrooms there
is little opportunity for the student to become actively involved in the learning process. On the other hand,
students often develop strategies for undercutting the teacher's authority: mentally withdrawing,
interrupting, and the like. Hence, much current research assumes that students and teachers influence each
other instead of assuming that the influence is always in a single direction.
5. Educational Philosophy
For the past fifty years our schools have operated on the theories of John Dewey (1859-1952), an American
educator and writer. Dewey believed that the school's job was to enhance the natural development of the growing
child, rather than to pour information, for which the child had no context, into him or her. In the Dewey system,
the child becomes the active agent in his own education, rather than a passive receptacle for facts.
Consequently, American schools are very enthusiastic about teaching "life skills"—logical thinking,
analysis, creative problem-solving. The actual content of the lessons is secondary to the process, which is
supposed to train the child to be able to handle whatever life may present, including all the unknowns of the
future. Students and teachers both regard pure memorization as uncreative and somewhat vulgar.
In addition to "life skills," schools are assigned to solve the evergrowing stock of social problems. Racism,
teenage pregnancy, alcoholism, drug use, reckless driving, and suicide are just a few of the modem problems that
have appeared on the school curriculum.
This all contributes to a high degree of social awareness in American youngsters.
6. Student Life
To the students, the most notable, difference between elementary school and the higher levels is that in junior
high they start "changing classes." This means that rather than spending the day in one classroom, they switch
classrooms to meet their different teachers. This gives them three or four minutes between classes in the hallways,
where a great deal of the important social action of high school traditionally takes place. Students have lockers in
these hallways, around which they congregate.
Society in general does not take the business of studying very seriously. Schoolchildren have a great deal of
free time, which they are encouraged to fill with extracurricular activities—sports, clubs, cheerleading,
scouts—supposed to inculcate such qualities as leadership, sportsmanship, ability to organize, etc. Those who don't
become engaged in such activities or have after-school jobs have plenty of opportunity to "hang out," listen to
teenage music, and watch television.
Compared to other nations, American students do not have much homework. Studies also show that American
parents have lower expectations for their children's success in school than other nationalities do. (Historically,
there has not been much correlation between American school success and success in later life.) "He's just not a
scholar," me American parents might say, content that their son is on the swim team and doesn't take drugs. (Some
of the young do choose to study hard, for reasons of their own, such as determining that the road to riches lies
through Harvard Business School.)
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What American schools do effectively teach is the competitive method. In innumerable ways children
are pitted against each other—whether in classroom discussion, spelling bees, reading groups, or tests.
Every classroom is expected to produce a scattering of A's and F's (teachers often grade A=excellent;
B=good; C=average; D=poor; and F=failed). A teacher who gives all A's looks too soft—so students are
aware that they are competing for the limited number of top marks.
Foreign students sometimes don't understand that copying from other people's papers or from books is
considered wrong and taken seriously. Here, it is important to show that you have done your own work and are
displaying your own knowledge. It is more important than helping your friends to pass, whom we think do not
deserve to pass unless they can provide their own answers. Group effort goes against the competitive grain, and
American students do not study together as many Asians do. Many Asians in this country consider their group
study habits a large contributor to their school success.
7. Adult Education
After complaining about many aspects of American life, a 40-year-old woman from Hong Kong concluded,
"But where else could someone my age go back to school and get a degree in social work? Here you can change
your whole life, start a new business, do what you really want to do."
So at least to this person, school requirements weren't inhibiting. And to millions of others, adult education is
the path to a new career, or if not to a new career, to a new outlook. Schools generally encourage the older person
who wants to start anew, and besides regular classes, schedule evening classes in special programs. Today there are
so many people of retirement age in college that it is no longer remarkable.
8. Moral Relativism in America
Improving American education requires not doing new things but doing (and remembering) some good old
things. At the time of our nation's founding, Thomas Jefferson listed the requirements for a sound education in the
Report of the Commissioners for the University of Virginia. In this landmark statement on American education,
Jefferson wrote of the importance of education and writing, and of reading, history, and geography. But he also
emphasized the need "to instruct the mass of our citizens in these, their rights, interests, and duties, as men and
citizens." Jefferson believed education should aim at the improvement of both one's "morals" and "faculties." That
has been the dominant view of the aims of American education for over two centuries. But a number of changes,
most of them unsound, have diverted schools from these great pursuits. And the story of the loss of the school's
original moral mission explains a great deal.
Starting in the early seventies, "values clarification" programs started turning up in schools all over
America. According to this philosophy, the schools were not to take part in their time-honored task of
transmitting sound moral values; rather, they were to allow the child to "clarify" his own values (which
adults, including parents, had no "right" to criticize). The "values clarification" movement didn't clarify
values; it clarified wants and desires. This form of moral relativism said, in effect, that no set of values was
right or wrong; everybody had an equal right to his own values; and all values were subjective, relative,
personal. This destructive view took hold with a vengeance.
In 1985 The New York Times published an article quoting New York area educators, in slavish devotion to
this new view,
proclaiming that "they deliberately avoid trying to tell students what is ethically right and wrong."
The article told of one counseling session involving fifteen high school juniors and seniors. In the course of that
session a student concluded that a fellow student had been foolish to return one thousand dollars she found in a
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purse at school. According to the article, when the youngsters asked the counselor's opinion, "He told them he
believed the girl had done the right thing, but that, of course, he would not try to force his values on them. 'If I
come from the position of what is right and what is wrong,' he explained, 'then I'm not their counselor.' "
Once upon a time, a counselor offered counsel, and he knew that an adult does not form character in the
young by taking a stance of neutrality toward questions of right and wrong or by merely offering "choices" or
"options."
In response to the belief that adults and educators should teach children sound morals, one can expect from
some quarters indignant objections (I've heard one version of it expressed countless times over the years): "Who
are you to say what's moral and what's important?" or "Whose standards and judgments do we use?"
The correct response, it seems to me, is, are we really ready to do away with standards and judgments?
Is anyone going to argue seriously that a life of cheating and swindling is as worthy as a life of honest, hard
work? Is anyone (with the exception of some literature professors at our elite universities) going to argue
seriously the intellectual corollary, that a Marvel comic book is as good as Macbeth? Unless we are willing to
embrace some pretty silly positions, we've got to admit the need for moral and intellectual standards. The
problem is that some people tend to regard anyone who would pronounce a definitive judgment as an
unsophisticated Philistine or a closed-minded "elitist" trying to impose his view on everyone else.
The truth of the real world is that without standards and judgments, there can be no progress. Unless
we are prepared to say irrational things—that nothing can be proven more valuable than anything else or
that everything is equally worthless—we must ask the normative question. It may come as a surprise to those
who feel that to be "progressive" is to be value-neutral. But as Matthew Arnold said, "the world is forwarded by
having its attention fixed on the best things." And if the world can't decide what the best things are, at least to some
degree, then it follows that progress, and character, are in trouble. We shouldn't be reluctant to declare that some
things, some lives, books, ideas, and values are better than others. It is the responsibility of the schools to teach
these better things.
At one time, we weren't so reluctant to teach them. In the mid-nineteenth century, a diverse, widespread group
of crusaders began to work for the public support of what was then called the "common school", the forerunner of
the public school. They were to be charged with the mission of moral and civic training, training that planted its
roots in shared values. The advocates of the common school felt that the nation could fulfill its destiny only if
every new generation was taught these values together in a common institution.
The leaders of the common school movement were mainly citizens who were prominent in their
communities—businessmen, ministers, local civic and government officials. These people saw the schools as
upholders of standards of individual morality and small incubators of civic and personal virtue; the founders of the
public schools had faith that public education could teach good moral and civic character from a common ground
of American values.
But in the past quarter century or so, some of the so-called experts became experts of value neutrality, and
moral education was increasingly left in their hands. The commonsense view of parents and the public, that
schools should reinforce rather than undermine the values of home, family, and country, was increasingly rejected.
There are those today still who claim we are now too diverse a nation, that we consist of too many competing
convictions and interests to instill common values. They are wrong. Of course we are a diverse people. We have
always been a diverse people. And as Madison wrote in Federalist No. 10, the competing, balancing interests of a
diverse people can help ensure the survival of liberty. But there are values that all American citizens share and
that we should want all American students to know and to make their own: honesty, fairness, self-discipline,
fidelity to task, friends, and family, personal responsibility, love of country, and belief in the principles of
liberty, equality, and the freedom to practice one's faith. The explicit teaching of these values is the legacy of
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the common school, and it is a legacy to which we must return.
9. Schools Should Teach Values
People often say, "Yes, we should teach these values, but how do we teach them?" This question deserves a
candid response, one that isn't given often enough. It is by exposing our children to good character and inviting its
imitation that we will transmit to them a moral foundation. This happens when teachers and principals, by their
words and actions, embody sound convictions. As Oxford's Mary Warnock has written, "You cannot teach morality
without being committed to morality yourself; and you cannot be committed to morality yourself without holding
that some things are right and others wrong." The theologian Martin Buber wrote that the educator is distinguished
from all other influences "by his will to take part in the stamping of character and by his consciousness that he
represents in the eyes of the growing person a certain selection of what is, the selection of what is 'right,' of what
should be." It is in this will, Buber says, in this clear standing for something, that the "vocation as an educator
finds its fundamental expression."
There is no escaping the fact that young people need as examples principals and teachers who know the
difference between right and wrong, good and bad, and who themselves exemplify high moral purpose.
As Education Secretary, I visited a class at Waterbury Elementary School in Waterbury, Vermont, and asked
the students, "Is this a good school?" They answered, "Yes, this is a good school." I asked them, "Why?" Among
other things, one eight-year-old said, "The principal Mr. Riegel, makes good rules and everybody obeys them." So
I said, "Give me an example." And another answered, "You can't climb on the pipes in the bathroom. We don't
climb on the pipes and the principal doesn't either."
This example is probably too simple to please a lot of people who want to make the topic of moral education
difficult, but there is something profound in the answer of those children, something educators should pay more
attention to. You can't expect children to take messages about rules or morality seriously unless they see
adults taking those rules seriously in their day-to-day affairs. Certain things must be said, certain limits laid
down, and certain examples set. There is no other way.
We should also do a better job at curriculum selection. The research shows that most "values education"
exercises and separate courses in "moral reasoning" tend not to affect children's behavior; if anything, they may
leave children morally adrift. Where to turn? I believe our literature and our history are a rich quarry of moral
literacy. We should mine that quarry. Children should have at their disposal a stock of examples illustrating what
we believe to be right and wrong, good and bad—examples illustrating what is morally right and wrong can indeed
be known and that there is a difference.
What kind of stories, historical events, and famous lives am I talking about? If we want our children to know
about honesty, we should teach them about Abe Lincoln walking three miles to return six cents and, conversely,
about Aesop's shepherd boy who cried wolf If we want them to know about courage, we should teach them about
Joan of Arc, Horatius at the bridge, and Harriet Tubman and the Underground Railroad. If we want them to know
about persistence in the face of adversity, they should know about the voyages of Columbus, and the character of
Washington during the Revolution and Lincoln during the Civil War. And our youngest should be told about the
Little Engine That Could. If we want them to know about respect for the law, they should understand why Socrates
told Crito: "No, I must submit to the decree of Athens." If we want our children to respect the rights of others, they
should read the Declaration of Independence, the Bill of Rights, the Gettysburg Address, and Martin Luther King,
Jr.'s "Letter from Birmingham jail." From the Bible they should know about Ruth's loyalty to Naomi, Joseph's
forgiveness of his brothers, Jonathan's friendship with David, the Good Samaritan's kindness toward a stranger,
and David's cleverness and courage in facing Goliath.
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These are only a few of the hundreds of examples we can call on. And we need not get into issues like nuclear
war, abortion, creationism, or euthanasia. This may come as a disappointment to some people, but the fact is that
the formation of character in young people is educationally a task different from, and prior to, the discussion of the
great, difficult controversies of the day. First things first. We should teach values the same way we teach other
things: one step at a time. We should not use the fact that there are many difficult and controversial moral
questions as an argument against basic instruction in the subject. After all, we do not argue against teaching
physics because laser physics is difficult, against teaching biology or chemistry because gene splicing and cloning
are complex and controversial, against teaching American history because there are heated disputes about the
Founders' intent. Every field has its complexities and its controversies. And every field has its basics, its
fundamentals. So too with forming character and achieving moral literacy. As any parent knows, teaching
character is a difficult task. But it is a crucial task, because we want our children to be not only healthy,
happy, and successful but decent, strong, and good. None of this happens automatically; there is no genetic
transmission of virtue. It takes the conscious, committed efforts of adults. It takes careful attention.
10. College Pressures
Mainly I try to remind students that the road ahead is a long one and that it will have more unexpected turns
than they think. There will be plenty of time to change jobs, change careers, change whole attitudes and
approaches. They don't want to hear such liberating news. They want a map—right now—that they can follow
unswervingly to career security, financial security, Social Security and, presumably, a prepaid grave.
What I wish for all students is some release from the clammy grip of the future. I wish them a chance to
savor each segment of their education as an experience in itself and not as a grim preparation for the next
step. I wish them the right to experiment, to trip and fall, to learn that defeat is as instructive as victory and
is not the end of the world.
My wish, of course, is naive. One of the few rights that America does not proclaim is the right to fail.
Achievement is the national god, venerated in our media—the million-dollar athlete, the wealthy
executive—and glorified in our praise of possessions. In the presence of such a potent state religion, the
young are growing up old.
I see four kinds of pressure working on college students today: economic pressure, parental pressure,
peer pressure, and self-induced pressure. It is easy to look around for villains—to blame the colleges for
charging too much money, the professors for assigning too much work, the parents for pushing their
children too far, the students for driving themselves too hard. But there are no villains; only victims.
"In the late 1960s," one dean told me, "the typical question that I got from students was 'Why is there so much
suffering in the world?' or 'How can I make a contribution?' Today it's 'Do you think it would look better for
getting into law school if I did a double major in history and political science, or just majored in one of them?"'
Many other deans confirmed this pattern. One said: "They're trying to find an edge—the intangible something that
will look better on paper if two students are about equal."
Note the emphasis on looking better. The transcript has become a sacred document, the passport to security.
How one appears on paper is more important than how one appears in person. A is for Admirable and B is for
Borderline, even though, in Yale's official system of grading, A means "excellent" and B means "very good." Today,
looking very good is no longer good enough, especially for students who hope to go on to law school or medical
school. They know that entrance into the better schools will be an entrance into the better law firms and better
medical practices where they will make a lot of money. They also know that the odds are harsh. Yale Law School,
for instance, matriculates 170 students from an applicant pool of 3,700; Harvard enrolls 550 from a pool of 7,000.
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It's all very well for those of us who write letters of recommendation for our students to stress the qualities of
humanity that will make them good lawyers or doctors. And it's nice to think that admission officers arc really
reading our letters and looking for the extra dimension of commitment or concern. Still, it would be hard for a
student not to visualize these officers shuffling so many transcripts studded with As that they regard a B as
positively shameful.
The pressure is almost as heavy on students who just want to graduate and get a job. Long gone are the
days of the "gentleman's C," when students journeyed through college with a certain relaxation, sampling a
wide variety of courses-music, art, philosophy, classics, anthropology, poetry, religion—that would send
them out as liberally educated men and women. If I were an employer I would rather employ graduates who
have this range and curiosity than those who narrowly pursued safe subjects and high grades. I know
countless students whose inquiring minds exhilarate me. I like to hear the play of their ideas. I don't know if
they are getting As or Cs, and I don't care. I also like them as people. The country needs them, and they will
find satisfying jobs. I tell them to relax. They can't.
Nor can I blame them. They live in a brutal economy. Tuition, room, and board at most private colleges now
comes to at least $7,000, not counting books and fees. This might seem to suggest that the colleges are getting rich.
But they are equally battered by inflation. Tuition covers only 60 percent of what it costs to educate a student, and
ordinarily the remainder comes from what college receives in endowments, grants, and gifts. Now the remainder
keeps being swallowed by the cruel costs—higher every year—of just opening the doors. Heating oil is up.
Insurance is up. Postage is up. Health-premium costs are up. Everything is up. Deficits are up. We are witnessing
in America the creation of a brotherhood of paupers—colleges, parents, and students, joined by the common bond
of debt.
Today it is not unusual for a student, even if he works part time at college and full time during the summer, to
accrue $5,000 in loans after four years—loans that he must start to repay within one year after graduation.
Exhorted at commencement to go forth into the world, he is already behind as he goes forth. How could he not feel
under pressure throughout college to prepare for this day of reckoning? I have used "he," incidentally, only for
brevity. Women at Yale are under no less pressure to justify their expensive education to themselves, their parents,
and society. In fact, they are probably under more pressure. For although they leave college superbly equipped to
bring fresh leadership to traditionally male jobs, society hasn't yet caught up with this fact.
Along with economic pressure goes parental pressure. Inevitably, the two are deeply intertwined.
I see many students taking pre-medical courses with joyless tenacity. They go off to their labs as if they were
going to the dentist. It saddens me because I know tern in other corners of their life as cheerful people.
"Do you want to medical school?" I ask them.
"I guess so," they say, without conviction, or "Not really."
"Then why are you going?"
"Well, my parents want me to be a doctor. They are paying all this money and…."
Poor students, poor parent. They are caught in one of the oldest webs of love and duty and guilt. The
parents mean will; they are trying to steer their sons and daughters toward a secure future. But the sons and
daughter want to major in history or classics or philosophy —subjects with no "practical" value. Where's
the payoff on the humanities? It's not easy to persuade such loving parents that the humanities do indeed
pay off. The intellectual faculties developed by studying subjects like history and classics—an ability to
synthesize and relate, to weigh cause and effect, to see events in perspective—are just the faculties that make
creative leaders in business or almost any general field. Still, many fathers would rather put their money on
courses that point toward a specific profession—courses that are pre-law, pre-medical, pro-business, or, as I
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sometimes heard it put, "pre-rich."
But the pressure on students is severe. They are truly torn. One part of them feels obligated to fulfill
their parents' expectations; after all, their parents are older and presumably wiser. Another part tells them
that the expectations that are right for their parents are not right for them.
I know a student who wants to be an artist. She is very obviously an artist and will be a good one—she has
already had several modest local exhibits. Meanwhile she is growing as a well-rounded person and taking
humanistic subjects that will enrich the inner resources out of which her art will grow. But her father is strongly
opposed. He thinks that an artist is a "dumb" thing to be. The student vacillates and tries to please everybody. She
keeps up with her art somewhat furtively and takes some of the "dumb" courses her father wants her to take—at
least they are dumb courses for her. She is a free spirit on a campus of tense students—no small achievement in
itself—and she deserves to follow her muse.
Peer pressure and self-induced pressure are also intertwined, and they begin almost at the beginning of
freshman year.
"I had a freshman student I'll call Linda," one dean told me, "who came in and said she was under terrible
pressure because her roommate, Barbara, was much brighter and studied all the time. I couldn't tell her that
Barbara had come in two hours earlier to say the same thing about Linda."
The story is almost funny—except that it's not. It's symptomatic of all the pressures put together. When every
student thinks every other student is working harder and doing better, the only solution is to study harder still. I see
students going off to the library every night after dinner and coming back when it closes at midnight. I wish they
would sometimes forget about their peers and go to a movie. I hear the clacking of typewriters in the hours before
dawn. I see the tension in their eyes when exams are approaching and papers are due: "Will I get everything done?
"
Probably they won't. They will get sick. They will get blocked. They will sleep. They will oversleep. They
will bug out
Part of the problem is that they do more than they are expected to do. A professor will assign five-page papers.
Several students will start writing ten-page papers to impress him. Then more students will write ten-page papers,
and a few will raise the ante to fifteen. Pity the poor student who is still just doing the assignment.
"Once you have twenty or thirty percent of the student population deliberately overexerting," one dean points
out, "It's bad for everybody. When a teacher gets more and more effort from his class, the student who is doing
normal work can be perceived as not doing well. The tactic works, psychologically."
Why can't the professor just cut back and not accept longer papers? He can, and he probably will But by then
me term will be half over and the damage done. Grade fever is highly contagious and not easily reversed. Besides,
the professor's main concern is with his course. He knows his students only in relation to the course and doesn't
know that they are also overexerting n their other courses. Nor is it really his business. He didn't sign up for
dealing with the student as a whole person and with all the emotional baggage the student brought along from
home. That's what deans, masters, chaplains, and psychiatrists are for.
To some extent this is nothing new: a certain number of professors have always been self-contained islands of
scholarship and shyness, more comfortable with books than with people. But the new pauperism has widened the
gap still further, for professors who actually like to spend time with students don't have as much time to spend.
They are also overexerting. If they are young, they are busy trying to publish in order not to perish, hanging by
their finger nails onto a shrinking profession. If they are old and tenured, they are buried under the duties of
administering departments—as departmental chairmen or members of committees—that have been thinned out by
the budgetary axe.
Ultimately it will be the students' own business to break the circles in which they are trapped. They are
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too young to be prisoners of their parents' dreams and their classmates' fears. They must be jolted into
believing in themselves as unique men and women who have the power to shape their own future.
"Violence is being done to the undergraduate experience," says Carlos Hortas. "College should be open-ended:
at the end it should open many, many roads. Instead, students are choosing their goal in advance, and their choices
narrow as they go along. It's almost as if they think that the country has been codified in the type of jobs that
exist-that they've got to fit into certain slots. Therefore, fit into the best-paying slot."
"They ought to take chances. Not taking chances will lead to a life of colorless mediocrity. They'll be
comfortable. But something in the spirit will be missing."
I have Painted too drab a portrait of today's students, making them seem a solemn lot That is only half of their
story; if they were so dreary I wouldn't so thoroughly enjoy their company. The other half is that they are easy to
like. They are quick to laugh and to offer friendship. They are not introverts. They are unusually kind and are more
considerate of one another than any student generation I have known.
Nor are they so obsessed with their studies that they avoid sports and extracurricular activities. On the
contrary, they juggle their crowded hours to play on a variety of teams, perform with musical and dramatic groups,
and write for campus publications. But this in turn is one more cause of anxiety. There are too many choices.
Academically, they have 1,300 courses to select from; outside class they have to decide how much spare time they
can spare and how to spend it.
This means that they engage in fewer extracurricular pursuits than their predecessors did. If they want to row
on the crew and play in the symphony they will eliminate one; in the '60s they would have done both. They also
tend to choose activities that are self-limiting. Drama, for instance, is flourishing in all twelve of Yale's residential
colleges as it never has before. Students hurl themselves into these productions—as actors, directors, carpenters,
and technicians—with a dedication to create the best possible play, knowing that the day will come when the run
will end and they can get back to their studies.
They also can't afford to be the willing slave of organizations like the Yale Daily News. Last spring at the
one-hundredth anniversary banquet of that paper—whose past chairmen include such once and future kings as
Potter Stewart, Kingman Brewster, and William F. Buckley, Jr. —much was made of the fact that the editorial staff
used to be small and totally committed and that "newsies" routinely worked fifty hours a week. In effect they
belonged to a club; Newsies is how they defined themselves at Yale. Today's student will write one or two articles
a week, when he can, and he defines himself as a student. I've never heard the word Newsie except at the banquet.
If I have described the modem undergraduate primarily as a driven creature who is largely ignoring the blithe
spirit inside who keeps trying to come out and play, it's because that's where the crunch is, not only at Yale but
throughout American education. It's why I think we should all be worried about the values that are nurturing a
generation so fearful of risk and so goal-obsessed at such an early age.
I tell students that there is no one "right" way to get ahead—that each of them is a different person,
starting from a different point and bound for a different destination. I tell them that change is a tonic and
that all the slots are not codified nor the frontiers closed. One of my ways of telling them is to invite men and
women who have achieved success outside the academic world to come and talk informally with my students
during the year. They are heads of companies or ad agencies, editors of magazines, politicians, public officials,
television magnates, labor leaders, business executives, Broadway producers, artists, writers, economists,
photographers, scientists, historians—a mixed bag of achievers.
I ask them to say a few words about how they got started. The students assume that they started in their
present profession and knew all along that it was what they wanted to do. Luckily for me, most of them got into
their field by a circuitous route, to their surprise, after many detours. The students are startled. They can hardly
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conceive of a career that was not pre-planned. They can hardly imagine allowing the hand of God or chance to
nudge them down some unforeseen trail.
11. To Err Is Wrong
In the summer of 1979, Boston Red Sox first baseman Carl Yastrzemski became the fifteenth player in
baseball history to reach the three thousand hit plateau. This event drew a lot of media attention, and for about a
week prior to the attainment of this goal, hundreds of reporters covered Yaz's every move. Finally, one reporter
asked, "Hey Yaz, aren't you afraid all of this attention will go to your head?" Yastrzemski replied, "I look at it this
way: in my career I've been up to bat over ten thousand times. That means I've been unsuccessful at the plate over
seven thousand times. That fact alone keeps me from getting a swollen head."
Most people consider success and failure as opposites, but they are actually both products of the same
process. As Yaz suggests, an activity which produces a hit may also produce a miss. It is the same with
creative thinking; the same energy which generates good creative ideas also produces errors.
Many people, however, are not comfortable with errors. Our educational system, based on "the right
answer" belief, cultivates our thinking in another, more conservative way. From an early age, we are taught
that right answers are good and incorrect answers are bad. This value is deeply embedded in the incentive
system used in most schools:
Right over 90% of the time = "A"
Right over 80% of the time = "B~"
Right over 70% of the time = "C~" Right over 60% of the time = "D~" Less than 60% correct, you fail.
From this we learn to be right as often as possible and to keep our mistakes to a minimum. We learn, in
other words, that "to err is wrong.
Playing It Safe
With this kind of attitude, you aren't going to be taking too many chances. If you learn that failing even
a little penalizes you (e.g., being wrong only 15% of the time garners you only a "B" performance), you
learn not to make mistakes. And more important, you learn not to put yourself in situations where you
might fail. This leads to conservative thought patterns designed to avoid the stigma our society puts on
"failure."
I have a friend who recently graduated from college with a Master's degree in Journalism. For the last six
months, she has been trying to find a job, but to no avail. I talked with her about her situation, and realized that her
problem is that she doesn't know how to fail. She went through eighteen years of schooling without ever failing an
examination, a paper, a midterm, a pop-quiz, or a final. Now, she is reluctant to try any approaches where she
might fail. She has been conditioned to believe that failure is bad in and of itself, rather than a potential stepping
stone to new ideas.
Look around. How many middle managers, housewives, administrators, teachers, and other people do
you see who are afraid to try anything new because of this fear of failure? Most of us have learned not to
make mistakes in public. As a result, we remove ourselves from many learning experiences except for those
occurring in the most private of circumstances.
A Different Logic
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From a practical point of view, "to err is wrong" makes sense. Our survival in the everyday world
requires us to perform thousands of small tasks without failure. Think about it: you wouldn't last very long
if you were to step out in front of traffic or stick your hand into a pot of boiling water. In addition, engineers
whose bridges collapse, stock brokers who lose money for their clients, and copywriters whose ad campaigns
decrease sales won't keep their jobs very long.
Nevertheless, too great an adherence to the belief "to err is wrong" can greatly undermine your
attempts to generate new ideas. If you are more concerned with producing right answers than generating
original ideas, you'll probably make uncritical use of the rules, formulae, and procedures used to obtain
these right answers. By doing this, you'll by-pass the germinal phase of the creative process, and thus spend
little time testing assumptions, challenging the rules, asking what-if questions, or just playing around with
the problem. All of these techniques will produce some incorrect answers, but in the germinal phase errors
are viewed as a necessary by-product of creative thinking. As Yaz would put it, "if you want the hits, be
prepared for the misses." That's the way the game of life goes.
Errors As Stepping Stones
Whenever an error pops up, the usual response is "Jeez, another screwup, what went wrong this time?" The
creative thinker, on the other hand, will realize the potential value of errors, and perhaps say something like,
"Would you look at that! Where can it lead our thinking?" And then he or she will go on to use the error as a
stepping stone to a new idea. As a matter of fact, the whole history of discovery is filled with people who used
erroneous assumptions and failed ideas as stepping stones to new ideas. Columbus thought he was finding a
shorter route to India. Johannes Kepler stumbled on to the idea of interplanetary gravity because of
assumptions which were right for the wrong reasons. And, Thomas Edison knew 1800 ways not to build a
light bulb.
The following story about the automotive genius Charles Kettering exemplifies the spirit of working through
erroneous assumptions to good ideas. In 1912, when the automobile industry was just beginning to grow, Kettering
was interested in improving gasolineengine efficiency. The problem he faced was "knock," the phenomenon in
which gasoline takes too long to burn in the cylinder-thereby reducing efficiency.
Kettering began searching for ways to eliminate the "knock." He thought to himself, "How can I get the
gasoline to combust in the cylinder at an earlier time?" The key concept here is "early." Searching for analogous
situations, he looked around for models of "things that happen early." He thought of historical models, physical
models, and biological models. Finally, he remembered a particular plant, the trailing arbutus, which "happens
early," i.e., it blooms in the snow ("earlier" than other plants). One of this plant's chief characteristics is its red
leaves, which help the plant retain light at certain wavelengths. Kettering figured that it must be the red color
which made the trailing arbutus bloom earlier.
Now came the critical step in Kettering's chain of thought. He asked himself, "How can I make the gasoline
red? Perhaps I'll put red dye in the gasoline—maybe that'll make it combust earlier." He looked around his
workshop, and found that he didn't have any red dye. But he did happen to have some iodine, perhaps that would
do. He added the iodine to the gasoline and, lo and behold, the engine didn't "knock."
Several days later, Kettering wanted to make sure that it was the redness of the iodine which had in fact
solved his problem. He got some red dye and added it to the gasoline. Nothing happened! Kettering then realized
that it wasn't the "redness" which had solved the "knock" problem, but certain other properties of iodine. In this
case, an error had proven to be a stepping stone to a better idea. Had he known that "redness" alone was not the
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solution, he may not have found his way to the additives in iodine.
Negative Feedback
Errors serve another useful purpose: they tell us when to change direction. When things are going
smoothly, we generally don't think about them. To a great extent, this is because we function according to
the principle of negative feedback. Often it is only when things or people fail to do their job that they get our
attention. For example, you are probably not thinking about your kneecaps right now; that's because everything is
fine with them. The same goes for your elbows: they are also performing their function—no problem at all. But if
you were to break a leg, you would immediately notice all of the things you could no longer do, but which you
used to take for granted.
Negative feedback means that the current approach is not working, and it is up to you to figure out a
new one. We learn by trial and error, not by trial and rightness. If we did things correctly every time, we
would never have to change direction—we'd just continue the current course and end up with more of the
same.
For example, after the supertanker Amoco Cadiz broke up off the coast of Brittany in the spring of 1978,
thereby polluting the coast with hundreds of thousands of tons of oil, the oil industry rethought many of its safety
standards regarding petroleum transport. The same thing happened after the accident at the Three Mile Island
nuclear reactor in 1979—many procedures and safety standards were changed.
Neil Goldschmidt, former Secretary of Transportation, had this to say about the Bay Area Rapid Transit
(BART):
It's gotten too fashionable around the country to beat up on BART and not give credit to the vision that put
this system in place. We have learned from BART around the country. The lessons were put to use in Washington,
in Atlanta, in Buffalo, and other cities where we are building mass transit systems. One of the lessons is not to
build a system like BART.
We learn by our failures. A person's errors are the whacks that lead him to think something different.
Trying New Things
Your error rate in any activity is a function of your familiarity with that activity. If you are doing things
that are routine and have a high likelihood of correctness, then you will probably make very few errors. But
if you are doing things that have no precedence in your experience or are trying different approaches, then
you will be making your share of mistakes. Innovators may not bat a thousand—far from it—but they do
get new ideas.
The creative director of an advertising agency told me that he isn't happy unless he is failing at least
half of the time. As he puts it, "If you are going to be original, you are going to be wrong a lot."
One of my clients, the president of a fast-growing computer company, tells his people: "We're innovators.
We're doing things nobody has ever done before. Therefore, we are going to be making mistakes. My advice
to you: make your mistakes, but make them in a hurry."
Another client, a division manager of a high-technology company, asked his vice president of engineering
what percentage of their new products should be successful in the marketplace. The answer he received was "about
50%." The division manager replied, "That's too high-. 30% is a better target; otherwise we'll be too conservative
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in our planning."
Along similar lines, in the banking industry, it is said that if the credit manager never has to default on any of
his loans, it's a sure sign he's not being aggressive enough in the marketplace.
Thomas J. Watson, the founder of IBM, has similar words: "The way to succeed is to double your failure
rate."
Thus, errors, at the very least, are a sign that we are diverging from the main road and trying different
approaches.
Nature's Errors
Nature serves as a good example of how trial and error can be used to make changes. Every now and then
genetic mutations occur—errors in gene reproduction. Most of the time, these mutations have a deleterious effect
on the species, and they drop out of the gene pool. But occasionally, a mutation provides the species with
something beneficial, and that change will be passed on to future generations.
The rich variety of all species is due to this trial and error process. If there had never been any mutations from
the first amoeba, where would we be now?
Summary
There are places where errors are inappropriate, but the germinal phase of the creative process isn't
one of them. Errors are a sign that you are diverging from the well-traveled path. If you're not failing every
now and then, it's a sign you're not being very innovative,
Tip #1:
If you make an error, use it as a stepping stone to a new idea you might not have otherwise discovered.
Tip #2:
Differentiate between errors of "commission" and those of 11 omission." The latter can be more costly than
the former. If you're not making many errors, you might ask yourself, "How many opportunities am I
missing by not being more aggressive?"
Tip #3:
Strengthen your "risk muscle." Everyone has one, but you have to exercise it or else it will atrophy. Make it
a point to take at least one risk every twenty-four hours.
Tip #4:
Remember these two benefits of failure.
First, if you do fail, you learn what doesn't work; and second, the
failure gives you an opportunity to try a new approach.
12. The Practicality of the Liberal Arts Major
Current trends indicate that by the year 2000 the average person will change careers at least twice during a
lifetime. How does the entering college student prepare for career mobility which has never before been necessary?
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Our fathers decided what they wanted to do in life, which was very often what their fathers had done-went to
college or apprenticed themselves, and pursued the same career until retirement Our mothers assumed one of the
nurturing roles in society, if they assumed a role outside of the home at all. Things have certainly changed. No
longer is life so simple.
Adaptability and lifelong learning are now the cornerstones of success. What direction does a person fake to
prepare for a lifetime of change? The one degree which provides training which never becomes obsolete is the
liberal arts degree; it teaches you how to think. It also teaches you how to read, write and speak intelligently, get
along with others, and conceptualize problems. For the first time in several decades, the liberal arts degree is
coming to the forefront of the employment field.
Growing ranks of corporate executives are lamenting that college students are specializing too much
and too early. What corporate America really needs, according to chief executive officers of major
corporations, is students soundly grounded in the liberal arts—English, especially—who then can pick up
more specific business or technical skills on the job. Few students, however, seem to be listening to this
message. Today's best selling courses offer evidence that students want to take courses that provide direct
job related skills rather than the most basic survival skills in the workplace: communication and thinking
skills. They want courses they can parlay into jobs and high paying ones at that. Certainly, we can
understand this mentality when we consider trends indicating that this generation will be the first who will
not be able to do better economically than their parents. They don't want to leave anything to chance.
Historically, the liberal arts degree was good insurance for a poverty level existence. Students are looking to
history to provide some answers it simply cannot give. They would do well to examine the present.
One of the big problems in the liberal arts community is that we do not market what we have to offer.
Students very often fail to see the practicality of studying Shakespeare as preparation for a career in the business
community. Perhaps some of us have locked ourselves in the ivory tower a little too long extolling the virtues of a
liberal education as preparation for citizenship and life only to the neglect of it as preparation for career or careers.
Education for education's sake is noble but impractical to today's college student who is facing a competitive and
rapidly changing job market. They want and deserve to know how their courses will help them get a job. We as
educators owe them some answers; we must be accountable not only for learning but also for providing
information regarding the transferability of classroom skills into the workplace.
In an attempt to provide answers, we conducted a research project in the Dallas metropolis last year, assuming
the role of the liberal arts graduate seeking employment in the fields of government, banking, business, and
industry. Using informational inter-viewing as our method of job hunting and obtaining data, we conducted
twenty-five interviews with a diversity of executive officers, ranging from personnel directors to the chairman of
the board of an exclusive department store and the state governor. We wished to validate, through practical and
current research, that not only does the liberal arts degree provide the best preparation for a lifetime of change, but
it also provides a plethora of employment opportunities. We do not claim our research to be all encompassing, but
we do feel its practicality was rewarding. We gathered data as to how the liberal arts major should present himself
on paper and in person, where her best chances for employment are, and what he can do to augment the liberal arts
degree. We were able to draw several conclusions as to how the liberal arts community could better prepare
students for professional mobility.
13. The Liberal Arts Degree Is Marketable
Ninety percent of those interviewed responded they would hire a liberal arts major for an entry level position
which could lead to the executive suite if the position itself were not executive level. The chairman of the board of
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a major department store in Dallas responded to the question, "For what position would you hire a liberal arts
graduate?" with a direct, "Any position in the company." When asked if a buyer wouldn't need to have special
skills, he replied, "Taste is acquired or learned, and the liberal arts major could certainly learn this skill on the job."
This interview is typical of the responses.
Skills Acquired with a Liberal Arts Background Are Most Desired by Employers
We were not at all surprised to learn that the skills cited as the most desirable in an employee are those skills
acquired from a liberal arts background. The cited skills are listed below in order of importance.
1. Oral communication
2. Written communication
3. Interpersonal
4. Analytical thinking
5. Critical thinking
6. Leadership
Although these skills are not solely acquired through the mastery of an academic discipline, the discipline serves
as a vehicle for developing or refining these skills.
Liberal Arts Majors Can Enhance Their Credentials
Adaptability and lifelong learning are the cornerstones of success in today's complex and rapidly changing society.
No longer can the person who is steeped in one academic discipline, but knows nothing about anything else, meet
today's demands. Based on the data we accumulated, our recommendations for the liberal arts major are the
following:
1. A basic knowledge of accounting
2. Computer literacy
3. Second major in a business field
4. Multiple minors
5. Advanced degree in another field
The key here is adaptability and diversity. Contrary to what most people believe, the higher a skill level an
individual can claim, the more marketable he is. About those individuals who complain that they are
"overeducated" we can only assume that they are marketing themselves on the wrong level. "Overeducation" is a
term whose time will not come in the foreseeable future. The problem many individuals will face is a narrowness
of education rather than "overeducation."
Unlike Aristotle who is believed to have known everything there was to know at the time he lived, it is
impossible for us to deal with the voluminous amounts of information which are produced daily. The
lifelong learning which we have alluded to will not always be acquired through the traditional sixteen-week
college course. We in the community college need to provide a smorgasbord of opportunities for individuals
who wish to increase their mobility and options.
The time has come to rethink what education really is and how it relates to the functions of society.
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Perhaps what a liberal education does for an Individual, which is more important than anything else, is to
prepare him for more learning. The liberal arts background equips one with thinking skills; and those,
coupled with the desire to learn, are the best preparation for career and life that any of us can possess.
14. The Vast Emptiness
at the Core of Today's Liberal Arts Education
With this year's graduation season drawing to a close, we won't have to listen to many more commencement
speakers. Usually, they tell the graduating seniors how lucky they were to spend four years acquiring wisdom. As a
graduating senior at UC Berkeley, I have a somewhat different perspective—one that wasn't heard often at this
year's commencement ceremonies but that contains a great deal more truth about the state of American higher
education today.
I have done relatively well academically at Berkeley. Even so, I don't think I've received a true liberal
education—at least not in the way that a well-educated man of the 19th Century would have understood it. Back
then, a university was supposed to provide nourishment for mind, body and soul. American colleges stopped
catering to the latter too long ago, when mandatory attendance in chapel and at physical-education classes was
abolished. Now, Berkeley and other leading research universities have even stopped feeding students' minds.
What I've missed is an education that integrates philosophy, history, literature and the other
humanities into a coherent whole. Part of the fault is my own: I did not seek out some classes that I should
have. But a large share of the burden lies with the university, which lacks a core curriculum—for example,
"Great Books"—that could provide a general education.
Instead, Berkeley, like many other large universities, offers a host of overly specialized courses that seem to
have little connection. The history department offers a class on Theodore Roosevelt; English has a course on
science fiction; philosophy offers a class on Hegel. That's it. Almost no courses attempt to bridge the gulf between
these areas. Those that should—that is, introductory courses aimed at freshmen only—offer the same content as
the upper-division courses.
They have an added drawback: They are taught by inaccessible professors in giant
auditoriums before thousands of bored students.
The man responsible for this deplorable state of affairs is Clark Kerr, UC president during the 1960s and one
of the most influential figures of post-World Wax II higher education. Kerr dreamed that the college would,
become all things to all people—a "multiversity." Instead, it wound up serving almost everybody inadequately.
Nobody is sure what the university's mission is anymore: Is it to educate elite students? To create a social
melting pot? To conduct graduate-level research? Partisans of all three viewpoints have waged intermittent battles
on the Berkeley campus for decades, leaving all the players profoundly dissatisfied.
Undergraduates are therefore denied the opportunity to pursue a comprehensive curriculum. Instead,
they are left, like shoppers in a giant supermarket, to wander the aisles, picking products at random, never
sure that their selections will add up to a nutritious meal. Laissez faire may work in the economy, but it's no
way to run a university.
This loss of mission has also allowed a weird collection of nuts and cranks to assume prominent positions at
Berkeley, as they have at other leading U.S. colleges. Deconstructionists in the English department teach that
words have no intrinsic meaning. Revisionists in the history department teach that the Constitution was the result
of a capitalist cabal. Newly minted Ph.D.'s in the ethnic-studies field teach that America has waged genocidal war
against its racial minorities for centuries. Instructors in the "Peace and Conflict Studies" department teach
strategies for nonviolent protest. A sociology professor instructs students on the "plantation system" in professional
sports today.
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This is education? Thankfully, I've been able to avoid most of these professors with an ax to grind. I have
managed to study almost exclusively with professors who believe in old fashioned academic standards and the
importance of Western civilization. But most students don't fare as well. The lucky ones merely miss the chance to
be educated. The unlucky ones axe indoctrinated by unscrupulous lecturers.
It's safe to say, then, that the reality of college education today is a fax cry from the dreamy land of learning
and higher thinking described by commencement speakers. Just ask any recent graduate.
15. Education As Philosophy
There is an immense and justified pride in what our colleges have done. At the same time there is a growing
uneasiness about their product The young men and women who carry away our degrees are a very attractive
lot—in looks, in bodily fitness, in kindliness, energy, courage, and buoyancy. But what of their intellectual
equipment? That too is in some ways admirable; for in spite of President Lowell's remark that the university
should be a repository of great learning, since the freshmen always bring a stock with them and the seniors take
little away, the fact is that our graduates have every chance to be well informed, and usually are so. Yet the
uneasiness persists. When it becomes articulate, it takes the form of wishes that these attractive young products of
ours had more intellectual depth and force, more at-homeness in the world of ideas, more of the firm, clear, quiet
thoughtfulness that is so potent and so needed a guard against besetting humbug and quackery. The complaint
commonly resolves itself into a bill of three particulars. First, granting that our graduates know a good deal,
their knowledge lies about in fragments and never gets welded together into the stuff of a tempered and
mobile mind. Secondly, our university graduates have been so busy boring holes for themselves, acquiring
special knowledge and skills, that in later life they have astonishingly little in common in the way of ideas,
standards, or principles, Thirdly, it is alleged that the past two decades have revealed a singular want of
clarity about the great ends of living, attachment to which gives significance and direction to a life. Here are
three grave charges against American education, and I want to discuss them briefly. My argument will be simple,
perhaps too simple. What I shall contend is that there is a great deal of truth in each of them, and that the remedy
for each is the same. It is larger infusion of the philosophic habit of mind.
16. What True Education Should Do
When most people think of the word "education," they think of a pupil as a sort of animate sausage casing.
Into this empty casing, the teachers are supposed to stuff "education."
But genuine education, as Socrates knew more than two thousand years ago, is not inserting the
stuffings of information into a person, but rather eliciting knowledge from him; it is the drawing out of what
is in the mind.
"The most important part of education," once wrote William Ernest Hocking, the distinguished Harvard
philosopher, "is this instruction of a man in what he has inside him."
And, as Edith Hamilton has reminded us, Socrates never said, "I know, learn from me." He said, rather,
"Look into your own selves and find the spark of truth that God has put into every heart, and that only you
can kindle to a flame."
In the dialogue called the "Meno," Socrates takes an ignorant slave boy, without a day of schooling, and
proves to the amazed observers that the boy really "knows" geometry—because the principles and axioms of
geometry are already in his mind, waiting to be called out.
So many of the discussions and controversies about the content of education are futile and inconclusive
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because they are concerned with what should "go into" the student rather than with what should be taken
out, and how this can best be done.
The college student who once said to me, after a lecture, "I spend so much time studying that I don't have a
chance to learn anything," was succinctly expressing his dissatisfaction with the sausage-casing view of education.
He was being so stuffed with miscellaneous facts, with such an indigestible mass of material, that he
had no time (and was given no encouragement) to draw on his own resources, to use his own mind for
analyzing and synthesizing, and evaluating this material.
Education, to have any meaning beyond the purpose of creating well informed students, must elicit from the pupil
what is latent in every human being—the rules of reason, the inner knowledge of what is proper for men to be and
do, the ability to sift evidence and come to conclusions mat can generally be assented to by all open minds and
worm hearts.
Pupils are more like oysters than sausages. The job of teaching is not to stuff them and then seal them
up, but to help them open and reveal the riches within. There are pearls in each of us, if only we knew how
to cultivate them with ardor and persistence
17. The Future of Universities
"Can we speak of the death of the university?" an English newspaper recently asked. Another offered the
diagnosis: "Still breathing. " Not only at this seminar, here and now, but all over the world the future of the
universities is now being discussed. This is not only because we are entering a new century. Many people are
asking whether the traditional research universities in fact have any future at all. This doubt seems mainly to be
due to the development of the new technology, the massification of the universities, the idea of life long learning,
the growing competition from other learning institutions and may be also because of the strong specialization that
we now are experiencing in most fields of research. Many experts predict the demise of universities as we know
them today, with a campus.
I am an optimist, and I have become even more of an optimist having listened to the speakers today. I
believe in the magic of the campus! 1 believe that the universities will be able to enjoy a very bright future
as intellectual power centres in a world in which society is calling out increasingly loudly for more
knowledge.
But if we are to continue to live as intellectual power centers, the universities cannot sit passively letting
developments take their course. We must know what sort of university we want in the future. Many battles have
been lost because of the lack of any goal. We must also have a strategy and a policy for how we are to achieve our
vision. This means that the universities must actively relate to the great challenges we are now being
confronted with, and we must develop our ability and will for renewal. Yet we must do this at the same time
as we stand by the fundamental values that make us a university: that is our independence. I see it as one of
the most important tasks for a university president to work for the greatest possible spirit of community in
the university, and for the university to be an integrated institution and not simply a number of faculties or
departments linked together in some kind of formal organization or strategic alliance. Only then can we
defend the use of the name "university."
I would like to conclude by saying a few words about international solidarity. The quality gap between
academic institutions in different parts of the world should be a concern for the universities in the developed
countries. They should assume a leading role in the dissemination of knowledge, and in promoting the
development of universities worldwide. This is a matter of solidarity towards sister institutions. I agree with
UNESCO when they underline that members of the world's academic community should be concerned not only
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about the quality of their own institutional setting, but also about the quality of research everywhere.
Most universities in the western word—at least the public universities—are now experiencing a serious lack
of funds, and the institutional solidarity must not take a form that leads to a draining of strength and vitality of the
universities. There are, however, many ways of showing solidarity without using too much of the universities own
funding. One of the tasks of the universities is to keep reminding the authorities of the importance of spending
money on research and education in developing countries. The universities themselves must work in close
co-operation with the development-aid agencies where the Government provide most of the economic resources
and the universities provide the competence. It is also possible to share knowledge by giving easier access to
recent findings, to make possible academic mobility and increased technical co-operation among regional
groupings. Various academic co-operation programs may protect against braindrain, which is now a serious threat
in many countries.
Only through the development of local skill and competence, through increased numbers of providers
and users of knowledge can the developing countries bridge the gap separating them from developed
countries. And the bridging of this gap will lead to societies that are freer, more peaceful and more
egalitarian. The universities have the competence, the possibility and therefore also a duty to promote the
"intellectual and moral solidarity of mankind" as stated in the UNESCO's constitution.
18. Teaching and Learning:
Strategies for the 21st Century
Examining the situation in the higher learning today, we realize that since the end of the last World War there
have been basic changes in the relations, of the state and the university in many countries. These changes are
connected with dramatic increase in the number of students and not less with the increase in the cost of research.
The social consequences of these processes are: a) The profound change in the structure of the society due to the
grown percentage of university graduates; b) The risk of intellectual unemployment of, this part of society; c) The
relative devaluation of other vocations and the decrease in the number of young people who select manual
vocations; and, as the result, d) A potential social lack of equilibrium and the inability of the society to support the
university. But let me now come to more practical matters and enumerate the main factors that determine the
development of education on the very eve of the 21st century. 1. The development of information technologies.
Throughout the world, information and telecommunication technologies are bringing about a new
industrial revolution which already looks to be as important and radical as those revolutions which
preceded it. The benefits that come along with the development of new technologies are obvious and have been
discussed quite a lot. I would like to draw your attention to those sides of introduction of information technologies
which can pose new problems for education. The availability of information on the INTERNET, for example,
widens the possibilities of informal education immensely. It could lead to knowledge of "the lowest common
denominator" in which people loose their historical, geographical and cultural bearings. New information
technologies are widely introduced in schools and universities, and allow to develop distance education programs
without boundaries. However, methods of teaching and learning through electronic means are still to be developed.
In many cases, lecturers try to use the traditional methodology of teaching while dealing with new media and fail.
2. Internationalization is connected both with political situation and with the development of
technologies.
Nowadays our world is becoming smaller and smaller, and turns into a "global village." International
academic cooperation is an excellent basis for nation-wide cooperation and one of the key factors for
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sustainable development. It is absolutely vital for technical harmonization, environmental protection, political
stability. In the recent years we have witnessed active development of international educational programs, growth
of student mobility, activization of regional cooperation. One can be quite sure that these processes will continue
and deepen in the next century. Again, there are a number of issues which need serious consideration. To what
extent should we standardize educational programs? How much risk does internationalization contain for national
identity? How to create a global system of academic recognition -and is it really necessary?
19. Universities Changing to Meet
the Needs of the 21st Century
Keeping with the theme of this session, I will talk about the role of the University for the 21st Century.
I have chosen not one but seven different roles which will be important for universities in the 21 st century:
* Learning Community Role
* Research and Discovery Role
* Assisting in Pre-college Education Role
* Partnerships with Corporations Role
* Convener Role
* World Role
* Societal Role
The learning community reflects a shift away from the typical lecture approach where the professor
professes, i.e. imparts knowledge to the student and the student simply takes it down and takes it in. The
new emphasis will be on learning, in addition to the lecture through student initiative in setting the program,
acquiring knowledge through the Internet as needed, collaborating with peers in special projects,
experiential learning through internships, study abroad, and many other out-of-classroom experiences.
Records of learning experience may be through portfolio, reflecting the variety of experiences, rather than simply
transcripts showing courses taken and grades. In addition, the learning community means more than just the
student experience. It includes all parts, all functions, all personnel having an involvement in learning, thus the
learning community.
The research role will continue to be a key function in the research university, but there will continue to
be a shift in emphasis away from single investigator, working on a particular and narrow area, toward
multi-disciplinary teams working on problems driven by societal need. Several factors will continue to force
this direction such as, limited space and facilities in our institutions, limited budgets for doing research including
high costs of duplicating laboratories for each new faculty investigator, and increasing expectations by these
providing the funding to see substantive and useful results. The remaining five roles address the outreach function.
This will be the area of most significant change in the 21st century.
First, the university will take on an even larger role in assisting pre-college education in preparing students for
study and work. Success in college is greatly impacted by student preparation. Thus, the university will need to
take more responsibility in guiding the process in college preparation.
Partnerships with corporations and businesses will become a greater part of university involvement. The 21st
century will see expansion of partnerships of this type particularly with research universities. These will take on
different forms. They will involve collaboration for education of an older workforce, collaboration for
organizational and process improvement in both types of organizations, agreements for special considerations in
student recruitment and internships, and employment and funding between the partners. Each will need to undergo
some modification of culture as these changes occur.
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The convener role involves bringing people to campus to address certain important issues. It means
identifying experts around the world to join with those on campus to seek understanding and actions for change.
This conference sponsored by Peking University is an example of the convener function. It also involves bringing
people together to learn about modern approaches to the latest and important issues in many different fields. This
role has been served for many years in agriculture, education and engineering. Others are emerging, and the future
will have universities serving an even broader role as convener of experts in many different areas.
The world role for universities is another that is evolving rapidly. It is being driven by increasing ease of
communication worldwide, the connectivity of economies of countries around the world, the opening up of greater
opportunities for trade, and the increasing prevalence of multinational corporations.
Finally, the societal role will be the area of greatest change as we move into the 21st century. The university
will direct more of its financial resources and faculty expertise toward critical needs of society, toward convening
faculty individuals in different colleges and departments to collaborate in certain fields of research and
development. This will take time to evolve and it will require some shift in culture of the university. But, the
external forces bearing on universities will drive change in emphasis from focusing on status as determined by
university peers toward greater emphasis on relevance of work and accomplishment.
While the changes taking place involving moving toward more emphasis on needs of society are generally
positive, there are concerns about some directions that could take place. For example, universities will need to
maintain their independence in setting agendas and directions. It will be important to retain independence to work
more effectively in an interdependent society. Secondly, universities will need to avoid excessive political and
partisan influence on decision-making intended to benefit special interests. And, thirdly we will want to retain a
balanced role of the faculty in the decision process of university governance.
In summary, the colleges and universities of the 21st century will need to be able to work effectively in
an interdependent society having a worldwide scope. They will be less inward looking and more connected
to issues outside that involve problems plaguing society. They will be more collaborative with corporations,
other universities and among faculty across units within the institution. There will be more emphasis on the
student's experience in learning, seeking knowledge through different methods, in addition to the lecture,
and developing skills through experience. Finally, the university will be more dependent on technology in
the students learning experience as well as the operation of all aspects of the activities within the institution.
I believe the university of the 21st century will see students taking classes together and working on
collaborative projects in universities that may be hundreds and possibly thousands of miles apart.
20. Education and Training
To understand the nature of the liberal arts college and its function in our society, it is important to understand
the difference between education and training.
Training is intended primarily for the service of society; education is primarily for the individual.
Society needs doctors, lawyers, engineers, teachers to perform specific tasks necessary to its operation, just
as it needs carpenters and plumbers and stenographers. Training supplies the immediate and specific needs
of society so that the work of the world may continue. And these needs, our training centers the professional
and trade schools fill. But although education is for the improvement of the individual, it also serves society
by providing a leavening of men of understanding, of perception, and wisdom. They are our intellectual
leaders, the critics of our culture, the defenders of our free traditions, the instigators of our progress. They
serve society by examining its function, appraising its needs, and criticizing its direction. They may be
earning their livings by practicing one of the professions, or in pursuing a trade, or by engaging in business
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enterprise. They may be rich or poor. They may occupy positions of power and prestige, or they may be
engaged in some humble employment. Without them, however, society either disintegrates or else becomes
an anthill.
The difference between the two types of study is like the difference between the discipline and exercise in a
professional baseball training camp and that of a Y gym. In the one, the recruit is training to become a professional
baseball player who will make a living and serve society by playing baseball; in the other, he is training only to
improve his own body and musculature. The training at the baseball camp is all relevant. The recruit may spend
hours practicing how to slide into second base, not because it is a particularly useful form of calisthenics but
because it is relevant to the game. The exercise would stop if the rules were changed so that sliding to a base was
made illegal. Similarly, the candidate for the pitching staff spends a lot of time throwing a baseball, not because it
will improve his physique-it may have quite the opposite effect-but because pitching is to be his principal function
on the team. At the Y gym, exercises have no such relevance. The intention is to strengthen the body in general,
and when the members sit down on the floor with their legs outstretched and practice touching their fingers to their
toes, it is not because they hope to become galley slaves, perhaps the only occupation where that particular
exercise would be relevant.
In general, relevancy is a facet of training rather than of education. What is taught at law school is the
present law of the land, not the Napoleonic Code or even the archaic laws that have been scratched from the statute
books. And at medical school, too, it is modern medical practice that is taught, that which is relevant to conditions
today. And the plumber and the carpenter and the electrician and the mason learn only what is relevant to the
practice of their respective trades in this day with the tools and materials that are presently available and that
conform to the building code.
In the liberal arts college, on the other hand, the student is encouraged to explore new fields and old
fields, to wander down the bypaths of knowledge. There the teaching is concerned with major principles,
and its purpose is to change the student, to make him something different from what he was before, just as
the purpose of the Y gym is to make a fat man into a thin one, or a strong one out of a weak one.
Clearly the two types of learning overlap. Just as the baseball recruit gets rid of excess weight and tightens his
muscles at the baseball camp and thereby profits even if he does not make the team, so the law student sharpens
his mind and broadens his understanding, even if he subsequently fails the bar exam and goes on to make his living
in an entirely different kind of work. His study of law gives him an understanding of the rules under which our
society functions and his practice in solving legal problems gives him an understanding of fine distinctions.
On the other hand, the Y member, whose original reason for joining may have been solely to get himself in
shape, may get caught up in the institution's baseball program and find that his skill has developed to the point
where he can play the game professionally. Similarly, the student who undertakes a course of study merely because
it interests him and he wants to know more about it may find mat it has commercial value. He has studied a foreign
language and literature in order to understand the society that produced it, and then he may find that his special
knowledge enables him to get a job as a translator. Or he may find that while his knowledge of chemistry is not of
professional caliber, it is still sufficient to give him preference in a particular job over someone who lacks even
that modicum of knowledge of the subject. But these are accidental and incidental. In general, certain courses of
study are for the service of society and other courses are for self-improvement. In the hierarchy of our
educational system, the former are the function of our professional schools and the latter are the function of
the college of liberal arts.
21. Knowledge and Wisdom
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Most people would agree that, although our age far surpasses all previous ages in knowledge, there has been
no correlative increase in wisdom. But agreement ceases as soon as we attempt to define "wisdom" and consider
means of promoting it. I want to ask first what wisdom is, and then what can be done to teach it.
There are, I think, several factors that contribute to wisdom. Of these I should put first a sense of
proportion: the capacity to take account of all the important factors in a problem and to attach to each its
due weight. This has become more difficult than it used to be owing to the extent and complexity of the
specialized knowledge required of various kinds of technicians. Suppose, for example, that you are engaged in
research in scientific medicine. The work is difficult and is likely to absorb the whole of your intellectual energy.
You have not time to consider the effect which your discoveries or inventions may have outside the field of
medicine. You succeed (let us say), as modem medicine has succeeded, in enormously lowering the infant death
rate, not only in Europe and America, but also in Asia and Africa. This has the entirely unintended result of making
the food supply inadequate and lowering the standard of life in the most populous parts of the world. To take an
even more spectacular example, which is in everybody's mind at the present time: You study the composition of
the atom from a disinterested desire for knowledge, and incidentally place in the hands of powerful lunatics the
means of destroying the human race. In such ways the pursuit of knowledge may become harmful unless it is
combined with wisdom, and wisdom in the sense of comprehensive vision is not necessarily present in specialists
in the pursuit of knowledge.
Comprehensiveness alone, however, is not enough to constitute wisdom. There must be, also, a. certain
awareness of the ends of human life. This may be illustrated by the study of history. Many eminent historians
have done more harm than good because they viewed facts through the distorting medium of their own passions.
Hegel had a philosophy of history which did not suffer from any lack of comprehensiveness, since it started from
the earliest times and continued into an indefinite future. But the chief lesson of history which he sought to
inculcate was that from the year A. D, 400 down to his own time Germany had been the most important nation and
the standard bearer of progress in the world. Perhaps one could stretch the comprehensiveness that constitutes
wisdom to include not only intellect but also feeling. It is by no means uncommon to find men whose knowledge is
wide but whose feelings are narrow. Such men lack what I am calling wisdom.
It is not only in public ways, but in private life equally, that wisdom is needed. It is needed in the choice
of ends to be pursued and in emancipation from personal prejudice. Even an end which it would be noble to
pursue if it were attainable may be pursued unwisely if it is inherently impossible of achievement. Many men in
past ages devoted their lives to a search for the philosopher's stone and the elixir of life. No doubt, if they could
have found them, they would have conferred great benefits upon mankind, but as it was their lives were wasted. To
descend to less heroic matters, consider the case of two men, Mr. A and Mr. B, who hate each other and, through
mutual hatred, bring each other to destruction. Suppose you go to Mr. A and say, "Why do you hate Mr. B?" He
will no doubt give you an appalling list of Mr. B's vices, partly true, partly false. And now suppose you go to Mr. B.
He will give you an exactly similar list of Mr. A's vices with an equal admixture of truth and falsehood. Suppose
you now come back to Mr. A and say, "You will be surprised to learn that Mr. B says the same things about you as
you say about him", and you go to Mr. B and make a similar speech. The first effect, no doubt, will be to increase
their mutual hatred, since each will be so horrified by the other's injustice. But perhaps, if you have sufficient
patience and sufficient persuasiveness, you may succeed in convincing each that the other has only the normal
share of human wickedness, and that their enmity is harmful to both. If you can do this, you will have instilled
some fragment of wisdom.
I think the essence of wisdom is emancipation, as far as possible, from the tyranny of the here and the
now. We cannot help the egoism of our senses. Sight and sound and touch are bound up with our own bodies
and cannot be made impersonal. Our emotions start similarly titan ourselves. An infant feels hunger or
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discomfort, and is unaffected except by his own physical condition. Gradually with the years, his horizon
widens, and, in proportion as his thoughts and feelings become less personal and less concerned with his
own physical states, he achieves growing wisdom. This is of course a matter of degree. No one can view the
world with complete impartiality; and if anyone could, he would hardly be able to remain alive. but it is
possible to make a continual approach towards impartiality, on the one hand, by knowing things somewhat
remote in time or space, and, on the other hand, by giving to such things their due weight in our feelings. It
is this approach towards impartiality that constitutes growth in wisdom.
Can wisdom in this sense be taught? And, if it can, should the teaching of it be one of the aims of education? I
should answer both these questions in the affirmative. We are told on Sundays that we should love our neighbor as
ourselves. On the other six days of the week, we are exhorted to hate him. You may say that this is nonsense, since
it is not our neighbor whom we are exhorted to hate. But you will remember that the precept was exemplified by
saying that the Samaritan was our neighbor. We no longer have any wish to hate Samaritans and so we are apt to
mite the point of the parable. If you want to get its point, you should substitute Communist or anti-Communist, as
the case may be, for Samaritan. It might be objected that it is right to hate those who do harm. I do not think so. If
you hate them, it is only too likely that you will become equally harmful; and it is very unlikely that you will
induce them to abandon their evil ways. Hatred of evil is itself a kind of bondage to evil. The way out is through
understanding, not through hate, I am not advocating non-resistance. But I am saying that resistance, if it is to be
effective in preventing the spread of evil, should be combined with the greatest degree of understanding and the
smallest degree of force that is compatible with the survival of the good things that we wish to preserve.
It is commonly urged that a point of view such as I have been advocating is incompatible with vigor in action.
I do not think history bears out this view. Queen Elizabeth I in England and Henry IV in France lived in a world
where almost everybody was fanatical, either on the Protestant or on the Catholic side. Both remained free from
the errors of their time and both, by remaining free, were beneficent and certainly not ineffective. Abraham
Lincoln conducted a great war without ever departing from what I have been calling wisdom.
I have said that in some degree wisdom can be taught. I think that this teaching should have a larger
intellectual element than has been customary in what has been thought as moral instruction. 1 think that the
disastrous results of hatred and narrow-mindedness to those who feel them can be pointed out incidentally
in the course of giving knowledge. I do not think that knowledge and morals ought to be too much separated.
It is true that the kind of specialized knowledge which is required for various kinds of skill has very little to
do with wisdom. But it should be supplemented in education by wider surveys calculated to put it in its
place in the total of human activities. Even the best technicians should also be good citizens, and when I say
"citizens", I mean citizens of the world and not of this or that sect or nation. With every increase of
knowledge and skill, wisdom becomes more necessary, for every such increase augments our capacity of
realizing our purposes, and therefore augments our capacity for evil, if our purposes are unwise. The world
needs wisdom as it has never needed it before; and if knowledge continue to increase, the world will need
wisdom in the future even more than it does now.
22. Student Essays
(1) Education and Success
Which factor offers more opportunities for success in our society: education or money and property? In my view,
education has replaced money and property as the main
provider of such opportunities today. I base my view on two reasons. First, education—particularly higher
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education—used to be amiable only to the wealthy but now is accessible to almost anyone. Second, because of the
civil-rights movement and resulting laws, businesses are now required to hire on the basis of merit rather than the
kinds of personal connections traditionally common among the wealthy.
Education probably always played a key role in determining one's opportunities for success. But in the past, good
post-secondary education was available mainly to the privileged classes. Because money and property largely
determined one's access to higher education, money and property really were the critical factors in opening doors
to success. However, higher education is more egalitarian today. Given our vast numbers of state universities and
financial-aid programs, virtually anyone who meets entrance requirements for college can obtain an excellent
college education and open up windows of opportunity in life.
Another reason those opportunities will be open to educated young people from middle-class and poorer
backgrounds is that hiring is more meritocratic today than ever before. In principle, at least, we have always been a
society where all people are equal: yet in the past, children of the wealthy and well-connected could expect to
obtain higher-status jobs and to receive better pay. But the laws and programs resulting, from our civil-rights
struggles have produced a modern business climate in which jobs are available o an equal-opportunity basis, and in
which candidates have a legal right to be judged on the merit of their educational background and experience.
In conclusion, education is probably the main factor in opening doors to success for young people in our society.
The fact that education has supplanted money and property in this role is owing to a more egalitarian system of
higher education, as well as to more merit-based hiring practices mat generally value individual education over
family fortune or corrections.
(2) Moral Education
Many people assert that schools should teach only academic skills, and not ethical or social values. I agree with
them insofar as instruction on certain moral issues is best left to parents and churches. However, in my view it is in
the best interests of a democratic society for schools to teach at least the values necessary to preserve freedom and
a democratic way of life, and perhaps even additional values that enrich and nurture a society and its members.
We all have an interest in preserving our freedom and democratic way of life. At the very least, then, schools
should provide instruction in the ethical and social values required for our democracy to survive—particularly the
values of respect and tolerance. Respect for individual persons is a basic ethical value that requires us to
acknowledge the fundamental equality of all people, a tenet of a democratic society. Tolerance of differences
among individuals and their viewpoints is required to actualize many of our basic constitutional rights—including
life, liberty, pursuit of happiness, and freedom of speech and religion.
While respect and tolerance are the minimal values that schools should teach, the list should ideally go further—to
include caring, compassion, and willingness to help one another. A democracy might survive without these values,
but it would not thrive. Respect and tolerance without compassion, it seems to me, breed a cool aloofness that
undermines our humanity, and leaves those in the worst position to suffer more and suffer alone—an unhealthy
state for any society.
Admittedly, schools should avoid advocating particular viewpoints on controversial moral issues such as abortion
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or capital punishment. Instruction on issues with clear spiritual or religious implications is best left to parents and
churches. Even so, schools should teach students how to approach these kinds of issues 梑 y helping students to
recognize their complexity and to clarify competing points of view. In doing so, schools can help breed citizens
who approach controversy in the rational and responsible ways characteristic of a healthy democracy.
In sum, schools should by all means refrain from indoctrinating our young people with particular viewpoint on
controversial questions of morality. However, it is in a democratic society's interest for schools to inculcate the
democratic values of respect and tolerance, and perhaps even additional values that humanize and enrich a society.
(3) Teaching Business Skills
Some people claim that since high-quality ads are used to promote low-quality products, schools should teach
students about consumerism. In my opinion, undue attention by schools to consumerism is unnecessary and
inappropriate, especially for younger students.
Regarding the first reason, empirical evidence does not suggest mat high-quality advertising is used to promote
low-quality products. To the contrary, companies that produce low-quality products seem to resort to low-budget,
poor-quality ads, especially in broadcast media. Firms that take pride in the quality of their products are far more
likely also to produce ads they can be proud of. Furthermore, high-quality products are more likely to succeed in
the marketplace and thereby generate the revenues needed to ensure high production value in advertising.
As for the second reason, it is not the job of our schools to breed legions of smart shoppers. Teachers should
devote class time to examining the marketplace of ideas, not that of consumer goods and services, which students
spend sufficient time examining outside the classroom. Admittedly, consumerism arid advertising may be
appropriate topics for college-level marketing and psychology courses. However, undue focus on media and
materialism may give younger students a distortedly narrow view of the world as little more than a flea market.
Additionally, revealing the deceptive side of the advertising business may breed unhealthy cynicism among
youngsters, who need positive messages, not negative ones during their formative years.
In sum, the premise that high-quality ads tout low-quality products is specious at best. In any event, for schools to
provide extensive training in consumerism would be to assign them an inappropriate role and to foster in
impressionable minds a distortedly narrow and unhealthy view of the world.
(4) Teaching Science or Humanities
Because scientific knowledge is increasingly important in our technological world and in the practical world of
jobs and careers, schools should devote sufficient time to teaching mathematics and science. This is not to say,
however, that schools should devote less time to the arts or humanities. To the contrary, in a technological age the
study of arts and humanities is probably more important than ever—for three reasons.
First of all, studying the arts and humanities can help students become better mathematicians and scientists. For
example, recent studies of cognitive development show that studying music at an early age can strengthen a child's
later grasp of mathematics. And understanding philosophical concepts has helped scientists recognize their own
presuppositions, and frame their central questions more accurately.
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Secondly, studying the creative and intellectual achievement of others helps inspire our own creativity and
intellectual questioning. This is particularly important in an era dominated by technology, where we run a serious
risk of becoming automatons who fit neatly into the efficient functioning of some system.
Finally technology is valuable as an efficient means to our important goals. But neither technology, nor the science
on which it is founded, decides which goals are best, or judges the moral value of the means we choose for their
attainment. We need the liberal arts to help us select worthwhile ends and ethical means.
In conclusion, schools should not devote less time to the arts and humanities. These areas of study augment and
enhance learning in mathematics and science, as well as helping to preserve the richness of our entire human
legacy while inspiring us to further it. Moreover, disciplines within the humanities provide methods and contexts
for evaluating the morality of our technology and for determining its proper direction.
(5) Differences and Similarities in Education
While I agree that education should include teaching students about characteristics that we all share, doing so need
not necessarily entail shifting focus away from our differences. Education can and should include both.
On the one hand, we are in the midst of an evolving global community where it is increasingly important for
people to recognize our common humanity, as well as specific hopes and goals we all share. People universally
prefer health to disease, being nourished to starving, safe communities to crime-riddled ones, and peace to war.
Focusing on our unity will help us realize these hopes and goals. Moreover, in ear pluralistic democracy it is
crucial to find ways to unify citizens from diverse backgrounds. Otherwise, we risk being reduced to ethnic,
religious or political factions at war with one another, as witnessed recently in the former Yugoslavia. Our own
diverse society can forestall such horrors only if citizens are educated about the democratic ideals, heritage, rights
and obligations we all have in common.
On the other hand, our schools should not attempt to erase, ignore, or even play down religious, ethnic or cultural
diversity. First of all, schools have the obligation to teach the democratic ideal of tolerance, and the best way to
teach tolerance is to educate people about different religions, cultures and so on. Moreover, educating people about
diversity might even produce a unifying effect-by promoting understanding and appreciation among people from
all backgrounds.
In conclusion, while it may appear paradoxical to recommend that education stress both unity and diversity, it is
not. Understanding our common humanity will help us achieve a better, more peaceful world. Toward the same
end, we need to understand our differences in order to better tolerate them, and perhaps even appreciate them. Our
schools can and should promote both kinds of understanding by way of a balanced approach.
(6) History and Reality
Is studying history is a waste of time because it distracts us from current challenges? Does the study of history
have any bearing on present problems or their possible solutions? In my opinion, history can provide examples,
perspectives and insights that are directly relevant to contemporary challenges.
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One way that studying history can help us face new challenges is by showing us inspirational examples of success.
For instance, we can learn from the experience of the great inventor Thomas Edison that sometimes a series of
apparent failures is really a precursor to success. Also consider the journey of Lewis and Clark into the Northwest
Territory. Understanding the motivations needed to overcome adversities they faced can help to inspire
modern-day explorers and scientists.
Studying history can also help us avoid repeating mistakes. For instance, we can learn from the failure of
Prohibition during the 1930s that it can be a mistake to legislate morality. And future generations might learn from
the 1997 indictment of the tobacco industry that it is bad policy to trade off the well-being of consumers in order to
secure profits.
Finally, the study of history is important because we cannot fully appreciate our present challenges without
understanding their historical antecedents. Consider the issue of whether California should be officially bilingual.
The treaty that transferred California from Mexico to the United States stipulated that California must embrace
both Spanish and English as official languages. Those who view the current bilingual debate as purely a
contemporary issue might bring to the debate a more enlightened viewpoint by appreciating this historical fact and
the events that led to the treaty.
In sum, though the past might seem distant, it is far from irrelevant. Studying history can inspire us to achievement,
help us avoid costly mistakes, and help us simply appreciate that in most cases we've been down this road before.
(7) The Use of History Study
Examining history makes us better people insofar as it helps us to understand our world. It would seem, therefore,
that history would also provide useful clues for dealing with the same social ills that have plagued societies
throughout history. On balance, however, the evidence suggests otherwise.
Admittedly, history has helped us learn the appropriateness of addressing certain issues, particularly moral ones,
on a societal level. Attempts to legislate morality invariably fail, as illustrated by Prohibition in the 1930s and,
more recently, failed federal legislation to regulate access to adult material via the Internet. We are slowly learning
this lesson, as the recent trend toward legalization of marijuana for medicinal purposes and the recognition of
equal rights for same-sex partners both demonstrate.
However, the overriding lesson from history about social ills is that they are here to stay. Crime and violence, for
example, have troubled almost every society. All manners of reform, prevention, and punishment have been tried.
Today, the trend appears to be away from reform toward a "tough-on-crime" approach. Is this because history
makes clear that punishment is the most effective means of eliminating crime? No; rather, the trend merely reflects
current mores, attitudes, and political climate. Also undermining the assertion that history helps us to solve social
problems is the fact that, despite the civil-rights efforts of Martin Luther King and his progenies, the cultural gap
today between African-Americans and white Americans seems to be widening. It seems that racial prejudice is
here to stay. A third example involves how we deal with the mentally-ill segment of the population. History reveals
that neither quarantine, treatment, nor accommodation solves the problem, only that each approach comes with its
own trade-offs.
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To sum up. while history can teach us lessons about our social problems, more often than not the lesson is that
there are no solutions to many social problems—only alternate ways of coping with them.
Section Two: Science and Technology
I. 1. Computers in Education
There is a great deal of interest in the use of computers in education. The educational use of computers is
called Computer Assisted Instruction, or CAI. Many public schools in the United States have acquired computers
and CAI programs to run on them. School districts are establishing computer resource centers and special training
programs to help teachers use computers. In addition, some colleges and universities are beginning to establish
computer literacy requirements for graduation. In spite of all this interest in the use of computers in education,
some educators and students still may be wondering if this expensive toy is really worth their time and, in some
cases, money. The answer is a definite yes: The use of computers in education has important benefits for both
students and teachers.
Computers enhance a student's learning experience in many ways. First of all, the computer has the
ability to accommodate individual differences in learning speed because the user (the student) is the one who
controls the pace of the lessons. In addition, because a computer Is nonjudgmental, the learner does not
have to be afraid of reprisal or humiliation when making errors. For example, because computers can
repeat information over and over, the user can ask for many repetitions of a lesson without fearing a
judgmental response about his or her ability to learn. The beneficial effects of learning in a stress-free
atmosphere are well documented. A third advantage of CAI is that a computer can give a student immediate
feedback. It can tell the student why she or he is wrong as soon as an error is made, and it can even provide
an appropriate hint for figuring out the correct answer.
Not only do computers benefit students, they also make the teacher's job easier. One advantage lies in
the preparation of instructional materials. Schools and colleges can purchase educational computer
programs that can be adapted to any learning situation. These systems, called "authoring systems," are like
skeletal lesson plans: The format of several exercises and tests is already planned out; all the teacher adds is
the information he or she wants the students to learn (mathematical problems, vocabulary lists, and so
forth). The authoring system automatically incorporates these teaching points into its preplanned format
and then is ready to be used by several students for a long time. The system can also correct the students'
work and determine and record grades. In addition, the computer offers numerous advantages to teachers
in managing their classrooms. A computer laboratory (a room having one computer for every two students)
can free the teacher to meet individually with students while the rest of the class is occupied with computer
lessons. Finally, computers can help teachers keep student records and chart student progress, thereby
cutting down on time-consuming paperwork."
With all of these advantages for both teachers and students, it is easy to see why there is so much interest in
using computers in education. Of course, there are those who are skeptical and view computers as a passing fad.
There are those also who simply are afraid of them. In time, however, computers will become as familiar in the
classroom as chalkboards are today.
II. 2. Computers Make the Workplace Less Friendly
We have seen the future, and it hurts.
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That's what millions of American office workers are discovering every year as computers come to dominate
the office and the mania for ever-increasing profits consumes the work environment. If present sentiments persist,
there could be a white-collar revolt, as executives and stenographers alike find that the "office of tomorrow" is just
the keypunch counterpart of the sweatshop of yesterday.
One reason for this is the computer's potential to "deskill" work—to reduce it to simple, repetitive
actions. For example, instead of having each worker in an insurance company record an incoming insurance
claim and then stay with it through all phases of processing, the job is broken up: One drone does nothing
but complete the same log-in forms; another grinds out identical letters to different addresses.
Even valued senior employees are burning out as a consequence, of computer monitoring—which affects
between 20 and 35 percent of America's office workers, according to a report by the Office of Technology
Assessment [OTA].
When workers use electronic gear, it is easy to meter work-time to the millisecond, tally breaks and phone
calls, or rank a worker's output against that of his colleagues. Terminals track the number of keystrokes a worker
uses in completing a particular project. This is all necessary, managers say, to improve productivity. (Yet the
Japanese don't do it, finding the notion offensive to loyalty and group spirit.)
BankAmerica, for example, paid $1 million in 1985 to install a computer system for rating the 3,500
employees in the credit card division on 200 specific work criteria. "I measure everything that moves," the senior
vice president in charge declared.
Workers are less enthusiastic. A Boston insurance-claim keypuncher finds incredible pressure to enter data
faster and faster to meet management's standards. "I'd leave work every day with a terrible headache and pain in
my neck and shoulders." It's a familiar complaint. An OTA survey of 110 organizations between 1982 and 1986
found that approximately two-thirds were engaged in some form of computer surveillance, monitoring,
standardized pace, or quota systems.
This despite the fact that as early as 1981, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health found
that clerical work involving computers and video display terminals produced a higher level of tension than
air-traffic control. Proponents of high technology dismissed the findings a transient spasm of adjustment to the
new digital workplace. The volume of stress-based complaints continues to rise, however."
In an atmosphere of computer monitoring, inept work stations, inflexible pacing, and nerve-wracking
anxiety, workman's compensation claims based on job stress have more than doubled since 1980, and now
account for approximately 15 percent of all occupational disease claims. According to estimates by the OTA,
stress-related illness costs business, between $50 and $75 billion per year.
Labor Department figures show that productivity in the services sector—where electronic equipment should
have maximum impact and which employs nearly three quarters of all American workers—is scarcely above levels
in the mid-1970s, chiefly because of problems understanding and adapting to new technology.
III.
IV.
3. Solar Energy
Solar power was an exotic new technology when John Schaeffer graduated from the University of California,
Berkeley, in 1972 and helped start a primitive commune in the woods in northern California. He was a tinkerer,
and in his spare time he managed to rig up a solar-powered television set so he wouldn't have to miss his favorite
shows. Soon Schaeffer was selling solar panels to his fellow urban refugees. Today Schaeffer's beard has become a
white goatee, and his Real Goods Trading Company has blossomed into a catalog operation that is the country's
largest retailer of home solar equipment. With a circulation of 400,000, the catalog offers everything for the
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energy-efficient home. The growth of Real Goods—sales have jumped from $29,000 in 1986 to $10 million in
1993—is a small but sharp tremor along the shifting tectonic plates of America's energy landscape.
Until now, solar energy has appealed mostly to affluent homeowners and the save-the-environment
folks. That's because buying and installing solar equipment can cost $15,000 for an average-size home
before any currents start to flow. What's making solar energy so hot? For one thing, the technology is
getting better and cheaper. The price of the photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight to electricity has fallen
sharply from $500 a watt in the 1960s to about $4 today. Companies are now rushing to break the $2 barrier.
Texas Instruments and Southern California Edison have joined forces to produce flexible solar panels from
inexpensive low-grade silicon, The innovative technology will allow the panels to be integrated into car and
building design and, even more important, will crash the price to $2.50 a watt
Some of the biggest boosters of solar power are the utility companies, eager for a clean source of electricity
that will enable them to produce more power without new billion-dollar plants. Both as consumers of solar
technology and as the promoters of home solar panels, utilities will drive much of the industry's growth into the
next century. "Utilities are beginning to realize that they're going to have to get on the solar bandwagon," says S.
David Freeman, general manager of the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD). "If they don't and rates go
up sharply, people are going to buy their own solar panels and pull the plug on the utilities." His company
embraced alternative energy when rate payers voted to close its troubled nuclear facility in 1989.
Last month, 68 utilities from New York City to San Francisco formed a consortium to purchase $500 million
worth of solar panels over six years. SMUD is putting solar cells on 100 residential roofs a year as part of a
five-year pilot project. Encouraged by the response, SMUD has ordered 100,000 more solar panels, enough to
generate electricity for 2,400 homes, and is purchasing land for a 100-MW solar furnace that would rival the size
of standard power plants.
What SMUD is doing parallels what developing countries have been up to for many years. These nations,
which cannot afford to build costly nuclear or fossil-fuel plants in rural areas, now buy nearly two thirds of all
solar panels produced in the U.S. "In Mexico there are 28 million people without electricity, and Mexico has the
most ambitious solar electrification program in the world." Elsewhere, India and Zimbabwe are using World Bank
financing to light up remote areas with solar power; India is installing photovoltaic systems in 38,000 villages, and
Zimbabwe is bringing sun power to 2,500 villages."
But the era of solar power will have to wait for the cost of converting sunlight to fall far enough to pay
for the cost of installing a system. "Solar is competitive now if you take the long view," says SMUD general
manager Freeman. "And it's going to be highly competitive by the end of the decade." If he's right, the
forecast for the industry in the 21st century is bright and sunny.
V.
4. Micromachines
In the past, one of the biggest disadvantages of machines has been their inability to work on a micro (or
tiny) scale. For example, doctors did not have devices allowing them to go inside the human body to identify
health problems or to perform delicate surgery. Repair crew did not have a way of identifying broken pipes
located deep within a high-rise apartment building. However, that's about to change. Advances in
computers and biophysics have started a microminiature revolution that's allowing scientists to envision and
in some cases actually build microscopic machines. These devices promise to radically change the way we
live and work.
Micromachines already are making an impact. At Case Western Reserve University in Cleveland, Ohio,
research scientists have designed a 4-inch silicon chip that holds 700 tiny primitive motors. At Lucas NovaSensor
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in Fremont, California, scientists have perfected the world's first microscopic blood-pressure sensor.
Micromachines have captured the interest of a wide range of industries. Automobile manufacturers soon will begin
using tiny devices that run on static electricity to sense when to release an airbag and how to keep engines and
brakes operating efficiently. Machines like these are likely to appear in airplanes and even space vehicles by the
beginning of the next century. Some futurists envision micromachines also being used to explore the deep sea in
small submarines, or even to launch finger-sized rockets packed with microminiature instruments.
The applications are most promising in the medical field. Cardiovascular Imaging Systems in Sunnyvale,
California, manufactures a probe smaller than 1 millimeter that can provide snapshots of a patient's arteries. It's
currently used in more than 200 cardiology centers around the world. Says Director of Marketing Adam Dakin:
"Everybody is trying to create miniaturized devices for invasive surgery. There's no question that it will play a
prominent role in the future."
Although simple versions of miniature devices have already had an impact, advanced versions and
widespread use are still several years away, In Japan, scientists are designing an "intelligent" microdevice that can
travel through the human digestive tract." And airplanes eventually might be able to twist and adapt their wings to
be more efficient and flexible. Artificial body parts might provide total flexibility and full capabilities for people
who have lost their natural limbs.
"There is an explosion of new ideas and applications," says Kurt Petersen, who eight years ago co-founded
Lucas NovaSensor. So, when scientists now think about future machines doing large and complex tasks, they're
thinking smaller than ever before.
5. Social Responsibility in Science and Arts
Compared with the immediate practical responsibility of the scientist, the responsibility of the artist must
seem puny. The decision which faces him is not, I think, one of practical action: of course he will try to throw his
weight into the scale, and that weight, if he is a writer or even a painter of genius, may have its effect. For the
novelist—in our society the only artist who has a mass audience and at the same time effective economic control
of the means of addressing it—the hope of some decisive influence is a reasonable one. For him, since he takes of
all artists what is probably the largest portion of his culture as material, there is no more escape from the necessity
for treating the content of his work seriously than there is for the social psychologist he is coming so closely to
resemble. The dichotomy which people have tried to establish between artistic proficiency and artistic content is
becoming unbearable to almost all sensitive minds. I doubt if it has ever been real—we might have admired
Shelley as much if he had been indifferent to such things as war and tyranny, though I doubt it; certainly had he
been indifferent we should never have been led by him.
There is no Hippocratic oath in literature, and I am not attempting to draw one up. As far as I am concerned,
the artist is a human being writ large and his ethics are the ethics of any human being. Perhaps I can best illustrate
what seems to me the new consciousness of those duties of assertion and refusal from one writer, and I do not
think it is without significance that this writer projects the whole situation of choice into a scientific parable, the
parable of a pestilence: a pestilence many human beings are called to fight against, called not by any supernatural
obligation but by the simple fact that the fight against a plague is something like a biological human obligation.
Albert Camus seems to me to be the first modern writer, though I am certain he will not be the last, to put the
problem of responsibility in specific terms: "I only know", he wrote, "that in this world there are pestilences and
there are victims, and it is up to us not to ally ourselves with the pestilences." For the medical scientist, who knows
that he may quite well be called upon today to use literal pestilences, of mind and of body, in psychological and
bacteriological warfare that statement has a meaning clearer, I think, and more imperative than its author intended.
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But for the scientist as general enemy of pestilences and the artist as general representative of humanity, the basic
pestilence which, by its epidemic spread in our time challenges his allegiance, is the same—it is the pestilence
which, through the spread of irrational fears and irrational hatreds, through the acceptance of coercion, through the
neglect of what one can only call social and personal sanitation in our attitudes to society, leads us to forget who
we are and who our fellow men are: the pestilence which exterminates "gooks" or dissidents, which apologizes for
torture and massacre in any shape or form, whether it be called for the moment revolution or collective security,
the pestilence of atom bombs and concentration camps. In the last resort, there is only one ethically satisfactory
reply to that pestilence: an unqualified and unargued "No". This "No" does not spring, I think, from any idealistic
or metaphysical imperative, but simply from the fact that by saying anything else we should cease to be human
beings.
VI. 6. Environmental Stress
New technologies often cause new forms of pollution and environmental stress. Pollution may be
defined as the addition to the environment of agents that are potentially damaging to the welfare of humans
or other organisms. Environmental stress is a more general term that refers to the effects of society on the
natural environment Pollution is the most common form of environmental stress, but it is not the only one.
One example of environmental stress resulting from technology is the surprising finding that winter fish kills
in Wisconsin lakes were caused by snowmobiles. Heavy snowmobile use on a lake compacts the snow, thereby
reducing the amount of sunlight filtering through the ice and interfering with photosynthesis by aquatic plants. As
the plant life dies, its decomposition further reduces the amount of oxygen in the water. The fish then die of
asphyxiation.
The fish-plant-oxygen relationship is a natural ecological system. The snowmobile is a technological
innovation with a variety of potential uses. The production, marketing, and use of snowmobiles are elements of a
social system. It is this social system that is responsible for the environmental stress resulting from snowmobile
use. The land available for snowmobiling is increasingly scarce in an urban society like the United States. Frozen
lakes near urban centers thus seem ideal for this purpose, but snowmobiles cause environmental stress in the form
of fish kills and thereby create the need for new social controls over the uses of this technology.
Often the need for such controls does not become apparent until a great deal of damage has been done. Nor is
it ever entirely clear that new social controls or new technologies can solve the problem at hand. For example, we
know how to solve the problem of sulfur emissions from burning coal (which cause the acid rain that destroys
forests and lakes), but these are costly and hence are politically controversial. Opinion polls have shown that
Americans think not enough is being done to improve and protect the environment. A large majority believe
environmental quality is declining. But when faced with the higher tax bills and energy rates required to pay the
costs of cleaning up the environment, they often protest.
Studies of the impact and social control of technologies are an increasingly active frontier of sociological
research. The Environmental Sociology section of the American Sociological Association routinely publishes
research reports that assess the polluting and environmentally stressful impacts of technology. Many such studies
have shown that the people who bear the heaviest burden of pollution are most often those who are least able to
escape its effects. The poor, minorities, and workers and their families in industrial regions are exposed to higher
levels of air, water, and solid-waste pollution than more affluent people. But these studies have also shown that the
effects of pollution frequently either are not perceived or are denied by the people who feel them most. For
example, a random sample survey on perceptions of pollution in two highly polluted mining and lumbering towns
in central Canada found that "half of the total number of respondents interviewed either did not perceive a
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pollution problem at all, or else regarded it as being of very little importance." The study also found that even
among those who did perceive the effects of pollution in the air and water and on the landscape, a huge majority
(83-89 percent) were "not prepared to do anything about it."
This is not a surprising finding. People whose livelihoods depend on polluting industries generally learn to
tolerate and even ignore the pollution associated with those industries. In fact, when environmental activists protest
against the polluting effects of mines and smelters, they often find that their most vocal opponents are those who
are most negatively affected by the pollution. In the past twenty years, however, there has been a significant
change in attitudes, especially on the part of trade union leaders in polluting industries; such leaders are more
likely to press for pollution controls than they were in the past.
In sum, although scientific discoveries and technological advances have produced tremendous
improvements in the quality of human life, they have often had negative consequences as well. The risk of
cancer caused by the inhalation of asbestos particles, the possibility of large-scale industrial accidents, the
ethical issues raised by the use of life-prolonging technologies, and the ever-present danger of nuclear
holocaust are as much a part of the modern era as space travel, miracle drugs, and computers that can
operate whole factories. Although technology is not "out of control," there is clearly a need for improved
procedures for anticipating and preventing the negative consequences of new technologies.
7.
High Technology and Employment
The rapid growth of employment in industrial regions like California's "Silicon Valley," Route 128
outside Boston, and the "Silicon Prairie" in the Dallas Fort Worth area, as well as in hundreds of industrial
parks throughout the United States, is viewed as one of the benefits of investment in high-technology
industries. The term high technology is associated with computers, advanced electronics, genetic
engineering, and other frontiers of technological change, but it is rarely well
defined. And without a clear definition of this term it is almost impossible to assess its impact on society.
As the term is used by academics, policymakers, and journalists, high technology refers to at least one
of the following features of technology:
· An extensive degree of technological sophistication embodied in a product.
· A rapid rate of employment growth associated with an innovative product.
· A large research and development effort associated with production.
One implication of this definition is that it includes job-creating processes like research and
development as well as technologies like computers, which also have created new growth in employment. Yet
the employment-producing features of high technology can be problematic. Many high technologies, such as
robotics and computer-aided design, are intended to reduce employment by substituting the work of
machines guided by computers for human production of all kinds. Early machine technologies tended to
replace human labor power, but high technology tends to reduce the need for human brain power.
Employment in occupations like drafting and industrial drawing in engineering and architecture, for
example, is threatened by the accelerating use of computer design and graphics programs.
VII. 8. The Effects of Technology
It should be noted that the effects of new technologies are not always positive. The phrase technological
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dualism is sometimes used to refer to the fact that technological changes often have both positive and
negative effects. The introduction of diesel locomotives, for example, greatly increased the efficiency of
railroad operations, but it also led to the decline and eventual abandonment of railroad towns whose
economies were based on the servicing of steam locomotives. Another example is the automation of
industrial production. Automation has greatly improved manufacturing processes in many industries. It has
increased the safety of certain production tasks and led to improved product quality in many cases. But it
has also replaced thousands of manual workers with machines, and significant numbers of those workers
find themselves unemployed and lacking the skills required by the high-tech occupations of postindustrial
society.
Some observers go so far as to say that technology is a danger to the modem world. They feel that it has
become an autonomous force that it is out of control. This is a recurrent theme in movies and science fiction—
HAL, the computer that takes over the ship in 2001: A Space Odyssey, is a good example. But it is also claimed
that technology is increasingly independent from human control in the real world. Events like the accident at the
Three Mile Island nuclear-power plant in 1979; the toxic gas leak that killed more than 2,000 people in Bhopal,
India, in 1984; and the disaster at the Chernobyl nuclear-power plant in the Soviet Union in 1986 seem to indicate
that human beings cannot control the technologies they have created.
Sociologists who have studied this issue point out that the problem is not one of humans being
dominated by machines but, rather, one of depending on technology to meet a wide and growing range of
human needs. The Three Mile Island power plant provided electricity for thousands of homes and businesses; the
Bhopal facility produced a pesticide that made possible larger harvests of much-needed grain. The result of our
dependence on the benefits of complex technologies is an increasingly complex set of organizations and
procedures for putting those technologies to work. This requires more human effort and skill, and the chances of
error and breakdown are greater. The point is not that technology is out of control but that often there is a lag
between the introduction of new technologies and the development of adequate controls over the application of
those technologies.
One of the main issues that concerns social scientists in this regard is why such lags occur. Consider the
problem known as wind shear, In recent years numerous major plane crashes have been caused by sudden
downdrafts associated with severe thunderstorms on the approaches to airport runways. These downdrafts literally
slam large aircraft to the ground. Industry and government officials have known about the wind-shear problem
since at least 1975, when an Eastern Airlines jet crashed at New York's Kennedy Airport under such conditions.
But not until a similar crash occurred in New Orleans in 1984 were airports ordered to install instruments that
could predict such conditions. Why the delay? Some sociologists have argued that the pressure on corporations to
show a profit causes them to neglect spending on safety measures. Others, taking a more functionalist view, tend to
explain such lags in terms of the time required for organizations to recognize the causes of the problem and
develop new statuses and roles to cope with them.
VIII. 9. Technology and Social Change
The obvious importance of technology to human cultural and social evolution has led some sociologists
to view technology as a basic principle of social change. The classic statement of this view is that of William
Fielding Ogburn. Ogburn hypothesized that inventions affect the size of populations, which in turn
influences the course of history. (For example, overpopulation often leads to wars and migrations.) Some
inventions affect population directly: Improvements in sanitation, the development of cures for fatal
illnesses, and more effective contraceptive techniques are examples. But inventions can also have indirect
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effects on population. For example, techniques that improve crop yields or permit long-term storage of food
surpluses make it possible to support a larger population with a given amount of farmland. And
improvements in military technology (e.g., the use of horses in warfare, the invention of gunpowder, and the
development of the armored tank) have bad dramatic effects on the conduct of war and hence on population
size.
Ogburn also proposed the theory known as cultural lag. In his words, "A cultural lag occurs when one of two
parts of culture which are correlated changes before or in greater degree than the other part does, thereby causing
less adjustment between the two parts than existed previously". This theory is most often applied to the adaptation
of social institutions to changing technologies. For example, the industrial revolution gave birth to many kinds of
machines, often with moving parts that made them dangerous to use. The rates of injury and death resulting from
industrial accidents climbed rapidly in the decades following the introduction of the new machines to the United
States around 1870. Such accidents spelled disaster for workers and their families, since it was hard to prove that
the employer was responsible for the accident. It was not until around 1910 that the concepts of employer liability
and worker's compensation were adopted, a lag of about forty years.
One problem with the cultural-lag theory is that it fails to account for the effects of social power. For example,
workers who sought compensation for the costs of industrial accidents did not have nearly as much power to
influence lawmakers as the owners of the machines did. When this power imbalance changed as a result of the
labor movement, it became possible to enact legislation that would protect the workers.
The lags described by Ogburn can be at least partially reduced by the process of technology assessment, or
efforts to anticipate the consequences of particular technologies for individuals and for society as a whole. The
massive plan to reduce air pollution in the Los Angeles Basin described at the beginning of the chapter requires
careful assessment. According to the National Environmental Policy Act of 1972 and related state laws, any major
action by a public agency that affects the environment must be assessed for its impact on the environment and on
the citizens involved. Laws that require technology assessment-especially those that require corporations to abide
by the findings of such assessments-tend to increase the power of citizens in communities affected by
technological change. They are therefore a source both of conflict and of movements for social reform. In the Los
Angeles case, a number of small, inadequately funded environmental organizations were able to force the
California Environmental Policy Administration to fund the air pollution plan.
Theories that view technological innovations as a source of social change must also recognize that
technological changes do not occur at an even pace. Some analysts, particularly the Soviet economist N. D.
Kondratieff, believe that technological innovation follows a cyclical pattern. They have shown that the growth of
particular industries produces a "long boom," a period of economic expansion and prosperity that lasts about
twenty-five years and is followed by a period of decline and depression of about the same duration.
It may be that the new technologies of computers and automation will begin another long boom or
wave of economic growth in the next decade, as many people in advanced industrial societies hope. But it is
clear that in the late 1970s the previous long boom, stimulated in part by the availability of cheap energy,
was over. A new economic boom therefore may depend on new developments in energy technologies.
IX. 10. The Quest for Energy
Throughout human history a central aspect of technological change has been the quest for new sources
of energy to meet the needs of growing populations. That quest has given rise to a succession of energy
technologies, each more sophisticated than the last. Animal power gave way to steam-driven machinery,
which in turn was replaced by the internal-combustion engine. Reliance on oil and its derivatives, especially
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gasoline, encouraged the growth of powerful energy corporations, which often lobby government agencies
for assistance in developing new technologies like nuclear energy. And today the technologically advanced
nations are attempting to control the fusion reaction, in which hydrogen atoms are fused into helium,
thereby producing an enormous release of energy. The implications of this energy technology, if it can be
achieved, are staggering. Fusion promises to bring about a major revolution in human existence. It could
make possible the colonization and exploration of space, the rapid development of the less-developed nations,
the elimination of energy technologies based on oil and coal (which pollute the environment), and much else.
But the effort to develop fusion power is also indicative of a fundamental crisis in modern life: the dwindling
supply of energy resources.
The problem of oil depletion is only the most recent in a series of energy crises that began with the depletion
of the supply of game animals through hunting in Paleolithic times. The shortage of meat created conditions that
spurred the development of agriculture. Later, in the waning years of the Roman Empire, a shortage of labor power
to grind flour encouraged the use of water power. The industrial revolution had its origins in the depletion of the
supply of wood during the Renaissance. Coal was plentiful, and experiments with its use as an energy source led to
the development of new techniques for producing energy and new machinery and processes for manufacturing
goods. Today, as supplies of oil and coal diminish, the search for new energy sources continues.
It would seem from what we have said so far that the quest for energy is a positive force that results in
new, sometimes revolutionary technologies that greatly improve the quality of human life. Many people
believe that societies can meet their growing energy needs by continually investing in more sophisticated
technologies. This approach has led to the development of huge nuclear-power plants to replace oil-fueled
generators, and it is widely hoped that investment in fusion, an even more complex technology, will
eliminate the dangers posed by nuclear power.
This view is subject to considerable criticism, however. Amory Lovins, for example, distinguishes between
"hard" and "soft" energy paths. The former "relies on rapid expansion of centralized high technologies to increase
supplies of energy, especially in the form of electricity." The latter "combines a prompt and serious commitment"
to efficient use of energy [and] rapid development of renewable energy sources." Present and proposed energy
policies favor the "hard" path, which involves intensive use of available coal, oil, and natural gas plus heavy
investment in nuclear power. These are "capital-intensive" technologies because they rely heavily on sophisticated
equipment (capital) rather than labor power.
"Soft" energy technologies depend on renewable sources like sun and wind and tend to be
labor-intensive in that larger numbers of people are needed to produce a given amount of energy. They are
more diverse than "hard'' energy technologies and are more directly matched to energy needs. (Solar energy,
for example, can be used to heat water without first being converted into electricity.) But the major
difference between the two paths, according to Lovins, is that whereas the soft path depends on "pluralistic
consumer choice in deploying a myriad of small devices and refinements, the hard path depends on difficult,
large-scale projects [e.g., nuclear-power plants and fusion reactors] requiring a major social commitment
under centralized management" Such projects are characterized by a "remote and … uncontrollable
technology run by a faraway, bureaucratized, technical elite who have probably never heard of you."
Whether or not one accepts Lovins's thesis, the trend toward greater use of nuclear power to generate
electricity has become a major social and political issue. Underlying the conflict over the safety of nuclear-power
plants is the issue of control. In the ancient world those who controlled the irrigation systems were the ruling elite;
in the United States the "robber barons" of the late nineteenth century often gained both wealth and political
influence from their control of oil and coal supplies. Thus, much of the opposition to nuclear-power plants stems
from the recognition that control over energy supplies is a key source of economic and political power.
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X. 11. Technology in Everyday Life
In a review of research on the impact of new technologies on the daily lives of Americans, Claude S. Fischer
found that such research has not kept pace with technological innovation. Even revolutionary innovations like the
automobile and the telephone remain poorly understood. Conflicting claims abound. For example, in 1936 Helen
and Robert Lynd were told by residents of Middletown that automobile use seemed to be decreasing church
attendance and generating conflict within the family. But other studies suggested that the automobile was
increasing church attendance, especially among more isolated people who found it easier to get to church on
Sunday.
Given such gaps in our understanding of the impact of technology on social life, Fischer argued that
sociologists should avoid assuming that the effects of innovations are experienced by everyone in more or less the
same way. Instead, he believe that technologies should be thought of as facilitators of human action rather than as
forces that dictate what we do. Often, for example, our uses of technologies do not conform with what their
innovators believed possible or desirable. A case in point is the growing incidence of computer crimes and the use
of home antenna dishes to tap into satellite video transmissions.
The place of technology in modern societies is a subject of continuing controversy. Key issues include
not only the Impact of technology on daily life but also the need to control the development and uses of
technological innovations so that they benefit all sectors of society.
12. Science, Technology and Society:
The Case of Medical Technology
Throughout most of human history, limitations on food production, together with lack of medical
knowledge, have placed limits on the size of populations. Dreadful diseases like the bubonic plague have
actually reduced populations. In England the plague, known as the Black Death, was responsible for a
drastic drop in the population in 1348 and for the lack of population growth in the seventeenth century. In
1625 more than 35,000 residents of London died of the plague. Smallpox and dysentery have had similar,
though less dramatic, effects.
Until relatively recently physicians were powerless either to check the progress of disease or to prolong
life. In fact, they often did more harm than good—their remedies were more harmful than the illnesses they
were intended to cure. As Lewis Thomas has stated, "Bleeding, purging, cupping, the administration of infusions
of every known plant, solutions of every known metal, every conceivable diet including total fasting, most of these
based on the weirdest imaginings about the cause of the disease, concocted out of nothing but thin air-this was the
heritage of medicine up until a little over a century ago."
Thomas's point is that before the nineteenth century, when scientists finally began to understand the nature of
disease, physicians based their treatments on folklore and superstition. In fact, with few exceptions the practice of
healing, like many other aspects of science, was closely linked to religion. In ancient Greece people who suffered
from chronic illnesses and physical impairments would journey to the temple of Asclepius, the god of healing, in
search of a cure. Even today pilgrims still travel to the cathedral at Lourdes in France in the belief that they may be
cured of blindness, paralysis, or leprosy. Not until Louis Pasteur, Robert Koch, and other researchers developed the
germ theory of disease did medicine become fully differentiated from religion. Their discoveries, together with
progress in internal medicine, pathology, the use of anesthesia, and surgical techniques, led to the
twentieth-century concept of medicine as a scientific discipline.
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During the nineteenth century scientific research resulted in the discovery of the causes of many diseases, but
at first this progress led physicians to do less for their patients rather than more: They began to allow the body's
natural healing processes to work and ceased to engage in damaging procedures like bloodletting. At the same time,
they made major strides toward improving public-health practices. They learned about hygiene, sterilization, and
other basic principles of public health, especially the need to separate drinking water from waste water. These
innovations, which occurred before the development of more sophisticated drugs and medical technologies,
contributed to a demographic revolution that is still under way in some parts of the world. Suddenly rates of infant
mortality decreased dramatically, births began to outnumber deaths, and life expectancy increased. This change
resulted not from the highly sophisticated techniques of modem medicine but largely from the application of
simple sanitation techniques and sterilization procedures, hi fact, these simple technologies have had such a
marked effect on infant survival that the rate of infant mortality in a society is often used as a quick measure of its
social and economic development.
In sum, as medical science progressed toward greater understanding of the nature of disease and its
prevention, new public-health and maternal-care practices contributed to rapid population growth. In the
second half of the nineteenth century, such discoveries as antiseptics and anesthesia made possible other
life-prolonging medical treatments, hi analyzing the effects of these technologies, sociologists ask how people in
different social classes gain access to them and how they can be more equitably distributed among the members of
a society. The ways in which medical technologies have been institutionalized in hospitals and the medical
profession are a central focus of sociological research on these questions.
13. The Impact of Technology
The case of medical technology illustrates once again that technology can be both a blessing and a curse.
In recent decades we have become increasingly aware that the problems of human life cannot always be
solved by technological means. The "technological fix" can have adverse consequences. In the case of
medical technology, vital ethical issues must be addressed. Other technologies, such as nuclear power and
chemical plants, can directly threaten human life. As Charles Perrow writes, "Human-made catastrophes
appear to have increased with industrialization as we built devices that could crash, sink, burn, or explode."
Perrow also points out that the increasing complexity of modern technology has led to a new kind of
catastrophe: the failure of whole systems (i.e., activities and organizational networks as well as apparatus),
as in the case of the Three Mile Island accident or the Challenger disaster.
The enormous risks associated with complex technologies have led many observers to call for a more
thorough assessment of the potential impact of new technologies before they are
put into operation.
According to Perrow, it is important to study technological systems in their entirety rather than focusing on
individual components of those systems. For example, in the case of Three Mile Island the accident was not a
simple matter of a faulty valve but the consequence of a combination of factors 梐 n overworked maintenance staff,
equipment failures, ineffective safety precautions, inadequate training, and the unwillingness of scientists and
bureaucrats to admit mat they might be mistaken. Similar conditions led to the explosion of the Challenger space
shuttle in 1986. Once again we are reminded that technology consists not just of apparatus that can malfunction but
also of knowledge and skills that may be deficient and of organizational networks that occasionally break down.
14. Scientific Institutions
Sociologists who study scientific institutions generally follow one of two basic approaches, described as
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interactionist and institutional. Those who use the interactionist approach observe how scientists interact among
themselves—for example, how they divide and coordinate work in laboratories and how they approach scientific
problems. Those who use the institutional approach study the role of the scientist in different countries, the
structure of scientific organizations, and the culture of scientific institutions (i.e., the norms and values of science).
This distinction is not total, however; there is a great deal of overlap between the two approaches.
The Interactionist Approach. Studies using the interactionist approach have focused on the scientific community
—that is, on "the network of communication and social relationships between scientists working in given fields .or
in all fields." The questions asked by sociologists who take this approach pertain to how scientists about the daily
work of research and why scientific "revolutions" sometimes occur. In a well-known study entitled The Structure
Of Scientific Revolutions, Thomas Kuhn explored the nature of the scientific community. He found that the rules
of the scientific method are not adequate to describe what scientists do. Rather than spending their time testing
and refuting existing hypotheses in order to establish new, more valid ones, they often take it for granted
that existing theories are valid and use them in their efforts to solve specific problems. In other words, the
researcher uses existing theories and methods as a paradigm, or model, to guide future research.
This view of the scientific community (or, rather, communities of specialized researchers) implies that
science is insulated from the rest of society. Scientists are guided by the tradition of research in their field,
which is passed along from one generation of scientists to the next. The problems they choose to solve are
determined by that tradition, as are the methods they use in trying to solve them. This process continues,
according to Kuhn, until the paradigm is no longer useful—that is, until enough members of the scientific
community believe a particular set of observations can no longer be explained by existing theories and
procedures. Then the community becomes more open to outside influences. Its members explore a variety of
ideas not directly related to the dominant paradigm in their field, ideas that in some cases lead to a scientific
revolution. When this occurs, the old paradigm is set aside in favor of a new one that will henceforth guide
the work of the members of a particular scientific community. Some of the most famous scientific
revolutions have occurred in physics, for example, in the shift from Newtonian physics to Einstein's theory
of relativity and quantum theory and most recently in the discovery of the existence of subatomic particles.
The Institutional Approach. The institutional approach to the study of science does not contradict the
interactionist view. Instead, it asks why science develops differently in different societies, and with what
consequences. In this approach, certain conditions encourage the development of scientific institutions. Those
conditions include the recognition of empirical research as a legitimate way of gaining new knowledge. In addition,
science must be independent from other fields, such as theology or philosophy. Under such conditions separate
institutions devoted to scientific research, such as graduate schools and institutes of technology, can develop. This
has been the case in the United States, where the introduction of graduate training in the sciences, together with
research related to professional training (as occurs, for example, in medical schools), led to the establishment of
fully equipped research institutes at major colleges and universities. One effect of the presence of such institutes is
a large proportion of Americans among the winners of Nobel prizes in the sciences.
The institutionalization of science in the United States has had dramatic and far-reaching effects. "In
agriculture, education, sociology, and eventually in nuclear research the universities pioneered research on a scale
that far exceeded the needs of training students and was, from the very outset, an operation distinct from teaching."
Attempts have been made to establish similar research organizations in Europe, but these were hampered by the
rigid structure of European universities. European universities have a closed system of professorships that cannot
accommodate scientists who want to conduct research. A number of specialized research institutes have been
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established outside the universities, but none is as extensive or as influential as the research institutes associated
with American universities.
In the 1950s, during the Cold War, there was widespread recognition that the United States needed to improve
its scientific research capacity. As a result, government and universities began cooperating even more closely than
they had before.
One consequence of this unplanned growth of scientific organizations in universities, government, the
military, and the private sector, Bell concludes, is that it became impossible to create a single set of policies for the
support of science. The various organizations must compete for resources and are vulnerable to changing national
needs as well as new demands for scientific knowledge by business and industry. This adds to the complexity and
competitiveness of scientific institutions.
These aspects of scientific institutions may also explain their continuing differentiation in the United States
and other Western nations. For example, the departmental structure of American colleges and universities has been
shown to encourage the growth of new disciplines. Interdisciplinary programs and new fields of study can be
sponsored by existing departments until they can compete for support as independent disciplines. An example is
the development of statistics as a separate field of study. Originally a branch of mathematics, statistics has been
studied and taught by mathematicians and physicists in Europe and Great Britain since the seventeenth century. In
the United States, however, departments of biology, education, psychology, economics, and other fields (e.g.,
demography) developed specialties in statistics. Eventually separate departments of statistics were established.
In sum, since its origins in the independent and often secretive experiments of philosophers and clerics,
scientific research has become institutionalized in complex organizations. Yet we wilt see that the process of
differentiation through which science becomes an institution separate from others is never complete. The
work of scientists must be paid for, and the more their research is "pure" (in that it has no apparent uses
that generate profits), the more it must be supported by other institutions like government or industry. This
dependence of science on other institutions continually subjects scientists to pressure to make their work
relevant to the needs of business or the military. Conflict between scientists and their sponsors thus has been
a feature of science since its origins. To understand that conflict more fully, we will take a more detailed look
at the norms of scientific institutions.
XI. 15. The Norms of Science
We saw that every social institution develops norms that specify how its special functions are to be carried out.
This is readily illustrated by the institutions of science. The function of those institutions is to extend knowledge
by means of a specific set of procedures (i.e., the scientific method). The norms of science are derived from that
function.
Universalism. One of the basic norms of scientific institutions is universalism: The truth of scientific
knowledge must be determined by the impersonal criteria of the scientific method, not by criteria related to
race, nationality, religion, social class, or political ideology. This would seem to be self-evident until one
remembers that international rivalries have been part of the history of science since the Renaissance. And consider
the case of the Russian geneticist Trofim D. Lysenko, who, on the basis of some extremely unscientific research on
plant genetics, claimed that acquired characteristics of plants could be inherited by the next generation. This claim
seemed to offer hope for improvement of the Soviet Union's faltering agricultural production. It also fit well with
Soviet ideology, which held that better human beings could be created through adherence to the ideals of the
revolution. To Stalin and his advisers, science seemed to have proved the value of the Soviet culture and social
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system. Lysenko was granted a virtual dictatorship over biological research in the Soviet Union, and hundreds of
geneticists lost their jobs. Lysenko was deposed during the Khrusbchev era, but the damage done to Soviet
agriculture and biological research in the name of ideology lasted many years longer.
Common Ownership. Another norm of science is common ownership of scientific findings. Those findings
are a result of collaboration and hence are not the property of any individual, although hi some cases they
may bear the name of the person who first published them, as in "Darwin's theory of evolution" or
"Einstein's theory of relativity." One outcome of this norm is frequent conflicts over scientific priority-that is,
over who was the first to discover or publish a particular item of scientific knowledge. Thus there is continual
controversy over who discovered the differential calculus, Newton or Leibniz, but there are no limitations on the
use of that calculus. A further consequence of the norm of common ownership is the norm of publication-the
requirement of full and open communication of scientific findings in journals accessible to all. Secrecy is out of
place in science.
However, because scientific research is so often conducted in the interests of national defense or under the
sponsorship of private firms that hope to profit from applications of the findings, the norms of common ownership
and publication are often suspended. Such situations have led to innumerable conflicts in scientific circles. An
outstanding example is the case of J. Robert Oppenheimer, one of the leaders in the development of the atomic
bomb during World War 11. Although Oppenheimer's sympathy for certain radical causes was well known, he was
given a full security clearance both during and after the war, when he continued his pioneering research on the
applications of nuclear physics. But when he publicly stated his support of international sharing of findings in
nuclear physics, and opposed the development of a nuclear bomb, his opponents brought up the old charge that he
was a subversive and could not be trusted with scientific secrets. In 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower ruled
that Oppenheimer was to be denied access to secret scientific information, which meant that he would also be
denied access to the laboratories where the most important research in nuclear physics was being conducted.
Disinterestedness. A further norm of scientific institutions is disinterestedness. The scientist does not allow
the desire for personal gain to influence the reporting and evaluation of results; fraud and irresponsible
claims are outlawed. In fact, more than most other activities, scientific research is subject to the scrutiny of
others. This is part of the nature of that research, which involves the search for results that can be verified;
in other words, science is, in a sense, self-policing. The norm of disinterestedness does not imply that
scientists cannot hope to profit from their findings, and there are many instances in which scientists have
held lucrative patents for their discoveries. But it does imply that related norms of scientific research, such
as unbiased observation and thoroughness in reporting findings, must take precedence over any selfish
motives.
Sociologists are concerned that the pressure on scientists to make discoveries that will earn large sums of
money will damage the credibility of scientific institutions. The trend toward partnerships between private
corporations and scientific institutions may also put pressure on scientists to violate scientific norms. Recently, for
example, the Monsanto Chemical Corporation gave $23.5 million to Washington University for biological research
and a West German pharmaceutical company invested $40 million in research at Harvard Medical School. Dorothy
Nelkin, one of the nation's leading experts on scientific policy, warns that when businesses form alliances with
universities to conduct research in such areas as biological technologies, the scientists involved must keep their
findings secret until patents have been applied for. Nelkin concludes such secrecy "violates the social nature of
science, the idea that science is shared, that it's a cumulative activity."
Similarly, when chemists at universities in Utah and Great Britain announced in 1989 that their collaboration
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had achieved "cold fusion," the production of energy through the fusion of hydrogen atoms at low temperatures (a
reaction that scientists believe requires extremely high temperatures), it appeared that a new era of low-cost energy
might be on the horizon. But other scientists were highly skeptical. The so-called discoveries had not been
published in scientific journals prior to their announcement to the press—a violation of the norm of publication.
The cold-fusion apparatus was also kept secret for a time so that the scientists and their universities could apply for
patents and enlist the support of major corporations for further research. These actions made scientists suspicious.
Before too long the results were found to be incorrect, an outcome perhaps of too much hope for profit and not
enough careful measurement.
The norms we have just described are well-established aspects of modern science, which is increasingly
differentiated from oilier institutions, particularly religion and the state. But science was not always viewed as a
legitimate institution or a respectable occupation. In fact, early in its history science was often regarded as a
dangerous activity with the potential to threaten the existing social order. This can be seen quite clearly in the
repression of Galileo by the Inquisition.
XII.
16. Technology in Modern Societies
We noted earlier that a significant aspect of modern science is its contribution to the rapid pace of
technological change. The technologies produced by scientific research are applied to all aspects of human
life and hence are a major force hi shaping and changing other institutions in addition to scientific
institutions themselves. An example is the impact of technological change on the institutions of mass
communication. The advent of radio and then television dramatically changed the ways in which social and
cultural values are transmitted to various groups in society. We note other examples of the impact of
technology in the following pages. But first it is necessary to enlarge our understanding of what is meant by the
term technology.
Technology is more than tools and skills; ways of organizing work are also part of technology.
Technology has three dimensions, which may be summarized as follows:
1. Technological tools, instruments, machines, gadgets, which are used in accomplishing a variety of
tasks. These material objects are best referred to as apparatus, the physical devices of technical
performance.
2. The body of technical skills, procedures, routines—all activities or behaviors that employ a purposive,
step-by-step, rational method of doing things.
3. The organizational networks associated with activities and apparatus.
The last of these dimensions may be clarified by an example. Organizational networks are sets of statuses and
roles. All technologies establish or modify such networks. Thus, the automobile owner is part of a network that
includes dealers, mechanics, parts suppliers, insurers, licensing agents, and junkyard owners. Our
great-great-grandparents were probably part of a network of horse dealers, harness makers, buggy suppliers, and
blacksmiths, a network that has been largely eliminated by the advent of motorized vehicles.
Technological change can occur in any or all of the dimensions just listed. The most far-reaching
changes involve all three, especially the third. For example, the industrial revolution completely changed the
organization of economic institutions and also had significant effects on other institutions, such as the family.
Likewise, the internal-combustion engine, which made possible the development of the automobile, has
completely transformed the ecology of North America. On the other hand, some technological changes are
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limited to modifications in the apparatus or technical skills needed for a particular task (the surgical stapler
is an example) and do not affect large numbers of people or have major social impacts.
Not only do technological changes affect various groups and institutions within a society, and sometimes
transform a society, but technology itself is affected by the social conditions prevailing at any given time. The
acceptance of a particular technological innovation may depend on prior changes in other aspects of a society.
Thus, television might not have had as great an impact if it had been invented in the nineteenth century, when
working people had far less leisure time than they do today. Other innovations have failed to gain acceptance
because they appeared too soon. An example is the Sony Corporation's unsuccessful attempt to introduce tape
recorders in Japan in 1950. Japanese consumers did not perceive a need or use for them, and they went unsold.
Much the same thing is happening today in the case of home computers. Once the thrill of computer games wears
off, the computer often stands idle because the average household has no other uses for it In consequence, the
home computer industry is continually searching for new software to extend the applications of home computers,
as has already been done in the case of computers for office use.
17. Galileo and the Inquisition
The first person to use a telescope to study the skies was Galileo Galilei, an Italian mathematician who
lived from 1564 to 1642. His observations convinced him that the earth revolved around the sun. Up to that
time it had been taken for granted that the earth was the center of the universe, and this belief was strongly
entrenched in the doctrines of the Catholic church. Galileo's views were so radical that he was tried by the
Inquisition, ordered to deny what he knew to be the truth, and forced to spend the last eight years of his life
under house arrest.
Galileo's fate illustrates a principle we have mentioned at numerous points in this book: As societies become
more complex, the process termed differentiation removes various functions from existing institutions and creates
new institutions to perform them. Galileo was tried by the Inquisition because in his time science had not yet
become differentiated from philosophy and religion. A scientist must on no account discover anything that
contradicted the doctrines of the church.
In his play Galileo, Bertolt Brecht painted a vivid picture of the constraints placed on Galileo by the situation
of science in his day. An assistant has delivered a gift from the Court of Naples—a model of the sky according to
the wise men of ancient Greece—and has asked him to explain it. "You see the fixed ball in the middle?" says
Galileo. "That's the earth. For two thousand years man has chosen to believe that the sun and all the host of stars
revolve about him. Well. The Pope, the cardinals, the princes, the scholars, captains, merchants, housewives, have
pictured themselves squatting in the middle of an affair like that. Galileo goes on to predict that before long people
"will be learning that the earth rolls round the sun, and that their mothers, the captains, the scholars, the princes,
and the Pope are rolling with it."
The assistant is not convinced, but he admits that he has mentioned Galileo's ideas to his mother, Galileo's
housekeeper. The housekeeper says to Galileo, "Last night my son tried to tell me that the earth goes round the sun.
You'll soon have him saying that two times two is five." Later Galileo says to the assistant, "Andrea, I wouldn't
talk about our ideas outside." "Why not?" asks Andrea. "Certain of the authorities won't like it," replies Galileo.
His statement is confirmed by a friend: "How can people in power leave a man at large who tells the truth, even if
it be the truth about the distant stars?"
Today scientists are studying subatomic particles called quarks. They have proposed that dinosaurs had
feathers rather than scales, and they have suggested that the universe began with a big bang and that stars
eventually become black holes. They have discovered the process by which the continents were formed and
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the structure of human genes in none of these cases have the findings been challenged by "the authorities,"
religious or otherwise. Rather, they have been judged by the standards of scientific investigation, one of the
functions of the institution that we call science.
But the process of differentiation is never complete. In recent years the ancient tension between science and
religion has taken a new turn: the scientific theory of evolution has been challenged by fundamentalist religious
groups because it contradicts statements in the Bible. These groups have pressured publishers to delete discussions
of evolution from textbooks, or at least to mention "creation science" as well as evolution. Although their efforts
have had limited success, they have not been ignored.
18. Technology and People
In this age of automation, many people complain that humans are becoming subservient to machines. In my
point of view, in some respects humans serve machines, while in other respects machines serve us by enhancing
our lives. While mechanical automation may have diminished our quality of life on balance, digital automation is
doing more to improve our lives than to undermine our autonomy.
Consider first mechanical automation, particularly assembly-line manufacturing. With automation came a loss
of pride in and alienation from one's work. In this sense, automation both diminished our quality of life and
rendered us slaves to machines in our inability to reverse "progress." Admittedly, mechanical automation spawned
entire industries, creating jobs, stimulating economic growth, and supplying a plethora of innovative conveniences.
Nevertheless, the sociological and environmental price of progress may have outweighed its benefits.
Digital automation has brought its own brand of alienation. Computer automation, and especially the Internet,
breeds information overload and steals our time and attention away from family, community, and coworkers. In
these respects, digital automation tends to diminish our quality of life and create its own legion of human slaves.
On the other hand, by relegating repetitive tasks to computers, digital technology has spawned great advances in
medicine and physics, helping us to better understand the world, to enhance our health, and to prolong our lives.
Digital automation has also emancipated architects, artists, designers, and musicians, by opening up creative
possibilities and by saving time. Perhaps most important, however, information technology makes possible
universal access to information, thereby providing a democratizing influence on our culture.
In sum, while mechanical automation may have created a society of slaves to modern conveniences and
unfulfilling work, digital automation holds more promise for improving our lives without enslaving us to the
technology.
Section Three: Ideas
1. Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is a path to intellectual adventure. Though there are dozens of possible approaches, the
process can be boiled down to concrete steps. This article offers some starting points for your journey.
Be willing to say "I don't know"
Some of the most profound thinkers of our time have practiced the art of critical thinking by using two
magic phrases: I don't know and I'm not sure yet.
Those are words many people do not like to hear. We live in times when people are criticized for
changing their minds. Our society rewards quick answers and quotable "sound bites." We're under
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considerable pressure to utter the truth in 15 seconds or less.
In such a society, it is a courageous and unusual act to pause, to look, to examine, to be thoughtful, to
consider many points of view—and to not know. When a society embraces half-truths in a blind rush for
certainty, commitment to uncertainty can move us forward.
This willingness to give up certainty can be hardest to accept when it comes to notions that seem obvious.
"Many things are certain," some people say. "For example, it's obvious that two plus two equals four."
Think again. When we use the base-three number system, two plus two equals 11. A child learning to
write numerals might insist that two and two makes 22. And a biologist might joke that two plus two adds
up to a whole lot more than four when we're talking about the reproductive life of rabbits.
Even scientific knowledge is not certain. At a moment's notice, the world can deviate from what we call
"laws" of nature. Those laws exist inside our heads—not in the world. What's more, modem science tells us many
things that contradict everyday certainties. For example, physics presents us with a world where solid objects are
made of atoms spinning around in empty space, where matter and energy are two forms of the same thing. Even in
mathematics and the "hard" sciences, the greatest advances take place when age-old beliefs are reexamined.
Define your terms
Imagine two people arguing about whether an employer should extend family health care benefits to people
who live together but are unmarried. To one person, the word family means a mother, father, and children. The
other person applies the word family to any long-term, supportive relationships between people who live together.
Chances are, the debate will go nowhere until these people realize they're defining the same word in different
ways.
Much opinion conflict can be resolved—or at least clarified—when we define our key terms up front. This is
especially true with abstract, emotion-laden terms such as freedom, peace, progress, or justices. Blood has been
shed over the meaning of these words. It pays for us to define them with care.
Practice tolerance
Having opinions about issues is natural. When you stop having opinions, you're probably not breathing
anymore. The problem comes when we hold opinions in a way that leads to defensiveness, put-downs, or
put-offs.
Going hand in hand with critical thinking is tolerance for attitudes that differ from yours. Consider
that many of the ideas we currently accept—democracy, Christianity, voting rights for women, civil rights
for people of color—were once considered the claims of "dangerous" and unpopular minorities. This
historical perspective helps us accept a tenet of critical thinking: What seems outlandish today may become
widely accepted a century, a decade, or even a year from now.
Understand before criticizing
When encountering any new viewpoint, we're not obligated to agree. Even so, critical thinking demands that
we take the time to understand an idea before rejecting or modifying it. One mark of skilled debaters is that they
can sum up the viewpoints they disagree with—often better than the people who hold those viewpoints can.
Strictly speaking, none of us lives in the same world. Our habits, preferences, outlooks, and values are
as individual as our fingerprints. Each of them is shaped by our culture, our upbringing, our experiences,
and our choices. Speeches, books, articles, works of art, television programs, views expressed in
conversation—all come from people who inhabit a different world than yours. Until we've lived in another
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person's world for a while, it's ineffective to dismiss her point of view.
This basic principle is central to many professions. Physicians diagnose before they prescribe. Lawyers brief
themselves on the opponent's case. Effective teachers find out what a student already knows before they guide her
to ideas. Skilled salespeople find out what a customer's needs are before they present a product.
Effective understanding calls for listening without judgment. To enter another person's world, sum up her
viewpoint in your own words. If you're conversing with that person, keep revising your summary until she agrees
you've stated her position accurately. If you're reading an article, write a short summary of it. Then scan the article
again, checking to see if your summary is on track.
Many of us find it difficult to fully permit others a point of view that is much different from ours. Instead we
can actually celebrate other people's opinions, knowing that diversity leads to valuable new ideas.
Watch for hot spots
Notice any anger or discomfort you feel when conversations shift to certain topics. During a presidential
election, for instance, politics often becomes a "hot spot"—an area in which defenses rise, assumptions run
rampant, and tempers quickly flare. All these things get in the way of thinking thoroughly.
Most of us have hot spots. For some people they include abortion or handgun control. Other people heat up
when they talk about the death penalty or world government.
It pays for each of us to discover our special hot spots. We can also make a clear intention to practice critical
thinking when we encounter these topics.
To cool down your hot spots, seek out the whole world of ideas. Avoid intellectual ruts. Read magazines
and books that challenge the opinions you currently hold. If you consider yourself liberal, pick up the
National Review. If you are a socialist, sample the Wall Street Journal. Do the same with radio and
television programs. Make a point to talk with people who differ from you in education level, race, ethnic
group, or political affiliation. And to hone your thinking skills, practice defending an idea you consider
outrageous.
Consider the source
Look again at that article on the unfeasability of cars powered by natural gas; it may have been written by an
executive from an oil company. Check out the authority who disputes the connection between smoking and lung
cancer; that person might be the president of a tobacco company.
This is not to say that we should dismiss the ideas of people who have a vested interest in their opinions.
Rather, we can seek out contrasting viewpoints on these issues.
Seek out alternative views
Imagine Karl Marx, Cesar Chavez, and Donald Trump gathered in one room to choose the most desirable
economic system. Picture Gandhi, Winnie Mandela, and General George Patton in a seminar on conflict resolution.
Visualize Jesse Jackson, Bill Clinton, and Mother Theresa in a discussion about how to balance the national budget.
When you seek out alternative points of view, such events can take place in your mind's arena.
Dozens of viewpoints exist on every critical issue how to reduce crime, end world hunger, prevent war,
educate our children, and countless others. In fact, few problems allow for any permanent solution. Each
generation produces new answers, based on current conditions. Our search for answers is a conversation
that spans centuries. On each question, many voices are waiting to be heard. You can take advantage of this
diversity by seeking out alternative viewpoints.
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Ask questions
Stripped to its essence, critical thinking means asking and answering questions. If you want to practice this
skill, get in the habit of asking powerful questions.
In How to Read a Book, Mortimer Adler and Charles Van Doren list four questions that sum up the whole task
of thinking about another person's ideas:
1. What is the writing or speech about as a whole? To answer this question, state the basic theme in one
sentence. Then list the major and minor topics covered.
2. What is being said in detail, and how? List the main terms, assertions, arguments. Also state what problems
the writer or speaker is trying to solve.
3. Is it true? Examine the author's logic and evidence. Look for missing information, faulty information,
incomplete analysis, and errors in reasoning. Also determine which problems the writer or speaker truly solved and
which remain unsolved.
4. What of it? After answering the first three questions, prepare to change your thinking or behavior as a result
of encountering new ideas.
These four questions apply not only to reading but also to any intellectual activity. They get to the heart of
critical thinking.
Look for at least three answers
When asking questions, we can let go of the temptation to settle for just one answer. Once you have come up
with an answer, say. to yourself. Yes, that is one answer. Now what's another? Using this approach can sustain
honest inquiry, fuel creativity, and lead to conceptual breakthroughs.
Be prepared: The world is complicated, and critical thinking is a complex business. Some of your
answers may contradict each other. Resist the temptation to have all your ideas in a neat, orderly bundle.
Be willing to change your mind
So many discussions generate heat instead of light. Often the people involved come already committed to
certain viewpoints—which they have no intention of changing. They might just as well stop talking to each other.
We can avoid this trap by entering discussions with an open mind. When talking to another person, be willing
to walk away with a new point of view—even if it's the one you brought to the table. After thinking thoroughly, we
can adopt new viewpoints or hold our current viewpoints in a different way.
Lay your cards on the table
Science and uncritical thinking differ in many ways. Uncritical thinkers shield themselves from new
information and ideas. In contrast, scientists constantly look for facts that contradict their theories. In fact,
science never proves anything once and for all. Scientific theories are tentative and subject to change.
Scientists routinely practice critical thinking.
We can follow their example. When talking or writing, we can put all our ideas on the table for examination.
We can allow others to freely examine our opinions and beliefs. When doing so, we make room for new ideas that
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can make a real difference in our lives.
Examine the problem from different points of view
Imagine that two people are standing across from each other. Between them, suspended from the ceiling at
eye level, is a ball. One person argues that the ball is red. The other person claims that the ball is green. As they
rotate their positions and change their points of view, they see that the ball is actually red on one side and green on
the other.
Sometimes new ideas are born when we view the world from a new angle. When early scientists
watched the skies, they concluded that the sun revolved around the earth. Later, when we gained the
mathematical tools to "stand" in another place, we could clearly see that the earth was revolving around the
sun. This change in position not only sparked new thinking, it permanently changed our picture of the
universe.
Write about it
Thoughts move randomly at blinding speed. Writing slows that process down. Gaps in logic that slip by us in
thought or speech are often exposed when we commit the same ideas to paper. Doing so allows us to see all points
of view on an issue more clearly-and therefore to think thoroughly. Writing is an unparalleled way to practice
precise, accurate thinking.
Construct a reasonable view
One humorist compared finding the truth to painting a barn door by throwing open cans of paint at it. Few
people who throw at the door miss it entirely. Yet no one can really cover the whole door in one toss.
People who express their viewpoints are seeking truth. Yet almost no reasonable person claims to have
covered the whole barn door—to have the Whole Truth about anything. Instead, each viewpoint is one approach
among many possible approaches. If you don't think that any one viewpoint is complete, then it's up to you to
combine the perspectives on the issue. In doing so, you choose an original viewpoint. This, like composing a song
or painting a picture, is a creative act and an exhilarating exercise in critical thinking.
XIII. 2. The Function of Critical Thinking
Any organization draws its life from certain assumptions about the way things should be done. Before the
institution can change, those assumptions need to be loosened up or reinvented. In many ways, the real location of
an institution is inside our heads.
Critical thinking also helps us uncover bias and prejudice. This is a first step toward communicating with
people of other races and cultures.
Crises occur when our thinking fails to keep pace with reality. An example is the ecological crisis, which
sprang from the assumption that people could pollute the earth, air, and water without long-term consequences.
Consider how different our world would be if our leaders had thought like the first woman chief of the Cherokees.
Asked about the best advice her elders had given her, she said, "Look forward. Turn what has been done into a
better path. If you are a leader, think about the impact of your decision on seven generations into the future."
Novelist Ernest Hemingway once said that anyone who wanted to be a great writer must have a built-in,
shockproof crap detector. That inelegant comment points to a perennial truth: As critical thinkers, we can be
constantly on the lookout for thinking that's inaccurate, sloppy, or misleading.
This is a skill that will never go out of style. History offers a continuing story of half-truths, faulty
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assumptions, and other nonsense once commonly accepted as true:
* Bloodsucking leeches can be used to cure disease.
* Illnesses result from an imbalance in the four vital fluids: blood, phlegm, water, and bile.
* Racial integration of the armed forces will lead to the destruction of soldiers' morale.
* Caucasians are inherently more intelligent than people of other races.
* Mixing the blood of the races will lead to genetically inferior offspring.
* Women are incapable of voting intelligently.
* We will never invent anything smaller than a transistor. (That was before the computer chip.)
* Computers will usher in the age of the paperless office.
In response to such ideas rose the critical thinkers of history. These men and women courageously pointed out
that—metaphorically speaking—the emperor had no clothes.
Critical thinking is a path to freedom from half-truths and deception. You have the right to question
what you see, hear, and read. Acquiring this ability is one of the major goals of a liberal education.
XIV. 3. Critical Thinking as Thorough Thinking
For some people, the term critical thinking has negative connotations. If you prefer, use the words thorough
thinking instead. Both terms point to the same array of activities: sorting out conflicting claims, weighing the
evidence for them, letting go of personal biases, and arriving at reasonable views. This adds up to an ongoing
conversation, a constant practices process, not a product.
We live in a society that seems to value quick answers and certainty. This is often at odds with effective
thinking. Thorough thinking is the ability to examine and reexamine ideas that may seem obvious. Such
thinking takes time and the willingness to say three subversive words: I don't know.
Thorough thinking is also the willingness to change our point of view as we continue to examine a
problem. This calls for courage and detachment. Just ask anyone who has given up a cherished point of view
in light of new evidence.
Skilled students are thorough thinkers. They distinguish between opinion and fact. They ask powerful
questions. They make detailed observations. They uncover assumptions and define their terms. They make
assertions carefully, basing them on sound logic and solid evidence. Almost everything that we call
knowledge is a result of these activities. This means that critical thinking and learning are intimately linked.
It's been said that human beings are rational creatures. Yet no one is born a thorough thinker. This is a learned
skill. Use the suggestions in this chapter to claim the vast, latent thinking powers that are your birthright.
XV.4. Creative People
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It all started innocently enough. I had set out to learn what I could about creativity. And there I was: an
amateur with a cause and three colleagues: two people from the Corporation for Entertainment and Learning, and
my wife and coeditor, Judith, who is an educational consultant—all tossed about on a turbulent sea churned by the
high-horsepower engines of scientists, scholars, psychiatrists, historians, educators, sociologists and philosophers
whose careers have been devoted to exploring creativity. I
The waves came over our little boat almost immediately. Here was the very considerable novelist Bernard
Malamud declaring that "creativity is a complex thing…Maybe sometime in the future they actually will find the
genetic tissue that makes it what it is. I don't want to be around when that happens. I want artistic creativity to
remain forever a mystery."
On the other hand, there was the author George Prince acknowledging that although once he had thought of
creativity as an extraordinary act of producing something new and useful, now he sees it "as less cosmic and more
common, an everyday affair, a mode of thought and action that is ultimately associated with learning and changing
not only one's self but one's situation."
There you have it—the basic tension between those who believe creativity to be a mystery, possibly a gift to
genius alone, and those who believe it can be demystified, nurtured, even democratized. One school will have
nothing to do with trying to dissect creativity into scientifically defined variables. Another considers creativity to
be the endowment of all of us. Actually, the conflict represents not only opposing views of creativity but also
differing ideas about human nature.
Two things are implied in the word "creativity," as I have come to understand it: novelty and
significance. What is created is new, and the new opens up paths that expand human possibilities. All
creative behavior breaks from the past but remains indebted to it. Maya Angelou—poet, author, director, actress—
told me that she never "left" Stamps, Arkansas, although she had moved from the little Southwest Arkansas town
30 years ago: "You carry your home wherever you go'" When I asked Maya Angelou to go back with me to where
her own ascent creativity was first threatened and then forged, she did not want to go. But finally she agreed, and
we glimpsed just how creative behavior grows from deep roots, which it never totally severs even as it transcends
them.
There are other examples. Fred Smith, who founded Federal Express had some compelling sense of duty
which motivated him from childhood and became obsessive of while he was in Vietnam. Samson Raphaelson, the
playwright, says that the drive to be creative has its roots in some remote past no longer operating consciously but
still there nonetheless. The inventions we shall see are all examples of departures from tradition, but none could
have occurred without tradition.
Creative people, then, often look at something from the past that is the result of convergent thinking and by
thinking about it divergently come up with a novel use of a familiar object. They look in the common place to find
the strange. Instead of thinking toward old solutions, they think away from them, making the leap from the
unexpected to the inspired. Poets do it with metaphors and similes. Journalists can do it with garbage. Yes,
garbage. It was the first subject we decided to explore because we sensed that it would be a usual vehicle for
demonstrating that you can think creatively about almost anything, if you learn how to relate and connect what at
casual glance seems odd to couple. In our research, we found an Arizona professor, a garbologist, teaching
contemporary civilization through what people throw out; a New York artist turning ordinary things off the streets
into works of art; and an East Texas sewage plant where earthworms are used to turn sludge into topsail
We realized early in our reporting that there may be as many creative processes as there are creative people.
And we decided that any full picturing of creativity would require many images. However, the people I met did
confirm a number of creative behavior. Creative people tolerate ambiguity. They have unremitting desire to
create a satisfying new order out of chaos, and the courage to persist to create that order on one's own terms.
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This makes them often cantankerous, sometimes exasperating, always unconventional. What matters to
them is not what others think of them but what they think of themselves.
XVI. 5. The Lowest Animal
I have been studying the traits and dispositions of the "lower animals" (so-called), and contrasting them with
the traits and dispositions of man. I find the result humiliating to me. For it obliges me to renounce my allegiance
to the Darwinian Theory of the Ascent of Man from the Lower Animals, since it now seems plain to me that the
theory ought to be vacated in favor of a new and truer one, this new and truer one to be named the Descent of Man
from the Higher Animals.
In proceeding toward this unpleasant conclusion I have not guessed or speculated or conjectured, but have
used what is commonly called the scientific method. Some of my experiments were quite curious. In the course of
my reading I had come across a case where, many years ago, some hunters on our Great Plains organized a buffalo
hunt for the entertainment of an English earl, and to provide some fresh meat. They killed seventy two of those
great animals; and ate part of one of them and left the seventy one to rot. In order to determine the difference
between an anaconda and an earl—if any—I caused seven young calves to be turned into the anaconda's cage. The
grateful reptile immediately crushed one of them and swallowed it, then lay back satisfied. It showed no further
interest in the calves, and no disposition to harm them. I tried this experiment with other anacondas; always with
the same result. The fact stood proven that the difference between an earl and an anaconda is that the earl is cruel
and the anaconda isn't; and that the earl wantonly destroys what he has no use for, but the anaconda doesn't. This
seemed to suggest that the anaconda was not descended from the earl. It also seemed to suggest that the earl was
descended from the anaconda, and had lost a good deal in the transition.
I furnished a hundred different kinds of wild and tame animals the opportunity to accumulate vast stores of
food, but none of them would do it. The squirrels and bees and certain, birds made accumulations, but stopped
when they had gathered a winter's supply, and could not be persuaded to add to it. In order to bolster up a tottering
reputation the ant pretended to store up supplies, but I was not deceived. I know the ant. These experiments
convinced me that there is this difference between man and the higher animals: he is avaricious and miserly—they
are not.
In the course of my experiments I convinced myself that among the animals man is the only one that harbors
insults and injuries, broods over them, waits till a chance offers, then takes revenge. The passion of revenge is
unknown to the higher animals.
Roosters keep harems, but it is by consent of their concubines, therefore no wrong is done. Men keep harems,
but it is by brute force, privileged by atrocious laws which the other sex is allowed no hand in making. In this
matter man occupies a far lower place than the rooster.
Indecency, vulgarity, obscenity—these are strictly confined to man; he invented them. Among the
higher animals there is no trace of them. Of all the animals, man is the only one that is cruel. He is the only
one that inflicts pain for the pleasure of doing it. It is a trait that is not known to the higher animals. The cat
plays with the frightened mouse; but she has this excuse, that she does not know that the mouse is suffering. The
cat is moderate—inhumanly moderate: she only scares the mouse; she does not hurt it; she doesn't dig out its eyes,
or tear off its skin, or drive splinters under its nails-man-fashion; when she is done playing with it she makes a
sudden meal of it and puts it out of its trouble. Man is the Cruel Animal. He is alone in that distinction.
The higher animals engage in individual fights, but never in organized masses. Man is the only animal
that deals in that atrocity of atrocities, War. Man is the only animal that robs his helpless fellow of his country,
takes possession of it and drives him out of it or destroys him. Man has done this in all the ages. There is not an
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acre of ground on the globe that is in possession of its rightful owner, or that has not been taken away from owner
after owner, cycle after cycle, by force and bloodshed.
Man is the only Slave. And he is the only animal who enslaves. He has always been a slave in one form
or another, and has always held other slaves in bondage under him in one way or another. in our day he is
always some man's slave for wages, and does that man's work; and this slave has other slaves under him for minor
wages, and they do his work. The higher animals are the only ones who exclusively do their own work and provide
their own living.
Man is the Reasoning Animal. Such is the claim. I think it is open to dispute. Indeed, my experiments have
proven to me that he is the Unreasoning Animal. Note his history, as sketched above. It seems plain to me that
whatever he is he is not a reasoning animal. His record is the fantastic record of a maniac. In truth, man in
incurably foolish. Simple things which the other animals easily learn, he is incapable of learning.
And so I find that we have descended and degenerated, from some far ancestor-some microscopic atom
wandering at its pleasure between the mighty horizons of a drop of water perchance—insect by insect, animal by
animal, reptile by reptile, down the long highway of smirch less innocence, till we have reached the bottom stages
of development—namable as the Human Being. Below us—nothing.
6. Decision by Consensus
Perhaps the most fundamental difference in management style between the Japanese and most other countries
lies in the area of decision-making. Westerners often find the Japanese method of making decisions to be
aggravatingly slow. Few realize the very different thought processes and procedures that are going on.
Westerners tend to make major decisions at the top, in board meetings, among department heads, and
the like. They then pass the word down the line to managers and others, to implement and carry out the
decision. The Japanese do the opposite. Their system, commonly known as ringi, is the corporate version of
"government by consensus."
Decisions are not made "on high" and handed down to be implemented. Rather, they are proposed
from below and move upward, receiving additional input and approvals after deliberation through all levels
of the company.
"One should think of the system as a filter through which ideas pass," says Robert T. Moran. The whole
process, as it winds its way through various levels of the company, can last from two to three weeks to a matter of
months. Each level takes its own time to go over the details. If the matter under consideration is complex or
sensitive, it can take even longer."
For decisions that are not of really major importance, approvals can be given by various individuals (or by
groups of them). But when any decision is a matter of great importance, the Japanese look for broad consensus.
Ringi should be seen as a "process" rather than a system. It gives management the choice of a broad selection of
pragmatic options. Often the initiator is a section chief. He proposes an idea (which may well have been suggested
to him by one of his workers). He gets his section members to research it; they all discuss it. When satisfied, he
passes it up the line.
Even junior members take part in all this deliberation. It is considered part of their training and as a means of
developing their company motivation. The idea is considered all the way up until it reaches the president. If he
approves it, it will have been seen, considered, and passed on by virtually everyone who could be in any way
involved in the final implementation. One can imagine the bargaining, persuasion, trading of favors, seeking of
support, and general "lobbying" that goes on throughout the process! All of this is known as nemawashi, which
means 'binding up the roots.' (The image is that of a tree that will survive only if everything is properly prepared in
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advance.)
One of the major benefits of ringi is that it avoids the possibility of anyone being marked as "personally
responsible" for a decision. Where responsibility can be diffused, potentially embarrassing "loss of face" can be
avoided. No fingers can be pointed.
"Delays in making even simple decisions can become almost unbearable at times," said a fast-moving
American executive who works with a worldwide hotel chain. "Everybody has to be involved with everything," he
continued. "It takes forever. As far as I am concerned, this is without a doubt the very hardest part of working for a
Japanese company. You feel as if you can never get a decision on anything, large or small."
"By the time the decision finally does come through," added another, "I have usually lost interest in whatever
it was and am on to something else. Interminable delays are deflating to one's sense of energy and drive."
If you try to hurry the process, it does more harm than good. The Japanese do not like pressure. Obviously,
frustrated Westerners will be itching to know what is going on as the silence goes into weeks or months. You
submit a proposal or an inquiry. Nothing happens. Who is holding it up? What is happening? Did the message ever
get through?
If the decision you are impatient for relates to a new idea, perhaps something you have initiated, you can
count on a really long delay. If, on the other hand, the company is merely talking about some refinement of an idea
they have already agreed to in principle, then it may take considerably less time to come up with a reply.
But you can take it for granted that you will rarely get quick action unless, as one veteran of the business
world put it, "You have gold that is $7.00 on the open market and are willing to sell it for $6.00. Then you will get
action without delay." You may occasionally encounter Japanese who will try to foreshorten their normal time as a
concession to Western impatience. But don't count on it.
In writing this book, I asked a number of businessmen who work well with Japanese colleagues what they
consider to be the single biggest factor in their success. In every single case the first attribute mentioned was
"patience, patience, and still more patience." They all agreed: "if you lose your patience or your cool, you are
likely to find yourself empty-handed."
Although the ringi system is undoubtedly slow, no one can complain afterwards. Harmony is served,
factionalism and power struggles are at least minimized—if not eliminated—for once the process has reached a
certain stage, no one feels he can "buck the tide." So, he goes along with it and initials it. After that, he is
effectively silenced. Direct opposition is rarely effective among the Japanese. One achieves more with them
through the kind of persuasion and negotiating-one might say "lobbying"—that is sanctioned and made broadly
possible through nemawashi.
Actually, the length of delay before achieving the ultimate goal may not be as great as it sometimes appears
when compared with Western systems. Where the Western "top-down" approach to decision—making is used, the
original plan or agreement is frequently made relatively quickly at the top in the board room. However, delays of
weeks or months may subsequently follow while staffs and workers are first apprised of the decisions and then
persuaded to give their cooperative support. Both steps are necessary before a plan can actually get moving with
any momentum. When lower levels have not participated in making the decision, misunderstandings, snags, balks,
or other delays frequently occur.
In Japan, in contrast, once the decision is finally and actually arrived at, all relevant staff members
understand it thoroughly. They are familiar with its various ramifications. During the talking stages, they
will have pretty well mastered the "what-when-how" of their own responsibilities vis-a-vis the project in
question. So, although it may take a long time to arrive at the decision, once approval has been given they
can put it into practice rapidly and smoothly. The final time difference between the two systems, therefore,
may not be as far apart as it can sometimes seem.
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Furthermore, in the Japanese system, those in low echelons feel they have been involved. They have been
able—often urged—to suggest proposals, projects, or refinements. Japanese bosses believe in encouraging
suggestions from the rank and file. The idea of creating a consensus that incorporates the whole
organizational hierarchy is at the heart of Japanese business philosophy and methods.
XVII. 7. Student Essays
XVIII.
XIX. (1) The Meaning of Success
Some people define success simply as the ability to choose how to spend one's life. Under this definition, people
who have the freedom to do whatever they want at any time they choose would presumably be the most successful
ones, white those who have no such freedom would be the biggest failures. Viewing the definition in this light
reveals three serious problems with it.
The chief problem with this definition of success is that by the definition nearly all people would be regarded as
failures. The reason for this is simple. Most people have extremely limited choices in what they can do and when
they can do it. In other words, unrestricted freedom of choice is a luxury only a few people—perhaps a handful of
tyrannical dictators and ultra-wealthy individuals—can afford.
Secondly, people who have a high degree of freedom in choosing their lifestyle often acquire it through means that
would not earn them the accolade of being successful. For example, lottery winners or people who inherit a great
deal of money may be able to spend their life in any way they choose, but few people would regard them as
successful merely due to their financial fortune.
A third reason this definition of success is unacceptable is that it repudiates some of our basic intuitions about
success. For most people, success is related to achievement. The more you achieve, the more successful you are:
conversely, the less you achieve the less successful you are. Defining success in terms of freedom of choice
ignores this intuition.
In sum, the proposed definition of success is far too limited, and it belies our intuition about the concept. I think
most people would agree with me that success is better defined in terms of the attainment of goals.
XX. (2) Tolerance
In determining whether we are becoming more respectful of one another's differences, one must examine both
overt actions and underlying motives, as well as examining whether our differences are increasing or decreasing.
The issue, therefore, is quite complex, and the answer is unclear.
Disrespect for one another's differences manifests itself in various forms of prejudice and discrimination. Since the
civil rights arid feminist movements of the 6os and 7os, it would seem that we have made significant progress
toward eliminating racial and sexual discrimination. Antidiscriminatory laws in the areas of employment housing,
and education, now protect all significant minority groups —racial minorities and women, the physically
challenged and, more recently, homosexuals. Movies and television shows, which for better or worse have become
the cynosure of our cultural attention, now tout the rights of minorities, encouraging acceptance of and respect for
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others.
However much of this progress is forced upon us legislatively. Without Title 10 and its progenies, would we
voluntarily refrain from the discriminatory behavior that the laws prevent? Perhaps not. Moreover, signs of
disrespect are all around us today. Extreme factions still rally around bigoted demagogues; the number of "hate
crimes" is increasing alarmingly; and school-age children seem to flaunt a disrespect toward adults as never before.
Finally, what appears to be respect for one another's differences may in fact be an increasing global
homogeneity-that is, we are becoming more and more alike.
In sum, on a societal level it is difficult to distinguish between genuine respect for one another's differences on the
one hand and legislated morality and increasing homogeneity on the other. Accordingly, the claim that we are
becoming more respectful of one another's differences is somewhat dubious.
XXI. (3) Be Yourself
The advice to act naturally or follow one's instincts can, admittedly, be helpful advice for someone torn between
difficult career or personal choices in life. In most situations, however, following this advice would neither be wise
nor sensible. Following one's own instincts should be tempered by codes of behavior appropriate to the situation at
hand.
First of all, doing what comes naturally often amounts to impulsive overreaction and irrational behavior, based on
emotion. Everyone experiences impulses from time to time, such as hitting another person, quitting one's job,
having an extramarital affair, and so forth. People who act however they please or say whatever is on their mind
without thinking about consequences especially without regard to social situation, may offend and alienate others.
At the workplace, engaging in petty gossip, sexual harassment, or backstabbing might be considered "natural," yet
such behavior can be destructive for the individuals at the receiving end as well as for the company. And in
dealings with foreign business associates, what an American might find natural or instinctive, even if socially
acceptable here, might be deeply insulting or confusing to somebody from another culture.
Second, doing what comes naturally is not necessarily in one's own best interests. The various behaviors cited
above would also tend to be counterproductive for the person engaging in them. "Natural" behavior could prove
deadly to one's career, since people who give little thought before they act cannot be trusted in a job that requires
effective relationships with important clients, colleagues and others.
Third, the speaker seems to suggest that you should be yourself, and then act accordingly in that order. But we
define ourselves in large measure by our actions. Young adults especially tack a clear sense of self. How can you
be yourself if you don't know who you are? Even for mature adults, the process of evolving one's concept of self is
a perpetual one. In this respect, then, the speaker's recommendation does not make much sense.
In sum, one should not follow the speaker's advice universally or too literally. For unless a person's instincts are to
follow standard rules of social and business etiquette, natural behavior can harm others as well as constrain one's
own personal and professional growth.
XXII. (4) The Rule-Breakers
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I strongly agree that rule-breakers are the most memorable people. By departing from the status quo, iconoclasts
call attention to themselves, some providing conspicuous mirrors for society, others serving as our primary
catalysts for progress.
In politics, for example, rule-breakers Mahatma Ghandi and Martin Luther King secured prominent places in
history by challenging the status quo through civil disobedience. Renegades such as Ghengus Khan, Stalin, and
Hussein, broke all the human rights "rules," thereby leaving indelible marks in the historical record. And future
generations will probably remember Nixon and Kennedy more clearly than Carter or Reagan, by way of their
rule-breaking activities-specifically, Nixon's Watergate debacle and Kennedy's extra-marital trysts.
In the arts, mavericks such as Dali, Picasso, and Warhol, who break established rules of composition, ultimately
emerge as the greatest artists, while the names of artists with superior technical skills are relegated to the footnotes
of art-history textbooks. Our most influential popular musicians are the flagrant rule breakers—for example,
be-bop musicians such as Charlie Parker and Thelonius Monk, who broke all the harmonic rules, and folk
musician-poet Bob Dylan, who broke the rules for lyrics.
In the sciences, innovation and progress can only result from challenging conventional theories, i.e., by breaking
rules. Newton and Einstein, for example, both refused to blindly accept what were perceived at their time as
certain "rules" of physics. As a result, both men redefined those rules, and both men emerged as two of the most
memorable figures in the field of physics.
In conclusion, it appears that the deepest positive and negative impressions appear on either side of the same
iconoclastic coin. Those who leave the most memorable imprints in history do so by challenging norms, traditions,
cherished values, and the general status quo, that is, by breaking the rules.
XXIII. (5) The Meaning of Genius
I strongly agree that true genius is the ability to see beyond conventional modes of thinking and to suggest new
and better ones. This definition property sets genius apart from lesser instances of critical acumen, inventiveness or
creativity. Under this definition, a true genius must successfully (1) challenge the assumptions underlying a current
paradigm, and (2) supplant the old paradigm with a new, better, and more fruitful one.
This two-pronged standard for true genius is aptly illustrated by examining the scientific contribution of the
century astronomer Copernicus. Prior to Copernicus, our view of the universe was governed by the Ptolemaic
paradigm of a geocentric universe, according to which our earth was in a fixed position at the center of the
universe, with other heavenly bodies revolving around it. Copernicus challenged this paradigm and its key
assumptions by introducing a distinction between real motion and motion that is merely apparent, In doing so, he
satisfied the first requirement of a true genius.
Had Copernicus managed to show only that the old view and its assumptions were problematic, we would not
consider him a genius today. Copernicus went on, however, to develop a new paradigm; he claimed that the earth
is rotating while hurtling rapidly through space, and that other heavenly bodies only appear to revolve around the
earth. Moreover, he reasoned that his view about the earth's real motion could explain the apparent motion of the
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sun, stars and other planets around the earth. It turned out he was right; and his theories helped facilitate Galileo's
empirical observations, Kepler's laws of planetary motion, and Newton's gravitational principle.
To sum up, I find the proposed definition of true genius incisive and accurate: and the example of Copernicus aptly
points up the two required elements of true genius required by the definition.
XXIV. (6) Convention
Whether a conformist can achieve lasting success or "get rich" in business depends primarily on the type of
business involved. Iconoclasts rise to the top in newer industries and in those where consumer demand is in
constant flux. Conformists ultimately prevail, however, in traditional service industries ensconced in systems and
regulations.
In consumer-driven industries, innovation, product differentiation, and creativity are crucial to lasting success. In
the retail and media sectors, for example, unconventional products and advertising are necessary to catch the
attention of consumers and to keep up with the vagaries of consumer tastes. Those who take an iconoclastic
approach tend to recognize emerging trends and to rise above their peers. For example, Ted Turner's departure
from the traditional format of the other television networks, and the responsiveness of Amazon.com to burgeoning
Internet commerce, propelled these two giants to leadership positions in their industries. And in technology, where
there are no conventional practices or ways of thinking to begin with, companies that fail to break away from last
year's paradigm are soon left behind by the competition.
However, in traditional service industries—such as finance, accounting, insurance, legal services, and health care
—lasting success and riches come not to non- conformists but rather to those who can deliver services most
effectively within the confines of established practices, policies, and regulations. Of course, a clever idea for
structuring a deal, or a creative legal maneuver, may play a role in winning smaller battles along the way. But such
tactics are those of conformists who are playing by the same ground rules as their peers; winners are just better at
the game.
In conclusion, while non-conformists tend to be the wildly successful players in technology-driven and
consumer-driven industries, traditionalists are the winners in system-driven industries pervaded by policy,
regulation, and bureaucracy.
XXV. (7) Public Buildings and Social Values
The extent to which new public buildings reflect societal values and attitudes depends on whether one considers a
building's intended function or its design. In the former sense, new public buildings do mirror society, while in the
latter sense they do not.
The intended uses of new public buildings say something about our priorities and values as a society. For example,
proliferation of public cultural centers and schools reflects a societal concern for the arts and education,
respectively, while new prison construction indicates a heightened concern for safety and security.
The design of new public buildings, however, fails to mirror society, for two reasons. First, modem democratic
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states do not have the luxury of making cultural "statements" at any expense. Functionality and fiscal
accountability dictate the face of public architecture today. Second, public participation in the process is limited.
New buildings typically reflect the architect's eccentric vision or the preference of a few public officials, not the
populace's values and attitudes. In England, for example, Prince Charles oversees and approves the design of new
public buildings. The resulting conventional designs suggest his unwillingness to break from tradition. Yet it would
seem unfair to assign his lack of vision to English society. In Denver, the controversial design of a new airport met
with public outcry for its appearance, expense, and lack of functionality. Does the airport reflect the values of
Denver's denizens? Probably not.
In conclusion, while modem public buildings seem to reflect the values and attitudes of a society in their function,
they do not necessarily do so in their design.
(8) Choosing a Career
Financial gain is certainly one factor to consider when selecting a career. But many people do not, and should not,
focus on this factor as the main one. The role that money plays in career choice should depend on the priorities,
goals and values of the particular person making the choice.
The main problem with selecting a career primarily on the basis of money is that for many people to do so would
be to ignore one's personal values, needs, and larger life goals. Indeed, many people appreciate this notion when
they choose their career. For example, some people join one of the helping professions, such as nursing, teaching
or social work, well aware that their career will not be financially lucrative. Their choice properly stems from an
overriding altruistic desire, not from an interest in financial gain. Others choose to pursue intellectual or creative
fulfillment—as writers, artists, or musicians—knowing that they are trading off dollars for non-tangible rewards.
Still others forego economic gain to work as full-time parents; for these people, family and children are of
paramount importance in life. Finally, many people subordinate economic prospects to their desire to live in a
particular location; these people may place a high value on recreation, their physical health, or being near a circle
of friends.
Another problem with focusing primarily on money when selecting a career is that it ignores the notion that
making money is not an end in and of itself, but rather a means of obtaining material goods and services and of
attaining important goals—such as providing security for oneself and one's family, lifelong learning, or freedom to
travel or to pursue hobbies. Acknowledging the distinction, one may nevertheless select a career on the basis of
money—since more money can buy more goods and services as well as the security, freedom, and time to enjoy
them. Even so, one must strike a balance, for if these things that money is supposed to provide are sacrificed in the
pursuit of money itself, the point of having money—and of one's career selection—has been lost.
In conclusion, economic gain should not be the overriding factor in selecting a career. While for a few people the
single-minded pursuit of wealth may be fulfillment enough, most people should, and indeed do, temper the pursuit
of wealth against other values, goals, and priorities. Moreover they recognize that money is merely a means to
more important objectives, and that the pursuit itself may undermine the achievement of these objectives.
XXVI. (9) Teamwork
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The relationship between teamwork and individual strength, energy, and commitment is complex; whether they
operate 10 a complementary or antagonistic manner depends on: (1) the goals toward which the traits are directed,
(2) the degree of emphasis on teamwork, and (3) the job of the individual within an organization.
A person's ability to work effectively in a team is not inconsistent per se with personal strength, energy and
commitment. If exercised in a self-serving manner—for example, through pilfering or back stabbing-these traits
can operate against the organization. Conversely, if directed toward the firm's goals, these goals can motivate other
team members, thereby advancing common goals. World War II generals Patton and Rommel understood this point
and knew how to bring out the best individual qualities in their troops, while at the same time instilling a strong
sense of team and common purpose.
Nevertheless, overemphasizing teamwork can be counterproductive for an organization. A successful team requires
both natural leaders and natural followers; otherwise, a team will accomplish little. Undue emphasis on teamwork
may quell initiative among natural leaders, thereby thwarting team goals. Also, teamwork can be overemphasized
with a commissioned sales force of highly competitive and autonomic individuals. Overemphasis on teamwork
here might stifle healthy competition, thereby defeating a firm's objectives. In other organizational areas, however,
teamwork is critical. For example, a product-development team must progress in lock-step fashion toward
common goals, such as meeting a rollout deadline.
In sum, individual strength, commitment, and energy can complement a strong team approach; as long as
individual autonomy is not undermined, all can operate in a synergistic manner to achieve an organization's goals.
XXVII. (10) Professional Success and Personal Life
Are professional success and a fulfilling personal life mutually exclusive? Probably not, although it is more
difficult today to achieve both.
Undeniably, today's professionals must work long hours to keep their heads above water, let alone to get ahead in
life financially. This is especially true in Japan, where cost of living, coupled with corporate culture, compel
professional males to all but abandon their families and literally to work themselves to death. While the situation
here in the states may not be as critical, the two-income family is now the norm, not by choice but by necessity.
However, our society's professionals are taking steps to remedy the problem. First, they are inventing ways such as
job sharing and telecommuting to ensure that personal life does not take a back seat to career. Second, they are
setting priorities and living those hours outside the workplace to their fullest. In fact, professional success usually
requires the same time-management skills that are useful to find time for family, hobbies, and recreation. One need
only look at the recent American presidents—Clinton, Bush, Reagan and Carter—to see that it is possible to lead a
balanced life which includes time for family, hobbies, and recreation, while immersed in a busy and successful
career. Third, more professionals are changing careers to ones which allow for some degree of personal fulfillment
and self-actualization. Besides, many professionals truly love their work and would do it without compensation, as
a hobby. For them, professional and personal fulfillment are one and the same.
In conclusion, given the growing demands of career on today's professionals, a fulfilling personal life remains
possible-by working smarter, by setting priorities, and by making suitable career choices.
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(11) Business and Ethics
Some people claim that following high ethical standards is the best way to maximize profits in the long run.
However, this claim seems to be more of a normative statement than an empirical observation. The issue is more
complex than the speaker suggests. In my observation, the two objectives at times coincide but at other times
conflict.
In many ways behaving ethically can benefit a business. Ethical conduct will gain a company the kind of good
reputation that earns repeat business. Treating suppliers, customers and others fairly is likely to result in their
reciprocating. Finally, a company that treats its employees fairly and with respect will gain their loyalty which, in
turn, usually translates into higher productivity.
On the other hand, taking the most ethical course of action may in many cases reduce profits, in the short run and
beyond. Consider the details of a merger in which both firms hope to profit from a synergy gained thereby. If the
details of the merger hinge on the ethical conviction that as few employees as possible should lose their jobs, the
key executives may lose sight of the fact that a leaner, less labor-intensive organization might be necessary for
long-term survival. Thus, undue concern with ethics in this case would result in lower profits and perhaps ultimate
business failure.
This merger scenario points out a larger argument that the speaker misses entirely—that profit maximization is per
se the highest ethical objective in private business. Why? By maximizing profits, businesses bestow
a variety of
important benefits on their community and on society: they employ more people, stimulate the economy, and
enhance healthy competition. In short, the profit motive is the key to ensuring that the members of a free market
society survive and thrive. While this argument might ignore implications for the natural environment and for
socio-economic justice, it is a compelling argument nonetheless.
Thus the choice to follow high ethical standards should not be made by thinking that ethical conduct is profitable.
While in some cases a commitment to high ethical standards might benefit a company financially, in many cases it
will not. In the final analysis, businesses might best be advised to view their attempts to maximize profits as highly
ethical behavior in itself.
XXVIH. (12) Hard Work and Success
There is no doubt mat hard work contributes to success. Yet a person can work awfully hard and still achieve very
little. In order to bring about success, hard work has to be directed by clear goals and the knowledge of how to
reach them. Moreover, imagination, intelligence and persistence can be equally important to success.
Individual success is gauged by the extent to which one reaches important personal goals. And it takes careful
planning to set goals and discover the best means of realizing them. Before hard work even begins, therefore,
considerable time and effort should be spent on planning.
Intelligence and imagination play important roles in planning. Imagination helps one to envision new solutions to
problems, and new means by which to achieve goals. Intelligence helps one research and critically evaluate the
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possibilities that imagination has provided. Together, imagination and intelligence can even help one avoid certain
kinds of hard work, by producing more efficient ways to accomplish goals.
Finally, persistence is crucial to success. Sometimes, rewards do not come quickly—even when one has carefully
set goals, creatively and intelligently planned ways to achieve them, and worked hard according to plan. Tradition
has it, for example, that Thomas Edison made thousands of attempts to create a light bulb before he was finally
successful. In the face of countless failures, he refused to quit. In fact, he considered each failure a successful
discovery of what not to do!
In conclusion, it is true that there is no substitute for hard work, But hard work, is an ingredient of success, and not
the key. Hard work can produce real accomplishment only if it
is
directed by a plan involving some idea of one's goats and the means to them. And a good plan, as well as its
successful implementation, requires imagination, intelligence and persistence.
XXIX. (13) The Objective of Business
Some people suggest that the ultimate purpose of business is to streamline and mechanize work, thereby
minimizing it, so that people can make a living but still have time for other things in life. The assumptions behind
this view of business are that the value of work is entirely instrumental, and that our work lives are distinct from
the rest of our lives. I disagree with both assumptions.
Admittedly, work is to a large extent instrumental in that we engage in it to provide for our basic needs while
leaving time and resources for other activities—raising families, participating in civic life, traveling, pursuing
hobbies, and so forth. And these activities normally take place away from the workplace and are distinct from our
work. However, for most people, work is far more than a means to these ends. It can also be engaging, enjoyable
and fulfilling in itself. And it can provide a context for expressing an important part of one's self. However, work
will be less of all these to the extent that it is streamlined and mechanized for quick disposal, as the quotation
recommends. Instead, our jobs will become monotonous and tedious, die work of drones. And we might become
drone-like in the process.
In addition, work can to some extent be integrated with the rest of our lives. More and more companies are
installing on-site daycare facilities and workout rooms. They are giving greater attention to the ambiance of the
breakroom, and they are sponsoring family events, excursions and athletic activities for employees as never before.
The notion behind this trend is that when a company provides employees with ways to fulfill outside needs and
desires, employees will do better work. I think this idea has merit.
In conclusion, I admit that there is more to life than work, and that work is to some extent a means to provide a
livelihood. But to suggest that this is the sole purpose of business is an oversimplification that ignores the
self-actualizing significance of work, as well as the ways it can be integrated with other aspects of our lives.
Section Four: Mass Media
1. Propaganda Techniques in
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XXX.
Today's Advertising
Propaganda is not just the tool of totalitarian governments and dictators. Rather, propaganda is all around us
—in the form of commercials and advertisements, the author of this selection shows how Madison Avenue uses
many of the techniques typical of political propaganda to convince us that we need certain products and services.
After reading the essay, you may regard in a different light the jingles, endorsements, and slogans characteristic of
today's commercials,
Americans, adults and children alike, are being seduced. They are being brainwashed. And few of us
protest Why? Because the seducers and the brainwashers are the advertisers we willingly invite into our
homes. We are victims, content—even eager—to be victimized. We read advertisers' propaganda messages
in newspapers and magazines; we watch their alluring images on television.
We absorb their messages and images into our subconscious. We all do It—even those of us who claim to see
through advertisers' tricks and therefore feel immune to advertising's charm. Advertisers lean heavily on
propaganda to sell their products, whether the "products" are a brand of toothpaste, a candidate for office,
or a particular political viewpoint
Propaganda is a systematic effort to influence people's opinions, to win them over to a certain view or side.
Propaganda is not necessarily concerned with what is true or false, good or bad. Propagandists simply want people
to believe the messages being sent Often, propagandists will use outright lies or more subtle deceptions to sway
people's opinions. In a propaganda war, any tactic is considered fair.
When we hear the word "propaganda," we usually think of a foreign menace: anti-American radio programs
broadcast by a totalitarian regime or brainwashing tactics practiced on hostages. Although propaganda may seem
relevant only in the political arena, the concept can be applied fruitfully to the way products and ideas are sold in
advertising. Indeed, the vast majority of us are targets in advertisers' propaganda war. Every day, we are
bombarded with slogans, print ads, commercials, packaging claims, billboards, trademarks, logos, and
designer brands-all forms of propaganda. One study reports that each of us, during an average day, is
exposed to over five hundred advertising claims of various types. This saturation may even increase in the
future since current trends include ads on movie screens, shopping carts, videocassettes, even public
television.
What kind of propaganda techniques do advertisers use? There are seven basic types:
1. Name Calling Name calling is a propaganda tactic In which negatively charged names are hurled
against the opposing side or competitor. By using such names, propagandists try to arouse feelings of
mistrust, fear, and hate in their audiences. For example, a political advertisement may label an opposing
candidate a "loser," "fence-sitter," or "warmonger." Depending on the advertiser's target market, labels such as "a
friend of big business" or "a dues-paying member of the party in power" can be the epithets that damage an
opponent. Ads for products may also use name calling. An American manufacturer may refer, for instance, to a
"foreign car" in its commercial — not an "imported" one. The label of foreignness will have unpleasant
connotations in many people's minds. A childhood rhyme claims that "names can never hurt me," but name calling
is an effective way to damage the opposition, whether it is another car maker or 2 congressional candidate.
2. Glittering Generalities Using glittering generalities is the opposite of name calling. In this case,
advertisers surround their products with attractive—and slippery—words and phrases. They use vague
terms that are difficult to define and that may have different meanings to different people: freedom,
democratic, all-American, progressive, Christian, and justice. Many such words have strong, affirmative
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overtones. This kind of language stirs positive feelings in people, feelings that may spill over to the product
or idea being pitched. As with name calling, the emotional response may overwhelm logic. Target audiences
accept the product without thinking very much about what the glittering generalities mean—or whether
they even apply to the product After all, how can anyone oppose "truth, justice, and the American way"?
The ads for politicians and political causes often use glittering generalities because such "buzz words"
can influence votes. Election slogans include high-sounding but basically empty phrases like the following:
"He cares about people." (That's nice, but is he a better candidate than his opponent?)
"Vote for progress." (Progress by whose standards?)
"They'll make this country great again." (What does "great" mean? Does "great" mean the same thing to
others as it does to me?) "Vote for the future." (What kind of future?)
"If you love America, vote for Phyllis Smith." (If I don't vote for Smith, does that mean I don't love America?)
Ads for consumer goods are also sprinkled with glittering generalities. Product names, for instance, are
supposed to evoke good feelings: Luvs diapers, New Freedom feminine hygiene products, joy liquid detergent,
Loving Care hair color, Almost Home cookies, Yankee Doodle pastries. Product slogans lean heavily on vague but
comforting phrases: Kinney is "The Great American Shoe Store," General Electric "brings good things to life," and
Dow Chemical "lets you do great things." Chevrolet, we are told, is the "heartbeat of America," and Chrysler
boasts cars that are "built by Americans for Americans."
3. Transfer In transfer, advertisers try to improve the image of a product by associating it with a symbol
most people respect, like the American flag or Uncle Sam. The advertisers hope that the prestige attached to
the symbol will carry over to the product. Many companies use transfer devices to identify their products:
Lincoln Insurance shows a profile of the president; Continental Insurance portrays a Revolutionary War
minuteman; Amtrak's logo is red, white, and blue; Liberty Mutual's corporate symbol is the Statue of Liberty;
Allstate's name is cradled by a pair of protective, fatherly hands.
Corporations also use the transfer technique when they sponsor prestigious shows on radio and
television. These shows function as symbols of dignity and class. Kraft Corporation, for instance, sponsored a
"Leonard Bernstein Conducts Beethoven" concert, while Gulf Oil is the sponsor of National Geograpbic specials
and Mobil supports public television's Masterpiece Theater. In this way, corporations can reach an educated,
influential audience and, perhaps, improve their public image by associating themselves with quality
programming.
Political ads, of course, practically wrap themselves in the flag. Ads for a political candidate often show either
the Washington Monument, a Fourth of July parade, the Stars and Stripes, a bald eagle soaring over the mountains,
or a white-steepled church on the village green. The national anthem or "America the Beautiful" may play softly in
the background. Such appeals to Americans' love of country can surround the candidate with an aura of patriotism
and integrity.
4. Testimonial The testimonial is one of advertisers' most-loved and most-used propaganda techniques.
Similar to die transfer device, the testimonial capitalizes on the admiration people have for a celebrity to
make the product shine more brightly—even though the celebrity is not an expert on the product being sold.
Print and television ads offer a nonstop parade of testimonials: here's Cher for Holiday Spas; here's
basketball star Michael Jordan eating Wheaties; Michael Jackson sings about Pepsi
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American Express features a slew of well-known people who assure us that they never go anywhere without
their American Express card Testimonials can sell movies, too; newspaper ads for films often feature favorable
comments by well-known reviewers. And, in recent years, testimonials have played an important role in pitching
books; the backs of paperbacks frequently list complimentary blurbs by celebrities.
Political candidates, as well as their ad agencies, know the value of testimonials. Barbra Streisand lent her star
appeal to the presidential campaign of Michael Dukakis, while Arnold Schwarzenegger endorsed George Bush.
Even controversial social issues are debated by celebrities. The nuclear freeze, for instance, starred Paul Newman
for the pro side and Charlton Heston for the con.
As illogical as testimonials sometimes are (Pepsi's Michael Jackson, for instance, is a health-food adherent
who does not drink soft drinks), they are effective propaganda. We like the person so much that we like fat product
too.
5. Plain Folks The plain folks approach says, in effect, "Buy me or vote for me. I'm just like you."
Regular folks will surely like Bob Evans's Down on the Farm Country Sausage or good old-fashioned Countrytime
Lemonade. Some ads emphasize the idea that "we're all in the same boat" We see people making long-distance
calls for just the reasons we do—to put the baby on the phone to Grandma or to tell Mom we love her. And how
do these folksy, warmhearted (usually saccharine) scenes affect us? They're supposed to make us feel that
AT&T—the multinational corporate giant—has the same values we do. Similarly, we are introduced to the
little people at Ford, the ordinary folks who work on the assembly line, not to bigwigs in their executive
offices. What's the purpose of such an approach? To encourage us to buy a car built by these honest,
hardworking "everyday Joes" who care about quality as much as we do.
Political advertisements make almost as much use of the "plain folks" appeal as they do of transfer devices.
Candidates wear hard hats, farmers' caps, and assembly-line coveralls. They jog around the block and carry their
own luggage through the airport. The idea is to convince voters that the candidates are average people, not the elite
—not wealthy lawyers or executives but the common citizen.
6. Bandwagon In the bandwagon technique, advertisers pressure, "Everyone's doing it. Why don't
you?" This kind of propaganda often succeeds because many people have a deep desire not to be different.
Political ads tell us to vote for the "winning candidate." The advertisers know we tend to feel comfortable doing
what others do; we want to be on the winning team. Or ads show a series of people proclaiming, "I'm voting for the
Senator. I don't know why anyone wouldn't." Again, the audience feels under pressure to conform.
In the marketplace, the bandwagon approach lures buyers. Ads tell us that "nobody doesn't like Sara Lee" (the
message is that you must be weird if you don't). They tell us that "most people prefer Brand X two to one over
other leading brands" (to be like the majority, we should buy Brand X). If we don't drink Pepsi, we're left out of
"the Pepsi generation." To take part in "America's favorite health kick," the National Dairy Council urges us to
drink milk. And Honda motorcycle ads, praising the virtues of being a follower, tell us, "Follow the leader. He's on
a Honda."
Why do these propaganda techniques work? Why do so many of us buy the products, viewpoints, and
candidates urged on us by propaganda messages? They work because they appeal to our emotions, not to
our minds. Often, in fact, they capitalize on our prejudices and biases. For example, if we are convinced that
environmentalists are radicals who want to destroy America's record of industrial growth and progress,
then we will applaud the candidate who refers to them as "treehuggers." Clear thinking requires hard work:
analyzing a claim, researching the facts, examining both sides of an issue, using logic to see the flaws in an
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argument. Many of us would rather let the propagandists do our thinking for us.
Because propaganda is so effective, it is important to detect it and understand how it is used. We may
conclude, after close examination, that some propaganda sends a truthful, worthwhile message. Some
advertising, for instance, urges us not to drive drunk, to become volunteers, to contribute to charity. Even so,
we must be aware that propaganda is being used. Otherwise, we will have consented to handing over to
others our independence of thought and action.
XXXI.
2. TV Addiction
The word "addiction" is often used loosely and wryly in conversation. People will refer to themselves as
"mystery book addicts" or "cookie addicts." E. B. White writes of his annual surge of interest in gardening: "We
are hooked and are making an attempt to kick the habit." Yet nobody really believes that reading mysteries or
ordering seeds by catalogue is serious enough to be compared with addictions to heroin or alcohol. The word
"addiction" is here used jokingly to denote a tendency to overindulge in some pleasurable activity.
People often refer to being "hooked on TV." Does this, too, fail into the lighthearted category of cookie
eating and other pleasures that people pursue with unusual intensity, or is there a kind of television viewing that
falls into the more serious category of destructive addiction?
When we think about addiction to drugs or alcohol, we frequently focus on negative aspects, ignoring the
pleasures that accompany drinking or drug-taking. And yet the essence of any serious addiction is a pursuit of
pleasure, a search for a "high" that normal life does not supply. It is only the inability to function without the
addictive substance that is dismaying, the dependence of the organism upon a certain experience and an increasing
inability to function normally without it. Thus a person we 'II take two or three drinks at the end of the day not
merely for the pleasure drinking provides, but also because he "doesn't feel normal" without them.
An addict does not merely pursue a pleasurable experience and need to experience it in order to function
normally. He needs to repeat it again and again. Something about that particular experience makes life without it
less than complete. Other potentially pleasurable experiences are no longer possible, for under the spell of the
addictive experience, his life is peculiarly distorted. The addict craves an experience and yet he is never really
satisfied. The organism may be temporarily sated, but soon it begins to crave again.
Finally a serious addiction is distinguished from a harmless pursuit of pleasure by its distinctly destructive
elements. A "heroin addict, for instance, leads a damaged life: his increasing need for heroin in increasing doses
prevents him from working, from maintaining relationships, from developing in human ways. Similarly an
alcoholic's life is narrowed and dehumanized by his dependence on alcohol.
Let us consider television viewing in the light of the conditions that define serious addictions.
Not unlike drugs or alcohol, the television experience allows the participant to blot out the real world and
enter into a pleasurable and passive mental state. The worries and anxieties of reality are as effectively deferred by
becoming absorbed in a television program as by going on a "trip" induced by drugs or alcohol. And just as
alcoholics are only inchoately aware of their addiction., feeling that they control their drinking more than they
really do ("I can cut it out any time I want—I just like to have three or four drinks before dinner"), people similarly
overestimate their control over television watching. Even as they put off other activities to spend hour after hour
watching television, they feel they could easily resume living in a different, less passive style. But somehow or
other while the television set is present in their homes, the click doesn't sound. With television pleasures available,
those other experiences seem less attractive, more difficult somehow.
A heavy viewer (a college English instructor) observes: "I find television almost irresistible. When the set is
on, I cannot ignore it. I can't turn it off. I feel sapped, willless, enervated. As I reach out to turn off the set, the
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strength goes out of my arms. So I sit there for hours and hours."
The self-confessed television addict often feels he "ought" to do other things—but the fact that he doesn't read
and doesn't plant his garden or sew or crochet or play games or have conversations means that those activities are
no longer as desirable as television viewing. In a way a heavy viewer's life is as imbalanced by his television
"habit" as a drug addict's or an alcoholic's. He is living in a holding pattern, as it were, passing up the activities that
lead to growth or development or a sense of accomplishment. This is one reason people talk about their television
viewing so ruefully, so apologetically. They are aware that it is an unproductive experience, that almost any other
endeavor is more worthwhile by any human measure.
Finally it is the adverse effect of television viewing on the lives of so many people that defines it as a serious
addiction. The television habit distorts the sense of time. It renders other experiences vague and curiously unreal
while taking on a greater reality for itself. It weakens relationships by reducing and sometimes eliminating normal
opportunities for talking, for communicating.
And yet television does not satisfy, else why would the viewer continue to watch hour after hour, day after
day? "The measure of health," writes Lawrence Kubie, "is flexibility and especially the freedom to cease when
sated." But the television viewer can never be sated with his television experiences—they do not provide the
true nourishment that satiation requires—and thus he finds that he cannot stop watching.
3. Student Essays
(1) Censorship
The extent to which the broadcast media should be censored for offensive language and behavior involves a
conflict between our right as individuals to freely express ourselves and the duty of government to protect its
citizenry from potential harm. In my view, our societal interest in preventing the harm that exposure to obscenity
produces takes precedence over the rights of individuals to broadcast this type of content.
First of all, I believe that exposure to obscene and offensive language and behavior does indeed cause similar
behavior on the part of those who are exposed to it. Although we may not have conclusive scientific evidence of a
cause-effect relationship, ample anecdotal evidence establishes a significant correlation. Moreover, both common
sense and our experiences with children inform us that people tend to mimic the language and behavior they are
exposed to.
Secondly, I believe that obscene and offensive behavior is indeed harmful to a society. The harm it produces is, in
my view, both palpable and profound. For the individual, it has a debasing impact on vital human relationships; for
the society, it promotes a tendency toward immoral and antisocial behavior. Both outcomes, in turn, tear apart the
social fabric that holds a society together.
Those who advocate unbridled individual expression might point out that the right of free speech is intrinsic to a
democracy and necessary to its survival. Even so, this right is not absolute, nor is it the most critical element. In
my assessment, the interests server by restricting obscenity in broadcast media are, on balance, more crucial to the
survival of a society. Advocates of free expression might also point out difficulties in defining "obscene" or
"offensive" language or behavior. But in my view, however difficult it may be to agree on standards, the effort is
worthwhile.
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In sum, it is in our best interest as a society for the government to censor broadcast media for obscene and
offensive language and behavior Exposure to such media content tends to harm society and its citizenry in ways
that are worth preventing, even in light of the resulting infringement of our right of free expression.
(2) Children's Access to Adult Materials
Is it worthwhile to make an international effort to regulate children's access to adult material on the Internet? In my
view, nations should attempt to regulate such access by cooperative regulatory effort. I base this view on the
universality and importance of the interest in protecting children from harm, and on the inherently pandemic nature
of the problem.
Adults everywhere have a serious interest in limiting access by children to pornographic material. Pornographic
material tends to confuse children—distorting their notion of sex, of themselves as sexual beings, and of how
people ought to treat one another. Particularly in the case of domination and child pornography, the messages
children receive from pornographic material cannot contribute in a healthy way to their emerging sexuality. Given
this important interest that knows no cultural bounds, we should regulate children's access to sexually explicit
material on the Internet.
However, information on the Internet is not easily contained within national borders. Limiting access to such
information is akin to preventing certain kinds of global environmental destruction. Consider the problem of ozone
depletion thought to be a result of chloroflourocarbon (CFC) emissions. When the government regulated CFC
production in the U.S., corporations responsible for releasing CFC's into the atmosphere simply moved abroad,
and the global threat continued. Similarly, the Internet is a global phenomenon: regulations in one country will not
stop "contamination" overall. Thus, successful regulation of Internet pornography requires international
cooperation, just as successful CFC regulation finally required the joint efforts of many nations.
Admittedly, any global regulatory effort faces formidable political hurdles, since cooperation and compliance on
the part of all nations—even warring ones—is inherently required. Nevertheless, as in the case of nuclear
disarmament or global warming, the possible consequences of failing to cooperate demand that the effort be made.
And dissenters can always be coerced into compliance politically or economically by an alliance of influential
nations.
In sum, people everywhere have a serious interest in the healthy sexual development of children and, therefore, in
limiting children's access to Internet pornography. Because Internet material is not easily confined within national
borders, we can successfully regulate children's access to adult materials on the Internet only by way of
international cooperation.
XXXII. (3) Emotion and Reason
There are two traditional advertising tactics for promoting a product, event, candidate, or point of view. One is to
provide reasons: the other is to bypass reasons altogether and appeal strictly to emotion. Considered in isolation,
emotional appeals are far more effective. But many of the most influential ads combine slim reasons with powerful
appeals to emotion.
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To appreciate the power of emotional appeals we need only consider the promotion of sodas, beer, cigarettes,
cosmetics and so on. This advertising is the most successful in the industry: and it trades almost exclusively on the
manipulation of our desires, fears and senses of humor. In fact, it wouldn't make sense to offer up arguments,
because there really aren't any good reasons for consuming such products.
Even so, some of these products are advertised with at least superficial reasoning. For instance, in the promotion of
facial moisturizers it has become popular to use the image of a youthful woman with fresh, unlined skin along with
the claim that the product "can reduce the signs of aging." This is indeed a reason, but a carefully couched one that
never really states that product users will look younger. Still, countless middle-aged women will pay twice as
much for products that add this claim to the expected image of youthfulness that trades on their fears of growing
old.
One of the most clever and ironic combined uses of reason and emotion is seen in the old Volvo slogan, "Volvo,
the car for people who think." The suggested reason for buying the car is obvious: it is the intelligent choice. But
the emotional snare is equally clear; the ad appeals to one's desire to be included in the group of intelligent,
thoughtful people.
In conclusion, I agree that appeals to emotion are more powerful tools than arguments or reasoning for promoting
products. It is no coincidence that advertising agencies hire professional psychologists, but not logicians. Still, in
my view the most influential advertisements mix in a bit of reasoning as well.
Section Five: Society
1. The Function of Art
Art has an effect on the individual and on a particular culture in a society. Psychologically, art
enhances life by adding beauty to our surroundings. It is a source of pleasure and relaxation from the
stresses of life. Socially, art plays a number of different roles by virtue of its capacity to embody symbolic
significance to its audience.
Art and Social Organization
Art fulfils a number of important social functions. It is used to communicate the various statuses people
hold. It can play a role in regulating economic activities. And it is almost always a means for expressing
important political and religious ideas and for teaching principles that are valued in society. These and other
social uses of art function to preserve the established social organization of each society.
Status Indicators
One of the social functions of art is the communication of status differences between individuals. For
instance, gender differences in body decorations and dress are typical of cultures throughout the world. Age
differences may be similarly indicated. Puberty rituals often include tattooing, scarification of the body in
decorative designs, or even filing of the teeth to between children and adults. Social class differences in
complex societies also involve aesthetic markers such as the clothing people wear and the kinds of artworks
they use as decorations of their homes. According to Sahlins, social and economic class, age, and gender
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differences are noticeable even in the kinds of fabrics people's clothing is made from. For instance, silks in
most societies are predominantly worn by women, especially those who are part of the upper classes and
those who are middle-aged.
Economic Functions
Economic life, by virtue of its practical importance to our survival and to our standard of living, can
sometimes be a source of conflict between groups that must carry out exchange with one another. Sometimes
art, perhaps because it is valued for its nonutilitarian qualities, can play a role of maintaining harmony in
such settings. This was one of the functions of the Kula Ring exchange of ceremonial necklaces and
armbands among islanders such as the Trobrianders and Dobuans.
Religious Functions
Much of the dramatic and emotional impact of religion derives from its use of art. Religious rituals
everywhere include song and dance performances, and the visual arts function to heighten the emotional
component of religious experience in all parts of the world, by portraying important scenes and symbols
from religious history and mythology. In some cultures, art and religious ritual are inseparable. For instance,
among the Abelam of Papua New Guinea, all art is produced for use in rituals.
Didactic Functions
Art is often employed as a means for teaching important cultural ideas and values. For instance, hymns
in Western religions express theological concepts and encourage the support of specific religious values.
Daniel Biebuyck has analyzed the use of art to embody moral and ethical principles by the Lega people of Central
Africa. Lega ethical ideals are codified in figurines of humans and animals made of ivory, pottery, bone, wood, and
wickerwork. The figurines are used in the initiation and training of men into prominent positions within Lega
society. Each of these statues is associated with one or more aphorisms, a concise statement that alludes to a
general ethical concept. For instance, one figure is a carved stick whose top is slit so as to suggest an open
mouth...The object illustrates the saying, "He who does not put off his quarrelsomeness will quarrel with
something that has the mouth widely distended." (In other rites this idea may be rendered by a crocodile figurine
with widely distended jaws.) The aphorism alludes to the disastrous effects of quarrelsomeness and
meddlesomeness.
Thus, Lega figurines were not only works of art, they were also devices for teaching important moral
principles to each new generation. At the same time, their ownership by older men who had achieved initiation into
the highest levels of society functioned to perpetuate respect for the moral wisdom of the leaders in the established
social hierarchy.
Political Functions
Art often functions to legitimize the authority of government. Mount Rushmore, in South Dakota,
memorializes four American presidents who were selected for their symbolic association with messages about
values of individualism and democracy. The statue Mother Russia commemorates the enduring will to survive of
the Russian people. The British Crown Jewels, by virtue of their artistry and the symbolism of precious stones that
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originated throughout the Commonwealth, celebrate the value of the institution of the monarchy. And the ornately
carved Golden Stool of the Ashante of southern Ghana, with the distinctive myth of its supernatural origins,
reinforces the legitimacy of the Ashante king and the unity and stability of Ashante society.
As a statement about the legitimacy of governmental authority, art is a conservative force in society. In
this role, it is intended to elicit loyalty and to stabilize society and its political system. Governments also
sometimes deliberately employ this aspect of art as propaganda urging public action that supports official
policy. Thus, propagandistic art embodies both didactic and political functions.
XXXIII. 2. Intercultural Prejudices
When cultures meet, people may have little understanding or appreciation of groups whose ideologies and
adaptive strategies differ from their own. People grow up under the nurturance of their group and learn to fulfill
their needs by living according to their group's culture. As people learn their way of life, they generally identify
themselves as members of the group that has cared for their early needs and has taught them the rules for living.
Simultaneously, they generally develop positive feelings toward this reference group and its behaviors. Often, the
training of children in the ways of the group is communicated expressly by contrasting them with the supposed
behaviors of outsiders: "Other parents may let their children come to the table like that, but in our family we wash
our hands before eating!" Such expressions teach children the patterns of behavior expected of group members, but
they also communicate a disapproval of outsiders.
In complex societies with large populations and many competing groups, prejudices between groups within
the society may become a common element of daily experience, varying from good-natured rivalry to direct
antipathies. In the United States, we may think of our own state as "God's own country," our politics as the only
rational way of doing things, or our religion as the only road to salvation. Even such group symbols as hair length
and style of clothing have served as grounds for suspension from school, unified those in public demonstrations,
and caused interpersonal violence.
The attitude that one's own culture is the naturally superior one, the standard by which all other
cultures should be judged, and that cultures different from one's own are inferior is such a common way of
reacting to others' customs that it is given a special name by anthropologists. Ethnocentrism, centered in
one's ethnos, the Greek word for a people or a nation, is found in every culture. People allow their
judgments about human nature and about the relative merits of different ways of life to be guided by ideas
and values that are centered narrowly on the way of life of their own society.
Ethnocentrism serves a society by creating greater feelings of group unity. When individuals speak
ethnocentrically, they affirm their loyalty to the ideals of their society and elicit in other persons of the
group shared feelings of superiority about their social body. This enhances their sense of identity as
members of the same society and as bearers of a common culture. A shared sense of group superiority 梕
specially during its overt communication between group members-can help them overlook internal
differences and prevent conflicts that could otherwise decrease the ability of the group to undertake
effectively coordinated action.
For most of human history, societies have been smaller than the nations of today, and most people have
interacted only with members of their own society. Under such circumstances, the role of ethnocentrism in
helping a society to survive by motivating its members to support one another in their common goals has
probably outweighed its negative aspects. However, ethnocentrism definitely has a darker side. It is a direct
barrier to understanding among peoples of diverse customs and values. It enhances enmity between societies
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and can be a motivation for conflict among peoples whose lives are guided by different cultures.
Ethnocentrism stands in fundamental conflict with the goals of anthropology: the recognition of the common
humanity of all human beings and the understanding of the causes of cultural differences. To many students, much
of the appeal of the field of anthropology has been its intriguing discussions of the unending variety of customs
grown out of what, from the viewpoint of the uninitiated, may seem like strange and exotic, unexpected, and even
startlingly different values. A people's values generally make perfectly good sense when seen and explained in the
context of their cultural system as a whole. Yet, it is often difficult to make sense out of another cultural tradition
because its symbolic meanings may be so different from one's own. While negative reactions to the customs of
another society may, therefore, be expected, they should be guarded against by the student of anthropology.
XXXIV. 3. Culture Shock
Anthropologists who engage in fieldwork in a culture that differs from the one in which they grew up often
experience a period of disorientation or even depression known as culture shock before they become acclimatized
to their new environment. Even tourists who travel for only a short time outside their own nations may experience
culture shock, and unless they are prepared for its impact, they may simply transform their own distress into a
motive for prejudice against their host society.
XXXV. 4. Groups
Every human society is a group, whose members perceive their common identity because of the culture that
binds them together. All human societies that have been studied subdivide into smaller groups that coalesce from
time to time for specialized activities. Such groups have geographical boundaries, specifiable members, a common
activity engaged in by members, and a division of labor. Basketball fans, for example, when scattered across the
country are not a group, but spectators at a specific game are. When a group is formally organized, it may have an
explicitly formulated ideology, a goal-oriented, game plan or set of procedures for carrying out the activity that
brings its members together.
The members of social groups generally identify themselves symbolically with a name or some other
emblem of their group identity. Commonly, the identifying emblem indicates the activity that draws the
members together or represents some other important aspect of the group's characteristics. Thus, the group
identity of the United States of America is symbolized by a flag that portrays the political unity of that
society's 50 states by a group of 50 stars. The Great Seal of the United States of America contains the image
of an eagle clutching an olive branch and arrows, symbols of peace and war, which suggest that the major
purpose of the nation as a political entity is to maintain internal order and to defend the group. A smaller,
more face-to-face group, such as a basketball team, may identify itself as a unified body by naming itself and
by symbolizing its athletic purpose with some symbol of its prowess, such as a charging bull or a flying
hawk.
There will also be structured relationships between groups in every society. Interactions by groups are
culturally patterned, and may involve hierarchical ranking, with each group having different degrees of honor and
social power. Group relationships are sometimes called the social structure of a society, to distinguish this aspect of
social organization from other aspects such as individual statuses and roles.
5. Authority
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It will not come as a surprise that a society that admires independence and progress does not have an
automatic respect for authority. What deference people in authority do command is based on their actual
powers rather than on their age, wisdom, or dignity. Old people are often seen as behind the times. It's the
young who are expected to have some special insight into the modem world.
After ail, it was by overthrowing the King of England that the United States was born, and suspicion of
authority has remained a pillar of American life. This attitude has helped establish the USA as the
birthplace of innovations that have changed the world. If a better way of doing something comes along, we
unsentimentally jettison the old way. But we also jettison people. In a society that changes as fast as ours,
experience simply does not have the value that it does in traditional societies.
XXXVI.
6. The No-Status Society
In a status society, people learn their places and gain some dignity and security from having a place in
the social order. Americans, however, are taught not to recognize their places and to constantly assert
themselves. This can manifest itself in positive ways—hard work, clever ideas—but also in ongoing
dissatisfaction.
As an American is always striving to change his lot, be never fully identifies with any group. We have
no expressions such as in China where "the fat pig gets slaughtered," or in Japan, where "the nail that
sticks out gets hammered down." Here, everybody is trying to stick out, which limits closeness between
people. We say, "It's the squeaky wheel that gets the grease." According to Alan Roland, author of In Search
of Self in India and Japan, in the United States "a militant individualism has been combined with enormous
social mobility," leaving very little group identity.
Roland psychoanalyzed Americans, Indians, and Japanese and discovered that the two Asian cultures
had no concept of the strong inner separation from others that is characteristic of Americans. Because our
society is so competitive, we feel in the end that we can only rely on ourselves.
This freedom from the group has enabled the American to become "Economic Man"—one directed almost
purely by the profit motive, mobile and unencumbered by family or community obligations. It's a personality type
well suited to national development, but one that leads to identity problems for the individual himself.
"Identity is the number one national problem here," writes Eva Hoffman, the Polish-born author of Lost in
Translation. "Many of my American friends feel they don't have enough of it. They often feel worthless or they
don't know how they feel."
But to someone who feels oppressed in another culture, American life can look wonderful. "Americans have a
blank check, on which they can write anything they want," concluded one foreigner after ten years here.
XXXVII. 7. Conformity
To an American, what the world thinks of him is extremely important. Only through the eyes of others
can success have significance. The theory of culture analyst David Riesman is that Americans are no longer
primarily governed by inner values handed down through generations. Instead, he thinks Americans have
become outer-directed people—guided not by their own consciences but by the opinions of others. To be
liked is crucial.
Although individualism is central in America-in the sense that the self comes first—Americans are not
individualists. Actually, persons in status societies who are secure in their niches are allowed more
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eccentricity than Americans, who rely heavily on signals that other people like them. In America, popularity
is a sign of success and terribly important Nobody can have too many friends—as long as they don't take up
too much of their valuable time.
XXXVIII. 8. Debating Moral Questions
Nowhere is modern thinking more muddled than over the question of whether it is proper to debate
moral issues. Many argue it is not, saying it is wrong to make "value judgments." This view is shallow. If
such judgments were wrong, then ethics, philosophy, and theology would be unacceptable in a college
curriculum—an idea that is obviously silly. As the following cases illustrate, it is impossible to avoid making
value judgments.
Raoul Wallenberg was a young Swedish aristocrat. In 1944 he left the safety of his country and entered
Budapest. Over the next year he outwitted the Nazis and saved as many as 100,000 Jews (he was not himself
Jewish) from the death camps. In 1945 he was arrested by the Russians, charged with spying, and imprisoned in a
Russian labor camp. He may still be alive there. Now, if we regard him as a hero—as there is excellent reason to
do—we are making a value judgment. Yet if we regard him neutrally, as no different from anyone else, we are also
making a value judgment. We are judging him to be neither hero nor villain, but average.
Consider another case. In late 1981 a 20-year-old mother left her three infant sons unattended in a
garbage-strewn tenement in New York City. 2 Police found them there, starving, the youngest child lodged
between a mattress and a wall, covered with flies and cockroaches, the eldest playing on the second-floor window
ledge. The police judged the mother negligent, and the court agreed. Was it wrong for them to judge? And if we
refuse to judge, won't that refusal itself be a judgment in the mother's favor?
No matter how difficult it may be to judge such moral issues, we must judge them. Value judgment is
the basis not only of our social code, but of our legal system. The quality of our laws is directly affected by
the quality of our moral judgments. A society that judges blacks inferior is not likely to accord blacks equal
treatment. A society that believes a woman's place is in the home is not likely to guarantee women equal
employment opportunity.
Other people accept value judgments as long as they are made within a culture, and not about other
cultures. Right and wrong, they believe, vary from one culture to another. It is true that an act frowned
upon in one culture may be tolerated in another, but the degree of difference has often been grossly
exaggerated. When we first encounter an unfamiliar moral view, we are inclined to focus on the difference
so much that we miss the similarity.
For example, in medieval Europe animals were tried for crimes and often formally executed. In fact,
cockroaches and other bugs were sometimes excommunicated from the church.' Sounds absurd, doesn't it? But
when we penetrate beneath the absurdity, we realize that the basic view—that some actions are reprehensible and
ought to be punished—is not so strange. The core idea that a person bitten by, say, a dog, has been wronged and
requires justice is very much the same. The only difference is our rejection of the idea that animals are responsible
for their behavior.
Is it legitimate, then, for us to pass judgment on the moral standards of another culture? Yes, if we do
so thoughtfully, and not just conclude that whatever differs from our view is necessarily wrong. We can
judge, for example, a culture that treats women as property, or places less value on their lives than on the
lives of men. Moreover, we can say a society is acting immorally by denying women their human rights.
Consider the following cases.
In nineteenth-century Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, a theatrical producer shot and killed his wife
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because she insisted on taking a walk in the botanical gardens against his wishes. He was formally
charged with her murder, but the judge dismissed the charge. The producer was carried through
the streets in triumph. The moral perspective of his culture condoned the taking of a woman's
life if she disobeyed her husband, even in a relatively small matter. A century later that
perspective had changed little in the same city, in 1976, a wealthy playboy, angry at his lover for flirting
with others, fired four shots into her face at point-blank range, killing her. He was given a two year suspended
sentence in light of the fact that he had been "defending his honor. "
Surely it is irresponsible for us to withhold judgment on the morality of these cases merely because they
occurred in a different culture. It is obvious that in both cases the men's response, murder, was out of all
proportion to the women's "offenses," and therefore demonstrated a wanton disregard for the women's
human rights. Their response is thus properly judged immoral. And this judgment implies another—that
the culture condoning such behavior is guilty of moral insensitivity.
XXXIX. 9. Art as Nonverbal Communication
Like language and social organization, art is essential to man. As embellishment and as creation of objects
beyond requirements of the most basic needs of living, art has accompanied man since prehistoric times. Because
of its almost unfailing consistency as an element of many societies, art may be a response to some biological or
psychological need. Indeed, it is one of the most constant forms of human behavior.
However, use of the word art is not relevant when we describe African art, because it is really a European
term that at first grew out of Greek philosophy and was later reinforced by European culture. The use of other
terms, such as exotic art, primitive art, and so on, to delineate differences is just as misleading. Most such terms
are pejorative—implying that African art is on a lower cultural level. Levels of culture are irrelevant here, since
African and European attitudes toward the creative act are so different. Since there is no term in our language to
distinguish between the essential differences in thinking, it is best then to describe standards of African art.
African art attracts because of its powerful emotional content and its beautiful abstract form.
Abstract treatment of form describes most often with bare essentials of line, shape, texture, and pattern intense
energy and sublime spirituality. Hundreds of distinct cultures and languages and many types of people have
created over one thousand different styles that defy classification. Each art and craft form has its own history and
its own aesthetic content. But there are some common denominators (always with exceptions).
African art is functional. Its function is its purpose, whether it is economic, magical, or religious. There
is, though, some art for its own sake such as in the embellishment of pulleys used in weaving. The carving on
the pulley may not make for a stronger pulley (a metal hook would be cheaper and stronger), but when
asked why another kind wasn't used, the weaver answered, "One does not want to live without pretty
things."
African art is a way of experiencing the world. All its forms, whether masks, sculpture, houses, fabrics,
pottery, poetry, music, or dance, render the invisible visible and reveal the meaning of the confrontation
between life and death (It was Paul Klee, influenced by African art, who said that the task of art was to
make the invisible visible.)
The African artist works from the force to the form that embodies it Until the twentieth century,
European artists, inspired by Greek traditions, started from a concrete form, usually that of the human
figure, to express the divine. The African artist, however, begins with a sense of a spiritual presence inside
him, which he then expresses through art, in a concrete form.
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The African artist is not considered an artist He may be a farmer who carves or a smith who is
endowed with magical powers. The responsibility for understanding the operation of forces issuing from the
divine power, and of controlling them in a meaningful way, lies in the medicine man or priest. It is the priest
who communicates the need for a certain form to the carver if it is to have some spiritual endowment. (That
is why carvers don't see anything wrong in copying another carver's work. Copying is just another form of
flattery.)
The African conception of art is a communal conception as compared with European individualistic
expression. To the African, community existed prior to the individual, and the individual is just a small part
of a long tradition. The sense of unity extends to nature and to the earth—earth belongs to ancestors.
Secret societies, supporting the medicine man, maintain standards of behavior by special initiation tests,
rituals for many occasions, oaths of secrecy, and the like. They supervise morality, uphold tribal traditions,
and dispense justice. They set standards for art forms from birth through puberty, marriage, and death.
Masks, sculptures in the form of ancestor figures, fetishes, and ritual implements (rattles and drums)
conform to these traditions. Fetishes are objects endowed with magical powers for a special purpose and are
usually crudely fashioned by the medicine man.
African art gives form to the supernatural and invisible. Its abstract imagery does not even attempt to
imitate concrete appearances. How does one represent the power and virtue of an ancestor or the rhythm of
an animal concretely? From this emerges a rhythmic unity and a reduction of every formal element to its
eternal geometry.
African art is one that is in equilibrium with nature and forms a communion with nature. To the
African, sculpture can be a receptacle of the ancestor's spirituality and has the ability to transmit that
spirituality when necessary. Its message or meaning becomes its presence.
African art is closer to life than the art of other countries. Its art forms are within every man's reach. They
are a necessity, an integral force, and part of living. As functional forms, they invite direct participation in
their uses. This is the vitality of African art.
In summary, African art explains the past, describes values and a way of life, helps man relate to
supernatural forces, mediates his social relations, expresses emotions, and enhances man's present life as an
embellishment denoting pride or status as well as providing entertainment (such as with dance and music).
XL.10. Turtle Island
I am a poet. My teachers are other poets, American Indians, and a few Buddhist priests in Japan. The reason I
am here is because I wish to bring a voice from the wilderness, my constituency.
I wish to be a spokesman for a
realm that is not usually represented either in intellectual chambers or in the chambers of government.
I would like to think of a new definition of humanism and a new definition of democracy that would include
the nonhuman, that would have representation from those spheres. This is what I think we mean by an ecological
conscience.
I don't like Western culture because I think it has much in it that is inherently wrong and that is at the root of
the environmental crisis that is not recent; it is very ancient; it has been building up for a millennium. There are
many things in Western culture that are admirable. But a culture that alienates itself from the very ground of its
own being—from the wilderness outside (that is to say, wild nature, the wild, self-contained, self-informing,
ecosystems) and from that other wilderness, the wilderness within—is doomed to a very destructive behavior,
ultimately perhaps self-destructive behavior.
The West is not the only culture that carries these destructive seeds. China had effectively deforested itself by
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A.D. 800. The soils of the Middle East were ruined even earlier. The forests that once covered the mountains of
Yugoslavia were stripped to build the Roman fleet, and those mountains have looked like Utah ever since. The
soils of southern Italy and Sicily were ruined by slave-labor farming in the Roman Empire. The soils of the
Atlantic seaboard in the United States were effectively ruined before the American Revolution because of the
one-crop (tobacco) fanning. So the same forces have been at work in East and West.
A line is drawn between primitive peoples and civilized peoples. I think there is a wisdom in the world
view of primitive peoples that we have to refer ourselves to, and learn from. If we are on the verge of
postcivilization, then our next step must take account of the primitive world view which has traditionally
and intelligently tried to keep open lines of communication with the forces of nature. You cannot
communicate with the forces of nature in a laboratory. One of the problems is that we simply do not know
much about primitive people and primitive cultures. If we can tentatively accommodate the possibility that
nature has a degree of authenticity and intelligence that requires that we look at it more sensitively, then we
can move on to the next step.
XLI. 11. Student Essays
(1) Making Money and Serving Society
We take for granted that a primary objective and obligation of a corporation is to maximize profits. But does this
mean a corporation cannot also fulfill its obligations to society? The speaker claims that the two duties necessarily
conflict. In my view, however, a corporation's duties to maximize shareholder wealth and to serve society will at
times coincide and at times conflict; and when they do conflict, neither takes automatic precedence over the other.
Beyond the obvious duty to maximize shareholder wealth, corporations indeed owe a duty to serve society,
especially the immediate community, which permits corporation to operate in exchange for an implied promise
that the corporations will do no harm and will bring some benefit to the community These duties can often be
fulfilled together. For example, a successful corporation brings jobs and related economic benefit to the community.
And, by contributing to community activities and charities in other ways, the corporation gains a reputation for
social responsibility that often helps it become even more successful.
However, at times these duties do conflict. Consider, for instance, a company that unknowingly leaks into the
ground a toxic substance that threatens to contaminate local groundwater. While the company may favor an
inexpensive containment program, community leaders may want the company to go further by cleaning up and
restoring their environment—even if the expense will force the company to leave and take jobs from the
community. Whatever the company decides, it should not assume that protecting profits automatically outweighs
social obligation. In many instances it does not, as highly-visible tobacco, automobile safety, and asbestos liability
cases aptly illustrate. Such examples reveal a limit as to how far a corporation can ethically go in trading off the
well-being of the community for the sake of its own profits.
In sum, corporations have duties both to do well and to do good. Although conflict between these duties is not
inevitable, it does occur. Determining which duty takes precedence in time of conflict requires careful
consideration of all the ethical ramifications of each alternative.
(2) Business' Impact on Society
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Historical examples of both influential public officials and influential business leaders abound. However, the
power of the modem-era business leader is quite different from that of the government official. On balance, the
CEO seems to be better positioned to influence the course of community and of nations.
Admittedly the opportunities for the legislator to regulate commerce or of the jurist to dictate rules of equity are
official and immediate. No private individual can hold that brand of influence. Yet official power is tempered by
our check-and-balance system of government and, in the case of legislators, by the voting power of the electorate.
Our business leaders are not so constrained, so their opportunities far exceed those of any public official. Moreover,
powerful business leaders all too often seem to hold de facto legislative and judicial power by way of their direct
influence over public officials, as the Clinton Administration's fund-raising scandal of 1997 illuminated all too
well.
The industrial and technological eras have bred such moguls of capitalism as Pullman, Rockefeller, Carnegie, and
Gates, who by the nature of their industries and their business savvy, not by force of law, have transformed our
economy, the nature of work, and our very day-to-day existence. Of course, many modem-day public servants
have made the most of their opportunities, for example, the crime-busting mayor Rudolph Giuliani and the
new-dealing President Franklin Roosevelt. Yet their impact seems to pale next to those of our modern captains of
industry.
In sum, modem business leaders by virtue of the far-reaching impact of their industries and of their freedom from
external constraints, have supplanted lawmakers as the great opportunists of the world and prime movers of
society.
XLII. (3) Courtesy
Some people claim that simple courtesy and good manners are disappearing from modem life, and that the quality
of our lives is therefore deteriorating. While I do encounter frequent instances of discourtesy and bad manners, I
also encounter many instances of the opposite behavior. For this reason, and because negative experiences tend to
be more memorable and newsworthy, I find the speaker's claim to be dubious.
Most people encounter multiple instances of ordinary courtesy and good manners every day—simple acts such as
smokers asking whether anyone minds if they light up, people letting others with fewer items ahead in
grocery-store lines, and freeway drivers switching lanes to accommodate faster drivers or those entering via onramps.
Admittedly, most people also encounter discourtesy or poor manners on a daily basis—people using obscene
language in public places where young children are present, and business associates intentionally ignoring phone
calls, to name a few. However, such acts do not prove that good manners and courtesy are disappearing; they
simply show that both courtesy and discourtesy abound in everyday life. Thus, the claim that courtesy and good
manners are disappearing grossly distorts reality.
Another reason that the claim is suspect is that we tend to remember negative encounters with people more
so than positive ones, probably because bad experiences tend to be more traumatic and sensational; if not
more interesting to talk about. The news stories that the media chooses to focus on certainly support this
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rationale. However, the fact that we remember, hear about, and read about discourtesy more than about
courtesy shows neither that discourtesy is increasing nor that courtesy is decreasing. It simply shows that
negative experiences leave stronger impressions and tend to be more sensational. In fact, I suspect that if
one were to tally up one's daily encounters with both types of behavior, one would conclude that good
manners and courtesy are far more prevalent than the opposite behavior.
In conclusion, the speaker's claim that common courtesy and good manners are disappearing is not born out by
everyday experience. I suspect the speaker has failed to consider that negative experiences leave stronger
impressions on our memory and are more interesting to relate to others than positive ones.
XLIII. (4) Business and the Public
I agree that business has some obligation to the community and society in which it operates. But should this
obligation take precedence over the profit objective? My answer is no.
The primary reason why I agree business should have a duty to the public is that society would be worse off by
exonerating business from social responsibility. Left entirely to their own self-interest, businesses pollute the
environment, withhold important product information from consumers, pay employees substandard wages, and
misrepresent their financial condition to current and potential shareholders. Admittedly, in its pursuit of profit
business can benefit the society as well—by way of more and better-paying jobs, economic growth, and better yet
lower-priced products. However, this point ignores the harsh consequences—such as those listed earlier—of
imposing no affirmative social duty on business. Another reason why I agree business should have a duty to serve
the public is that business owes such a duty. A business enters into an implied contract with the community in
which it operates, under which the community agrees to permit a corporation to do business while the business
implicitly promises to benefit, and not harm, the community. This understanding gives rise to a number of social
obligations on the part of the business—to promote consumer safety, to not harm the environmental, to treat
employees and competitors fairly, and so on.
Although I agree that business should have a duty to serve the pubic, I disagree that this should be the primary
objective of business. Imposing affirmative social duties on business opens a Pandora's box of problems-for
example, how to determine, (1) what the public interest is in the first place, (2) which public interests are most
important, (3) what actions are in the public interest, and (4) how business duty to the public might be monitored
and enforced. Government regulation is the only practical way to deal with these issues, yet government is
notoriously inefficient and corrupt: the only way to limit these problems is to limit the duty of business to serve the
public interest.
In sum, I agree that the duty of business should extend beyond the simple profit
motive. However, its affirmative
obligations to society should be tempered against the pubic benefits of the profit motive and against the practical
problems associated
(5) Work and Life
Some people claim that our jobs greatly influence our personal interests, recreational activities and even
appearance. While I agree that the personal lives of some people are largely determined by their work, in my view
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it would be a mistake to draw this conclusion generally. In my observation, the extent to which occupation
influences personal life depends on (I) the nature of the work, and (2) how central the work is to one's sense of
self.
On the one hand, consider my friends Steve and William. Sieve works as a gardener, but after work he creates oil
paintings of quality and poignancy. His leisure time is spent alternately at the sea, in the wilderness, and in dark
cafes. William paints houses for a living, but on his own time he collects fine art and books in first edition, as well
as reading voraciously in the area of American history. Their outside activities and appearance speak little about
what Sieve or William do for a living, because these men view their jobs as little more than a means of subsidizing
the activities that manifest their true selves. At the same time, they have chosen jobs that need not spill over into
their personal lives, so the nature of their jobs permits them to maintain a distinctive identity apart from their work.
On the other hand, consider my friend Shana—a business executive who lives and breathes her work. After work
hours you can invariably find her at a restaurant or bar with colleagues, discussing work. Shana's wardrobe is
primarily red—right off the dress-for-success page of a woman's magazine. For Shana, her job is clearly an
expression of her self-concept. Also, by its nature it demands Shana's attention and time away from the workplace.
What has determined the influence of work on personal lives in these cases is the extent to which each person sees
himself or herself in terms of work. Clearly, work is at the center of Shana's life, but not of either Steve's or
William's. My sample is small; still, common sense and intuition tell me that the influence of work on one's
personal life depends both on the nature of the work and on the extent to which the work serves as a manifestation
of one's self-concept.
XLIV. (6) Business Ethics
Many people assert that in creating and marketing products, companies act ethically merely by not violating any
laws. Although this position is not wholly insupportable, far more compelling arguments can be made for holding
businesses to higher ethical standards than those required by the letter of the law.
On the one hand, two colorable arguments can be made for holding business only to legal standards of conduct.
First, imposing a higher ethical duty can actual harm consumers in the long term. Compliance with high ethical
standards can be costly for business, thereby lowering profits and, in turn, impeding a company's ability to create
jobs (for consumers), keep prices low (for consumers), and so forth. Second, limited accountability is consistent
with the "buyer beware" principle that permeates our laws of contracts and torts, as well as our notion in civil
procedure that plaintiffs carry the burden of proving damage, In other words, the onus should be on consumers to
protect themselves, not on companies to protect consumers.
On the other hand, several convincing arguments can be made for holding business to a higher ethical standard.
First, in many cases government regulations that protect consumers lag behind advances in technology. A new
marketing technique made possible by Internet technology may be unethical but nevertheless might not be
proscribed by the letter of the laws which predated the Internet. Second, enforceability might not extend beyond
geographic borders. Consider, for example, the case of "dumping." When products fail to comply with U.S.
regulations, American companies frequently market—or "dump"—such products in third-world countries where
consumer-protection laws are virtually nonexistent. Third, moral principles form the basis of government
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regulation arid are, therefore, more fundamental than the law.
In the final analysis, while overburdening businesses with obligations to consumers may not be a good idea in the
extreme, our regulatory system is not as effective as it should be. Therefore, businesses should adhere to a higher
standard of ethics in creating and marketing products than what is required by the letter of the law.
XLV. (7) The Value of Old Buildings
The issue of whether to raze an old, historic building to make way for progress is a complex one, since it involves
a conflict between our interest in preserving our culture, tradition, and history and a legitimate need to create
practical facilities that serve current utilitarian purposes. In my view, the final judgment should depend on a
case-by-case analysis of two key factors.
One key factor is the historic value of the building. An older building may be worth saving because it uniquely
represents some bygone era. On the other hand, if several older buildings represent the era just as effectively, then
the historic value of one building might be negligible. If the building figured centrally into the city's history as a
municipal structure, the home of a founding family or other significant historical figure, or the location of
important events, then its historic value would be greater than if its history was an unremarkable one.
The other key factor involves the specific utilitarian needs of the community and the relative costs and benefits of
each alternative in light of those needs. For example, if the need is mainly for more office space, then an
architecturally appropriate add-on or annex might serve just as well as a new building. On the other hand, an
expensive retrofit may not be worthwhile if no amount of retrofitting would permit it to serve the desired function.
Moreover, retrofitting might undermine the historic value of the old building by altering its aesthetic or
architectural integrity.
In sum, neither modernization for its own sake nor indiscriminate preservation of old buildings should guide
decisions in the controversies at issue. Instead, decisions should be made on a case-by-case basis, considering
historic value, community need, and the comparative costs and benefits of each alternative.
(8) How Building Shaped Us
We are influenced by the exterior shape of buildings, as well as by the arrangement of multiple buildings and by a
building's various architectural and aesthetic elements. While I doubt that buildings determine our character or
basic personality traits, I agree that they can greatly influence our attitudes, moods, and even life styles.
On the structural and multi-structural scales, the arrangement of numerous buildings can shape us in profound
ways. High-density commercial districts with numerous skyscrapers might result in stressful commuting, short
tempers, a feeling of dehumanization, and so on. A "campus" arrangement of smaller, scattered buildings can
promote health, well-being, and stress reduction by requiring frequent brisk outdoor jaunts. Buildings with
multiple floors can also "shape" us, literally, by requiring exercise up and down stairs.
As for floor plans and internal space, physical arrangement of workspaces can shape workers' attitudes toward
work and toward one another. Sitting in small, gray cubicles lined up in militaristic rows is demoralizing, leaving
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workers with the feeling that they are little more than impersonal cogs of some office machine. But creative design
of workspaces in varied arrangements can create feelings of uniqueness and importance in each employee.
Workspace relationships that suggest some sort of hierarchy may breed competitiveness among coworkers, and
may encourage a more bureaucratic approach to work.
Finally, as for aesthetic elements, the amount of light and location of windows in a building can shape us in
significant psychological ways. For most people, daily tasks are more enjoyable in settings with plenty of natural
light and at least some natural scenery. Choice of colors can influence our mood, concentration, and efficiency.
Numerous psychological studies show that different colors influence behavior, attitudes, and emotions in distinctly
different ways. Yellow enhances appetite, blue has a tranquilizing effect, and gray is the color of choice for
companies who want their workers to be subservient.
In sum, our buildings, the space around them and the space within them, can affect us in important ways that
influence our outlook on life, relationships with coworkers, and even physical health and well-being.
Section Six: Politics
1. Proverbs
· The ultimate responsibility of a leader is to facilitate other people's development as well as his own.
· The leader's task, then, is to create an environment that is conducive to self-motivation.
· If people are coming to work excited... if they're making mistakes freely and fearlessly... if they're having fun ...
if they're concentrating on doing things, rather than preparing reports and going to meetings-then somewhere you
have a leader.
· As a manager, the important thing is not what happens when you are there but what happens when you are not
there.
· To be a leader means willingness to risk-and a willingness to love. Has the leader given you something from the
heart?
· A business is a reflection of the leader. A fish doesn't stink just from the tail, and a company doesn't succeed or
fail from the bottom.
· Perhaps more than anything else, leadership is about the "creation of a new way of life."
· The world of the '90s and beyond will not belong to managers or those who make the numbers dance, as we used
to say, or those who are conversant with all the business and jargon we use to sound smart. The world will belong
to passionate, driven leaders-people who not only have an enormous amount of energy but who can energize those
whom they lead.
· There are countless ways of attaining greatness, but any road to reaching one's maximum potential must be built
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on a bedrock of respect for the individual, a commitment to excellence, and a rejection of mediocrity.
· The first and last task of a leader is to keep hope alive—the hope that we can finally find our way through to a
better world—despite the day's action, despite our own inertness and shallowness and wavering resolve.
· Leadership is a sacrifice—it is self denial—it is love, it is fearlessness, and it is humidity, and it is in the perfectly
disciplined will. This is also the distinction between great and little people. The harder you work, the harder it is to
surrender.
· The role of the leader is to enhance, transform, coach, care, trust, and cheerlead. The activities of the leader are to
educate, sponsor, coach, and counsel using appropriate timing, tone, consequences, and skills.
· Leaders know that the higher up you go, the more gently down you reach.
· I'll tell you what makes a great manager: a great manager has a knack for making ballplayers think they are better
than they think they are. He forces you to have a good opinion of yourself. He lets you know he believes in you.
He makes you get more out of yourself. And once you learn how good you really are, you never settle for playing
anything less than your very best.
· The first responsibility of a leader is to define reality. The last is to say thank you. In between the leader is a
servant.
2. What Makes a Leader?
Practically every human endeavor requires leadership. Zig Ziglar says, "Even a two-car parade gets fouled up
if you don't decide ahead of time who's going to lead."
Once we know who is leading, it is critical for the leader to know how to lead. What qualities do effective
leaders possess? How do they go about managing the affairs of the company while maintaining the loyalty of
employees? What sets apart the mediocre from the excellent leader?
Harold Green, who built ITT from a little company into a massive conglomerate, provides a suitable
introduction to this issue of leadership. In his book, Managing, he says this about the art of leadership: "Leadership
is the very heart and soul of business management. No one really manages a business by shuffling the numbers or
rearranging organizational charts or tallying the latest business school formulas. What you manage in business is
people ... To my mind, the quality of leadership is the single most important ingredient in the recipe of business
success."
Leaders lead people. A leader is one whom others consistently follow. People follow because they have a
belief in the direction, integrity and competence of the one leading.
Irwin Federman, president and CEO of Monolithic Memories, one of the most successful of the high-tech
companies in Silicon Valley, illustrates this brilliantly in the following quote: "If you think about it, people love
others not for who they are, but for how they make us feel. We willingly follow others for much the same
reason. It makes us feel good to do so. Now, we also follow platoon sergeants, self-centered geniuses,
demanding spouses, bosses of various persuasions and others, for a variety of reasons as well. But none of
those reasons involves that person's leadership qualities. In order to willingly accept the direction of another
individual, it must feel good to do so. This business of making another person feel good in the unspectacular
course of his daily comings and goings is, in my view, the very essence of leadership."
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Management consultant and author, Joe Batten, wrote: "The tough-minded leader always gives high touch
primacy over high tech. In short, people first—technology second."
J. Willard Marriott, chairman of the board of the enormously successful hotel chain, was asked: "How do you
manage to be fair and nice with people and yet demand excellence from them?"
"Well, it's tough-minded management, which basically says that you treat people right and fair and decent,
and in return they give their all for you."
Leaders love people. They expect the best from them. Sensitivity to employee needs, wants and
concerns is at the top of their priorities. The courage to make_decisions based on "what's right for people"
governs their day-to-day responsibilities. People respond to such leadership.
John W. Gardner, former Secretary of the U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare pinpointed four
moral goals of a leader:
1. releasing human potential,
2. balancing the needs of the individual and the community,
3. defending the fundamental values of the community, and
4. instilling in individuals a sense of initiative and responsibility.
These values prompt people to respond positively. When lived, and not just preached, people realize their best
interest is being considered. Leaders who sincerely activate Gardner's goals will experience an upsurge in
employee productivity.
Lieutenant General Zais provided this challenge: "I leave you with the one piece of advice which I believe
will contribute more to making you a better leader, will provide you with greater happiness and self-esteem, and at
the same time advance your career more than any other advice that I can provide you. And it doesn't call for
special personality or for any certain chemistry. Any one of you can do it. And that advice is: You must care."
Zais continued, "You cannot expect the soldier to be a proud soldier if you humiliate him. You cannot
expect him to be brave if you abuse him and cower him. You cannot expect him to be strong if you break
him. You cannot ask for respect and obedience and willingness to assault hot landing zones, hump
back-breaking ridges, destroy dug-in implacement, if a soldier has not been treated with respect and dignity
which fosters unit spirit and personal pride. The line between firmness and harshness, between strong
leadership and bullying ... is a fine line. It is difficult to define. But those of us who have accepted a career as
leaders must find that line. It is because judgment and concern for people are involved in leadership that
only people can lead, not computers. I enjoin you to be ever alert to the pitfalls in too much authority.
Beware that you do not fall into the category of the little man with a little job and with a big head. In
essence, be considerate, treat your subordinates right, and they will literally die for you."
"Treat people as adults," says Tom Peters of In Search of Excellence fame. "Treat them as partners, treat
them with dignity, treat them with respect. Treat people—not capital spending and automation—as the
primary source of productivity gains. These are fundamental lessons from the excellent companies
research."
Zais and Peters provide an apt reminder that leaders have the responsibility to treat people with the utmost
respect and dignity. Every leader works with things, ideas and people. Without ideas, things are not created and
without people there are no ideas. To achieve their goals, smart leaders recognize that the morale of their people is
of paramount importance. In What Works for Me: Sixteen CEO's Talk About Their Careers and Commitments,
Thomas R. Horton quotes Richard A. Zimmerman, chairman and CEO of Hershey Foods:
Among the CEOs I know, the most successful ones have a very positive outlook. Every CEO has to be a
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cheerleader. At times you may feet that you can list a series of disaster scenarios for your company, and
certainly you are in the best position to do that; still, you have to be a cheerleader at least part of the time...
OK, we know it is going to be tough, but let's get at it! You need always to be encouraging and perhaps that
is one of the most admired attributes that I see in most CEOs.
To ensure high morale, the Tandem computer company adopted this simple five-point creed:
1. All people are good.
2. People, workers, management and the company are all the same thing.
3. Every single person in the company must understand the essence of the business.
4. Every employee must benefit from the company's success.
5. You must create an environment where all of the above can happen.
Jim Treybig, President and CEO of Tandem Computers, substantiates this credo by declaring, "Everything
starts with the manager. Does he care about people?"
And, from the ancient philosophy of Lao Tzu comes this modem advice:
The group will not prosper if the leader grabs the lion's share of the credit for the good work that has
been done.
The group will rebel and resist if the leader relies on strict controls in an effort to make things come out
a certain way.
The group members will become deadened and unresponsive if the leader is critical and harsh.
The wise leader is not greedy, selfish, defensive, or demanding. That is why the leader can be trusted to
allow any event to unfold naturally.
People leave or love their jobs for a number of reasons. Considerable research has been conducted to
determine how companies can increase their retention rates. Aside from massive data, a simple question will
address both loving and leaving a job. How important do people feel in their work?
What have you as a leader done to show your employees how important they are?
When was the last time you made it possible for people to be proud of their achievements?
How often do you celebrate successes? Pass on authority? Provide recognition for a job well done?
What are you as a leader doing to make work satisfying, challenging, and interesting?
Robert Townsend, former CEO of Avis Rent-A-Car, summarizes and encapsulates our thinking on what
makes a leader with this comment:
The real essence of leadership is to care about your people, to help them get as much as they can out of the
business environment, and to have as much fun as they can. Anybody who can do that—and really mean it—is a
leader.
3. What Derails Fast-Track Executives?
Why do some executives perish while others flourish? The American Management Association conducted
in-depth interviews with 41 executives and found that these traits often lead to failure:
1. Insensitivity to co-workers.
2. Aloofness and arrogance.
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3. Tendency to misuse information conveyed in confidence.
4. Inability to control ambition.
5. Inability to delegate assignments or promote teamwork.
6. Inability to staff effectively.
7. Inability to think strategically.
8. Overdependence on mentors.
4. A Leader
I went on a search to become a leader.
I searched high and low. I spoke with authority. People listened. But alas, there was one who was wiser than I,
and they followed that individual.
I sought to inspire confidence, but the crowd responded, "Why should I trust you?"
I postured, and I assumed the look of leadership with a countenance that flowed with confidence and pride.
But many passed me by and never noticed my air of elegance.
I ran ahead of the others, pointed the way to new heights. I demonstrated that I knew the route to greatness.
And then I looked back, and I was alone.
"What shall I do?" I queried. "I've tried hard and used all that I know." And I sat down and pondered long.
And then, I listened to the voices around me. And I heard what the group was trying to accomplish. I
rolled up my sleeves and joined in the work.
As we worked, I asked, "Are we all together in what we want to do and how to get the job done?"
And we thought together, and we fought together, and we struggled towards our goal.
I found myself encouraging the fainthearted. I sought the ideas of those too shy to speak out. I taught
those who had little skill, I praised those who worked hard. When our task was completed, one of the group
turned to me and said, "This would not have been done but for your leadership."
At first, I said, "I didn't lead. I just worked with the rest." And then I understood, leadership is not a
goal. It's a way to reaching a goal.
I lead best when I help others to go where we've decided to go. I lead best when I help others to use
themselves creatively. I lead best when I forget about myself as leader and focus on my group their needs
and their goals.
To lead is to serve to give to achieve together.
5. Watergate
Under the relentless prodding of judge John J. Sirica, one of the Watergate burglars began to tell the full story
of the Nixon administration's complicity in the episode. James W. McCord, a former CIA agent and security chief
for the Committee to Reelect the President (CREEP), was the first of many informers and penitents in a
melodrama that unfolded over the next two years, which mixed the special qualities of soap opera and
Machiavellian intrigue. It ended in the first resignation of a president in American history, the conviction and
imprisonment of twenty five officials of the Nixon administration, including four cabinet members, and the most
serious constitutional crisis since the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson.
UNCOVERING THE COVER-UP The trail of evidence pursued by judge Sirica, a grand jury and several
special prosecutors, and a televised Senate investigation headed by Samuel J. Ervin, Jr., of North Carolina, led
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directly to the White House. No evidence surfaced that Nixon had ordered the break-in or that he had been aware
of plans to burglarize the Democratic National Committee. But from the start Nixon was personally involved in the
cover-up, using his presidential powers to discredit and block the investigation. Perhaps most alarming was the
discovery that the Watergate burglary was merely one small part of a larger pattern of corruption and criminality
sanctioned by the Nixon White House.
The White House had become committed to illegal tactics in May 1970 when the New York Times broke the
story of the secret bombings in Cambodia. Nixon, by nature a man possessed by insecurity, had ordered illegal
telephone taps on several newsmen and government employees suspected of leaking the story. In 1971, during the
crisis generated by the publication of the Pentago Papers, a team of burglars under the direction of White House
advisor John Ehrlichman had broken into a psychiatrist's office in an effort to obtain damaging information on
Daniel Ellsberg, the former Pentagon employee who had supplied the press with the secret documents. By the
spring of 1972 Ehrlichman commanded a team of "dirty tricksters" who performed various acts of sabotage against
prospective Democratic candidates for the presidency, including falsely accusing Hubert Humphrey and Sen.
Henry Jackson of sexual improprieties, forging press releases, setting off stink-bombs at Democratic gatherings,
and associating the opposition candidates with racist remarks.
The cover-up unraveled further in April 1973 when L. Patrick Gray, acting director of the FBI, resigned after
confessing that he had confiscated and destroyed several incriminating documents. On April 30 Ehrlichman and
Haldeman resigned, together with Attorney-General Richard Kleindienst. A few days later Nixon nervously
assured the public in a television address: "I'm not a crook." But new evidence suggested otherwise. John Dean,
whom Nixon had dismissed as presidential counsel, testified before the Ervin Committee and a rapt television
audience that Nixon had approved the cover-up. In another "bombshell" disclosure a White House aide told the
committee that Nixon had installed a taping system in the White House and that many of the conversations about
Watergate had been recorded.
A year-long battle for the "Nixon tapes" then began. The Harvard law professor Archibald Cox, whom Nixon
had appointed as a special prosecutor to handle the Watergate case, took the president to court in October 1973 to
obtain the tapes. Nixon, pleading "executive privilege," refused to release them and ordered Cox fired. In what
became known as the "Saturday Night Massacre," the new attorney-general, Elliot Richardson, and his deputy
resigned rather than execute the order. Cox's replacement as special prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, proved no more
pliable than Cox, and he also took the president to court. On July 24,1974, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously
that the president must surrender the tapes. A few days later the House judiciary Committee voted to recommend
three articles of impeachment: obstruction of justice through the payment of "hush money" to witnesses and the
withholding of evidence; using federal agencies to deprive citizens of their constitutional rights; and defiance of
Congress by withholding the tapes. But before the House of Representatives could meet to vote on impeachment,
Nixon handed over the complete set of White House tapes. On August 9, 1974, fully aware that the evidence on the
tapes implicated him in the cover-up, Richard Nixon resigned from office.
EFFECTS OF WATERGATE Vice-President Spiro Agnew did not succeed Nixon because Agnew himself had
been forced to resign in October 1973 when it became known that he had accepted bribes from contractors before
and during his term as vice-president. The vice-president at the time of Nixon's resignation was Gerald Fond, the
former minority leader in the House, whom Nixon had appointed with Congressional approval, under the
provisions of the Twenty-Fifth Amendment (1967). Ford insisted that he had no intention of pardoning Nixon, who
was still liable for criminal prosecution. "I do not think the public would stand for it," predicted Ford. But a month
after Nixon's resignation the new president issued the pardon, explaining that it was necessary to end the national
obsession with the Watergate scandals. Many suspected that Nixon and Ford had made a deal, though there was no
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evidence to confirm the speculation. President Ford testified personally to a congressional committee: "There was
no deal, period." But suspicions remained.
If there was a silver lining in Watergate's dark cloud, it was the vigor and resiliency of the institutions
that had brought a president down the press, Congress, the courts, and an aroused public opinion. The
Watergate revelations provoked Congress to pass several pieces of legislation designed to curb executive
power in the future. The War Powers Act (1973) required presidents to consult with Congress before
sending American troops into combat abroad and to withdraw troops after sixty days unless Congress
specifically approved their stay. In an effort to correct abuses of campaign funds, Congress enacted
legislation in 1974 that set new ceilings on contributions and expenditures. And in reaction to the Nixon
claim of "executive privilege,"
Congress strengthened the 1966 Freedom of Information Act to require prompt responses to requests
for information from government files and to place on government agencies the burden of proof for
classifying information.
The nation had weathered a profound constitutional crisis, but the aftershock of the Watergate episode
produced a deep sense of disillusionment with the so-called "imperial presidency." Coming on the heels of
the erosion of public confidence generated by the Vietnam War, the Watergate affair renewed public
cynicism toward a government that had systematically lied to the people and violated their civil liberties.
Said one bumper sticker of the day: "Don't vote. It only encourages them."
Nixon's resignation pleased his critics but also initiated a prolonged crisis of confidence. A 1974 poll
asked people how much faith they had in the executive branch of government. Only 14 percent answered "a
great deal"; 43 percent said "hardly any," Restoring credibility and respect became the primary challenge
facing Nixon's successors. Unfortunately, a new array of economic and foreign crises would make that task
doubly difficult.
6. Student Essays
(1) Earning Respect as a Leader
People are more likely to accept the leadership of those who have shown they can perform the same tasks they
require of others. My reasons for this view involve the notions of respect and trust.
It is difficult for people to fully respect a leader who cannot, or will not, do what he or she asks of others. President
Clinton's difficulty in his role as Commander-in-Chief serves as a fitting and very public example. When Clinton
assumed this leadership position, it was well-known that he had evaded military service during the Vietnam
conflict. Military leaders and lower-level personnel alike made it clear that they did not respect his leadership as a
result. Contrast the Clinton case with that of a business leader such as John Chambers, CEO of Cisco Systems,
who by way of his training and experience as a computer engineer earned the respect of his employees.
It is likewise difficult to trust leaders who do not have experience in the areas under their leadership. The Clinton
example illustrates this point as well. Because President Clinton lacked military experience, people in the armed
forces found it difficult to trust that his policies would reflect any understanding of their interests or needs. And
when put to the test, he undermined their trust to an even greater extent with his naive and largely bungled attempt
to solve the problem of gays in the military. In stark contrast, President Dwight Eisenhower inspired nearly
devotional trust as well as respect because of his role as a military hero in World War II.
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In conclusion, it will always be difficult for people to accept leaders who lack demonstrated ability in the areas
under their leadership. Initially, such leaders will be regarded as outsiders, and treated accordingly. Moreover,
some may never achieve the insider status that inspires respect and trust from those they hope to lead.
XLVI. (2) Government and Arts
Many people argue that government must support the arts but at the same time impose no control over what art is
produced. The implicit rationale for government intervention in the arts is that, without it, cultural decline and
erosion of our social fabric will result. However, I find no empirical evidence to support this argument, which in
any event is unconvincing in light of more persuasive arguments that government should play no part in either
supporting or restricting the arts.
First, subsidizing the arts is neither a proper nor necessary job for government. Although public health is generally
viewed as critical to a society's very survival and therefore an appropriate concern of government, this concern
should not extend tenuously to our cultural "health" or well-being. A lack of private funding might justify an
exception: in my observation, however, philanthropy is alive and well today, especially among the new technology
and media moguls.
Second, government cannot possibly play an evenhanded role as arts patron. Inadequate resources call for
restrictions, priorities, and choices. It is unconscionable to relegate normative decisions as to which art has "value"
to a few legislators and jurists, who may be unenlightened in their notions about art. Also, legislators are all too
likely to make choices in favor of the cultural agendas of those lobbyists with the most money and influence.
Third, restricting artistic expression may in some cases encroach upon the constitutional right of free expression.
In any case, governmental restriction may chill creativity, thereby defeating the very purpose of subsidizing the
arts.
In the final analysis, government cannot philosophically or economically justify its involvement in the arts, either
by subsidy or sanction. Responsibility lies with individuals to determine what art has value and to support that art.
A Psalm of Life
D. W. Longfellow
Tell me not, in mournful numbers,
"Life is but an empty dream!"
for the soul is dead that slumbers,
And things are not what they seem.
Life is real! Life is earnest!
And the grave is not its goal;
"Dust thou art, to dust returnest,"
Was not spoken of the soul.
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Not enjoyment, and not sorrow,
Is our destined end or way;
But to act, that each to-morrow
Finds us farther than to-day
Art is long, and Time is fleeting,
And our hearts, though stout and brave,
Still, like muffled drums, are beating
Funeral marches to the grave.
In the world's broad field of battle,
In the bivouac of Life,
Be not like dumb; driven cattle!
Be a hero in the strife!
Trust no Future, howe'er pleasant!
Let the dead Past bury its dead!
Act,—act in the living Present!
Heart within, and God o'erhead!
Lives of great men all remind us
We can make our lives sublime,
XLVII. And, departing, leave behind us
Footprints on the sands of time;
Footprints, that perhaps another,
Sailing o'er life's solemn main,
A forlorn and shipwrecked brother,
Seeing, shall take heart again.
Let us, then, be up and doing,
With a heart for any fate;
Still achieving, still pursuing,
Learn to labour and to wait.
第十章
增补内容
1. "Competition is ultimately more beneficial than detrimental to society." Position:
competition contributes to progress in society.
A. Market economy has proved more efficient than planned economy worldwide.
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Generally speaking,
B. In democratic countries, when parties and candidates compete for power, the public benefits.
C. Admittedly, when competition gets out of the control of morals and laws, society will suffer.
2. "It is more important to allocate money for immediate, existing social problems than to spend it on long-term
research that might help future generations."
Position: Human being should take into account both long-term interests and short-term interests when making
budgets.
A. Naturally, each generation is most concerned about solving problems that immediately confront them.
B. However, what differentiates human beings from other animals is that humans have a sense of future and are
morally responsible for the well-being of their descendents.
C. Therefore, as beneficiaries of previous generations, each generation should make its own contributions for the
well-being of future generations.
3. "The most effective way to understand contemporary culture is to analyze the trends of its youth." Position: It is
more or less true to say that contemporary culture is dominated by youth culture.
A. We live in an age when old people are marginalized in society.
B. What we call mass culture produced by the mass media is, as a matter of fact, a reflection of the trends among
the youth.
C. There is urgent need for the younger generation and the older generation to understand each other and to build a
more balanced contemporary culture.
4. "Academic disciplines have become so specialized in recent years that scholars' ideas reach only a narrow
audience. Until scholars can reach a wider audience, their ideas will have little use."
Position: The title statement oversimplifies the issue of academic influence on society.
A. It is true that academic disciplines have become so specialized in recent years that scholars' ideas reach only a
narrow audience.
B. It is also true that social scientists' failing to reach the large public makes it impossible for their ideas to
contribute to society.
C. However, natural scientists are almost doomed to live in an isolated and purely academic world, which does not
necessarily mean that their ideas will have little use.
5. "People's attitudes are determined more by their immediate situation or surroundings than by any internal
characteristic."
Position: The social environment plays a more important role in forming a person's attitudes.
A. People's attitudes toward life and society are gradually shaped by their experiences.
B. The culture in which one grows up has a deep impact on his or her attitudes.
C. However, it should be admitted that one's inborn temperament may play an important role in forming his or her
attitudes.
6. "It is necessary for everyone to read poetry, novels, mythology and other types of imaginative literature."
Position: Reading imaginative literature is beneficial for everyone.
A. Imagination is a precondition of any creative work.
B. Reading imaginative literature enriches one's imagination.
C. Reading imaginative literature is also a pleasant way of relaxation.
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7. "The stability of a society depends on how it responds to the extremes of human behavior." Position: It is true
that how a society copes with the extremes of human behavior largely determines the society's stability,
A. The extremes of human behavior—such as violence or strikes—usually indicate serious social problems
troubling individuals of a society.
B. One way to cope with these dramatic problems is suppressing, which proves effective in the short run but
counterproductive in the long run.
C. The most effective way of responding to such problems is constructive communication and sometimes
compromise.
8. "Education will be truly effective only when it is specifically designed to meet the individual needs and interests
of each student."
Position: Student-centered education is the most effective way to help students learn.
A. The traditional teacher-centered education ignores the individual needs and interests of each student, which
proves counterproductive.
B. Student-centered education can most effectively involve individual students in the learning process.
C. However, winking at students' unreasonable desires would only result in chaos in education.
9. "Education encourages students to question and criticize, and therefore does little to promote social harmony."
Position: Encouraging students to question and criticize does not necessarily harm social harmony.
A. Social harmony depends on mutual understanding—among members of the society-arriving from active
communication rather than passive conformity.
B. The ability to challenge existing authorities and paradigms requires intensive training through education.
C. Encouraging students to question and criticize helps students not only to learn more productively but also to
become qualified citizens that will be able to actively participate in social affairs.
10. "College and university education should be free for all students, fully financed by the government." Position:
Higher education should be available for all students.
A. Providing all students with higher education puts them on equal footing with each other when they enter
society—a precondition of equal opportunity for all members of society.
B. A common misconception is that only a small group of students are fit for or in need of higher education.
C. However, there is no need for the government to finance all colleges and universities.
11. "History teaches us only one thing: knowing about the past cannot help people to make important decisions
today."
Position: The study of history benefits us living in the present in many ways.
A. A common misconception is that what happened in the past has nothing to do with present society today.
B. Individually, men can learn from the experiences of great figures in history.
C. In business, case studies enable business people to confront their everyday challenges.
D. Admittedly, there are entirely new problems that we have to cope with on our own without any precedents in
history to refer to.
12. "Competition for high grades seriously limits the quality of learning at all levels of education." Position:
Competition among students for high grades does not necessarily have a negative impact on the quality of
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learning.
A. Examinations help students review their lessons and master what they have learned.
B. The psychological pressure that competition exerts on students is not always harmful.
C. Admittedly, if education aims only at preparing students for exams, the quality of learning will be affected.
13. "Governments should focus more on solving the immediate problems of today rather than trying to solve the
anticipated problems of the future."
Position: Whether solving the immediate problems of today is more important than solving the anticipated
problems of the future depends on the nature of the problem to be solved.
A. To win the favor of the public, governments throughout the world tend to focus on solving the immediate
problems of today.
B. However, a government's failing to prepare for future challenges will cause disasters to its country in the long
run.
C. Furthermore, a government should always take into consideration the possible future effects of the actions it
takes today.
14. "The depth of knowledge to be gained from books is much richer and broader than what can be learned from
direct experience."
Position: This statement oversimplifies the issue of learning.
A. The knowledge to be gained from books is important in that it transcends the limitation of personal experience
both in time and in space.
B. However, there is high likelihood that book knowledge may not apply to the particular situation one faces here
and now.
C. Therefore, it is always necessary to test the knowledge gained from books through practice.
15. "The increasingly rapid pace of life today causes more problems than it solves."
Position: It seems that people cannot help following the rapid pace of life, which causes them more and more pains
rather than joys.
A. Physically, the rapid pace of life has resulted in health problems in unprecedented large numbers.
B. Although people today have more leisure time, they are not in a better position than their ancestors to enjoy
themselves.
C. More unfortunately, people seem to have become addicted to the rapid pace of modern life.
16. "Too much emphasis is placed on role models. Instead of copying others, people should learn to think and act
independently and thus make the choices that are best for them." Position: The speaker fails to see the positive
effects of setting role models.
A. In the first place, children need moral models to help them develop their personality and character.
B. In addition, role models in the workplace contribute to the forming and maintaining of corporate culture.
C. Finally, when people think and act independently, they should not make the choices that are best only for them.
17. "The media and society in general mistakenly expect an individual to speak for a particular group, whether or
not that individual truly represents the views of the entire group."
Position: There is high risk that the media and society may place unrealistically high expectation on an individual's
ability to represent a particular group.
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A. The interviewees—usually chosen by chance—presented through the media cannot represent either the whole
public or a particular group.
B. Even in a so-called democratic country, the representative chosen by a particular group on the basis of majority
rule are not supposed to speak for the minority of that group.
C. In an age of mass society, it is necessary for society to remain sensitive to the limitations of representatives to
represent the public.
18. "High-profile awards such as the Nobel Prize are actually damaging to society because they reinforce an
unhealthy desire for recognition."
Position: High-profile awards do more good than harm to society.
A. Competition for recognition can actually encourage the pursuit of excellence.
B. When individuals compete on a fair basis for awards, the whole society benefits.
C. Admittedly, if the rules of an award are unreasonable, it may turn out to be counterproductive.
19. "High-profile awards such as the Nobel Prize are actually damaging to society because they suggest that only a
few people deserve such recognition."
Position: The fact that only a few people deserve high-profile awards does not lead to the conclusion that such
awards are damaging to society.
A. Undoubtedly, high-profile awards suggest that only a few people deserve such recognition.
B. What is significant is that high-profile awards point out the right directions in which all individuals in particular
fields should make efforts.
C. To make sure that high-profile awards serve the right purposes of society, it is imperative that the rules of the
awards be fair and strictly adhered to.
20. "The widespread idea that people should make self-improvement a primary goal in their lives is problematic
because it assumes that people are intrinsically deficient."
Position: There is nothing wrong with the idea of self-improvement.
A. Admitting that we are deficient is the first step towards progress.
B. On the contrary, smugness only leads to stagnancy.
C. A serious problem with modern society is that too many people fail to realize the need for self-improvement.
21. "To truly understand your own culture—no matter how you define it—requires personal knowledge of at least
one other culture, one that is distinctly different from your own."
Position: Knowing about another culture helps one understand one's own culture.
A. Staying within one culture makes one take for granted everything that the culture provides.
B. Knowledge of another different culture provides one with an opportunity to compare alternative ways of life
and make choices.
C. In an age of globalization, one should learn to tolerate cultural differences.
22. "Many people know how to attain success, but few know how to make the best use of it." Position: I am
inclined to support the idea that few people know how to make success serve their lives.
A. A common characteristics of contemporary society is that people everywhere are concerned about how to attain
success.
B. And success is commonly understood as material gains.
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C. The natural result is that success alone does not make people happy.
D. What's more, too many people are concerned about only their personal success while ignoring the interests and
needs of other people.
23. "People have been so encouraged by society to focus on apparent differences that they fail to see meaningful
similarities among ideas, individuals, and groups."
Position: People living in different cultural environments would respond differently to this statement.
A. On the one hand, Western cultures tend to focus on differences among ideas, individuals, and groups.
B. The danger of traditional societies, on the other hand, is to ignore differences, forcing individuals and groups to
conform to one authority.
C. A healthy attitude is to be sensitive to both differences and similarities.
24. "As people rely more and more on technology to solve problems, the ability of humans to think for themselves
will surely deteriorate."
Position: Technology is a double-edged sword that may either serve or harm human interests.
A. On the one hand, it is possible that people may become the slaves of technology.
B. On the other hand, technology may save people's time and energy so that they could devote themselves to more
creative and meaningful work.
C. Moreover, technology provides people with effective instruments for intellectual work.
25. "Colleges should require students to engage in public-service activities in order to assure that each student
receives a balanced, well-rounded education."
Position: Requiring students to engage in public-service activities contributes to a balanced and well-rounded
education.
A. Colleges today tend to isolate students from society.
B. However, we should realize that participating in some social activities may actually contribute to their academic
work.
C. To train qualified citizens for society, colleges should arrange for public-service activities to increase students'
sense of social responsibility.
26. "People make the mistake of treating experts with suspicion and mistrust, no matter how valuable their
contributions might be."
Position: We should value experts' opinions objectively.
A. Generally speaking, experts' opinions are trustworthier than ordinary people's when it comes to solving
problems that require special expertise.
B. The reality of our society is that people tend to take for granted whatever experts say.
C. It is possible that sometimes experts do make mistakes, which ordinary people can correct.
27. "Government should place few, if any, restrictions on scientific research and development" Position:
Government can play a positive role in scientific research and development.
A. Nowadays, without government funding, scientists would find it difficult to carry out large-scale projects.
B. Government can also organize scientists to solve the most urgent problems that concern society.
C. Of course, government should refrain from interfering with the freedom of scientific enquiry.
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28. "In any profession—business, politics, education, government—those in power should step down after five
years. The surest path to success for any enterprise is revitalization through new leadership." Position: Limiting the
term of leadership is an effective way to prevent corruption and lack of initiatives.
A. When leaders have no fear of losing their power, they tend to abuse their power.
B. A new leadership usually has greater initiative and would bring in new ideas.
C. However, in private areas such as business it might not be so necessary to limit the term of leadership.
29. "Spending time alone makes one a better companion to others."
Position: Spending time alone contributes to constructive relationships with others.
A. One who thinks and works independently will be able to bring new ideas and new perspectives to others.
B. One's loneliness makes one crave for and cherish the opportunity to stay with other people.
C. Admittedly, habitually isolating oneself from others does not automatically make one a better companion.
30. "One can best understand the most important characteristics of a society by studying its major cities."
Position: It is no longer true that major cities are characteristic of a society.
A. Major cities used to be the cultural centers of a society.
B. Nowadays, however, due to the influence of globalization, major cities throughout the world look more or less
the same.
C. By contrast, the rural areas of a society maintain more of its cultural tradition.
31. "In most professions and academic fields, imagination is more important than knowledge." Position: Without
imagination, one can hardly succeed in any field.
A. Imagination in business is the ability to perceive opportunity.
B. In science, imagination leads to inventions and discoveries.
C. Without imagination, there would be no art.
32. "The most effective way to communicate an idea or value to large groups of people is through the use of
images, not language."
Position: The use of images is not always more effective than that of language.
A. On the one hand, images are more vivid and easier for the largest audience to comprehend.
B. On the other hand, images tend to cause ambiguities.
C. The most effective way of communication is combining the use of images and that of language.
33. "The people who make important contributions to society are generally not those who develop their own new
ideas, but those who are most gifted at perceiving and coordinating the talents and skills of others."
Position: Generally speaking, the progress of society depends more on the contributions of leaders rather than the
ordinary masses.
A. It should be admitted that individual thinkers and scientists make important contributions to society.
B. However, history is filled with examples that indicate the dramatic contributions to society made by the people
who are capable of leading others toward a common goal.
C. Today, progress in every field is impossible without the joined efforts of individuals—through the coordination
of leaders.
34. "Truly profound thinkers and highly creative artists are always out of step with their time and their society."
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Position: To be more exact, great thinkers and artists are generally out of step with their time and their society.
A. Many great artists remained obscure all their lives.
B. There are countless examples of original thinkers who were either ignored or misunderstood by their time and
their society.
C. However, there are cases of great thinkers or artists who were recognized in their own time and their own
society.
35. "People today are too individualistic. Instead of pursuing self-centered, separate goals, people need to
understand that satisfaction comes from working for the greater good of the family, the community, or society as a
whole."
Position: Extreme individualism has become a serious threat to the social fabric and the welfare of all members of
society.
A. Some people may claim that the greater good of the family, the community or society lies in the good of the
individual, which justifies the pursuit of self-interests.
B. The problem daunting contemporary society is that egoism has run wild.
C. Today there is every need for the society to encourage individuals to work for the interests of others.
36. "Schools should be required to teach the essential interconnectedness of all human beings and thus help
eliminate wars, cultural clashes, and other forms of conflict."
Position: While I agree that schools should make efforts to help eliminate wars, cultural clashes, and other forms of
conflict, I insist that schools should teach not only the essential interconnectedness of all human beings but also the
differences between different cultures.
A. Human beings share many common interests and values, the awareness of which would contribute to
intercultural understanding and cooperation.
B. However, realizing the differences between different cultures would also help different peoples of the world
communicate with each other more effectively.
C. Considering the growing threat of cultural imperialism in this information age, it might be more urgent for
schools to give more emphasis on cultural differences.
37. "Major policy decisions should always be left to politicians and other government experts, who are more
informed and thus have better judgment and perspective than do members of the general public." Position: The
position of the title statement goes against the basic tenets of modern democracy.
A. In some cases, politicians and other government experts might be more informed and have better judgment and
perspective than do members of the general public.
B. Even so, there is no guarantee that the politicians and experts would always put the interests of the public before
their own selfish interests.
C. Empirical evidence also indicates that politicians and government experts do make grave mistakes that harm the
interests of the public.
38. "All students should be required to take courses in the sciences, even if they have no interest in science."
Position: Taking courses in the sciences benefits not only students in the sciences but also students in humanities.
A. The research methods in the sciences can be applied to the studies of humanities.
B. Students of humanities and social sciences may bring fresh and constructive perspectives and viewpoints to
science classes.
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C. Some knowledge of the sciences is a must for everyone living in an age in which science and technology play a
dominant role.
39. "Patriotic reverence for the history of a nation often does more to impede than to encourage progress."
Position: Patriotic reverence for the history of a nation could block a nation's way to progress.
A. It should be admitted that patriotic reverence for the history of a nation is a precondition of national cohesion.
B. However, irrational reverence for national history would result in social conservativism that rejects the
introduction of any social reforms.
C. Blind reverence for national history would also cause fanatic nationalism, making impossible the
communication between nations and cultures.
40. "Government should never censor the artistic works or historical displays that a museum wishes to exhibit."
Position: It is the government's responsibility to prevent its citizens from potential harms.
A. Museum exhibitions are an influential way of public education.
B. If the artistic works or historical displays of a museum causes destructive social conflicts, then government
should step in to prohibit such exhibitions.
C. Admittedly, government should always take care not to abuse its authority.
41. "Government should preserve publicly owned wilderness areas in their natural state, even though these areas
are often extremely remote and thus accessible to only a few people."
Position: When our environment is under growing threat from human civilization, government should take action
to preserve publicly owned wilderness areas in their natural state.
A. Even a few people could cause serous damage to a remote wildness area.
B. The destruction of even a remote wildness area could result in unforeseeable effects on the larger environment.
C. Without government's protection, even the remotest wildness area will finally disappear,
42. "In any field of endeavor, it is impossible to make a significant contribution without first being strongly
influenced by past achievements within that field."
Position: The progress in any field is based on past achievements within that field.
A. In social sciences, the past achievements of a field are the rich sources of inspirations for formulating new
theories in that field.
B. In natural sciences, scientists use the existing methods and equipments—the achievements of the past—to make
new discoveries or inventions.
C. Even in creative fields such as arts and literature, mastering the achievements of the past is a precondition of
creating new works.
43. "Government funding of the arts threatens the integrity of the arts."
Position: In spite of the harm that government funding might do to the integrity of the arts, government support is
still necessary for the flourishing of the arts.
A. Admittedly, government funding might directly or indirectly influence artists' decisions and choices in their
work.
B. However, history has demonstrated that government support could also contribute to the prosperity of arts.
C. Furthermore, when money has come to dominate contemporary society, it is all the more imperative for
government to fund arts.
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44. "Young people should be encouraged to pursue long-term, realistic goals rather than seek immediate fame and
recognition."
Position: Society should create an environment in which young people are encouraged to pursue
long-term, realistic goals.
A. Personally, seeking immediate fame and recognition would turn out to be counterproductive.
B. Unfortunately, today's education and society seem to attach more importance to immediate success.
C. In the long run, pursuing long-term goals not only benefit young people themselves but also the whole society.
45. "In any field of inquiry, the beginner is more likely than the expert to make important discoveries." Position:
Generally speaking, it is true that beginners are more likely to make breakthroughs in any field of inquiry.
A. Beginners have intense curiosity about the unknown and great courage to try new things, while experienced
experts tend to be more conservative.
B. Furthermore, beginners are highly motivated and enthusiastic people who are eager to establish their career and
fame.
46. "Technologies not only influence but actually determine social customs and ethics." Position: One can never
exaggerate the impact of technologies on social customs and ethics.
A. Technologies have radically changed the way we spend holidays.
B. The new ways of communication brought about by electronic technology have transformed the way we
associate with each other in our daily lives.
C. However, we should not let technologies to determine our ethics.
47. "Leaders are created primarily by the demands that are placed upon them."
Position: Generally speaking, leaders are the results of a combination of internal qualities and external conditions.
A. The demands placed upon a person could challenge him or her to become a leader.
B. However, the statement seems to suggest that anybody can become a leader if demands are placed on him or her,
which is unwarranted.
C. Besides opportunities, one must possess certain qualities to make a leader.
48. "College students should be encouraged to pursue subjects that interest them rather than seek programs that
promise entry into the job market."
Position: Ideally speaking, students should choose subjects based on their interests.
A. As the saying goes, interest is the best teacher.
B. Unfortunately, today parents attach too much importance to the job prospects of their children's education.
C. Young people are more likely to succeed in a career that interests them.
49. "Most people think that their deeply held values are the result of rational choice, but reason often has little to
do with the way people form values."
Position: It is true that an individual's deeply held values are usually not the result of rational choice, but the result
of socialization.
A. It is the culture in which we live that provides us with the values.
B. Most people simply adopt the values instilled by their culture.
C. It is necessary to question the established values within a certain society.
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50. "Although, critics who write about the arts tend to deny the existence of any objective standards for evaluating
works of art, they have a responsibility to establish standards by which works of art can be judged."
Position: There is no need for critics to assume a responsibility to establish standards by which works of art can be
judged.
A. Works of art are created for people to appreciate rather than for critics to judge.
B. The result of setting standards for works of art tend to hinder artists' creations.
C. Unfortunately, the reality is that too often critics have turned the public into passive audience of arts.
51. "It is important that nations, communities, and families continue to observe holidays and traditional
celebrations, for these repeated experiences validate and strengthen a sense of who they are as a culture." Position:
Undoubtedly, observing common holidays and traditional celebrations contributes to a sense of sharing a common
culture among people.
A. Holidays and traditional celebrations reflect the values of a culture.
B. Celebrating holidays provides an opportunity for a culture to reinforce its tradition.
C. In an age of globalization, observing traditional holidays contributes to cultural diversity.
52. "It is unfortunate but true that political decisions and activities affect all aspects of people's lives." Position:
The problem of the influence of politics is more complex than what the arguer assumes.
A. On the surface, it seems politicians are in control of the affairs of society.
B. Actually, as the society becomes more and more commercialized, politics is being alienated from the everyday
life of people.
C. If we understand politics as a means by which a society organizes and guides itself according to its ideal,
marginalizing politics might not be a fortunate thing.
53. "The pressure to achieve high grades in school seriously limits the quality of learning. An educational
environment without grades would promote more genuine intellectual development." Position: The speaker fails to
see the positive effects of the pressure exerted by exams.
A. It should be admitted that exams might exert some negative impact on students.
B. However, competition for high grades among students could motivate students to work hard.
C. Well-prepared exam questions could also help students review their lessons.
54. "Governments should provide funding for artists so that the arts can flourish and be available to all people."
Position: Government's funding for artists is a double-edged sword.
A. On the one hand, without government's funding, many artists could hardly survive in the market.
B. On the other hand, government's funding could create dependent artists who serve not the interests of the public
but those of the government.
C. It is crucial that government does not interfere with artists' freedom of expression while giving them financial
support.
55. "For better or worse, education is a process that involves revising the ideas, beliefs, and values people held in
the past."
Position: Education involves more than just revising traditional ideas, beliefs and values.
A. More often education plays the role of inculcating traditional ideas, beliefs and values in the younger generation
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of society.
B. It is important for education to encourage students to reevaluate and revise the tradition of a culture.
C. The ultimate purpose of education is to teach young people how to confront the challenges of the present.
56. "The true strength of a country is best demonstrated by the willingness of its government to tolerate challenges
from it's own citizens."
Position: In the long run, political toleration adds to the strength of a country.
A. Democratic governments tend to be more tolerant than authoritarian ones.
B. A government that tolerates challenges from its citizens has more opportunity to improve its performance.
C. The real strength of a country lies in the dynamic relationship between the government and its people.
57. "All students should be required to take at least one course in ethics, even if taking the course means a
decreased emphasis on academic subjects."
Position: All students should take at least one course in ethics.
A. Today many universities do not attach enough importance to ethics.
B. Knowledge of ethics provides students with a correct view of life and career.
C. The goal of education is to help students grow not only intellectually, but also morally.
58. "Instant communication systems encourage people to form hasty opinions and give quick replies rather than
take the time to develop thoughtful, well-reasoned points of view."
Position: Instant communication systems tend to discourage thoughtful and well-reasoned points of view.
A. Instant communication systems usually require quick replies.
B. The pressure of time and space—a key feature of instant communication—forces people to form hasty opinions
rather than thoughtful and well-reasoned points of view.
C. On the contrary, traditional ways of communication such as hand-written letters or face-to-face discussion are
more likely to induce in-depth thinking.
59. "The worldwide distribution of television programs and advertisements is seriously diminishing the differences
among cultures."
Position: Television itself should not be blamed for causing the diminishing of cultural differences.
A. A common misconception is that television, with its programs and advertisements, has damaged the cultural
diversity of the world.
B. What is also true, however, is that television brings to our home the colorful cultures of all parts of the world.
C. What should be blamed is the domination of television programs by one culture, say the Western culture, which
would surely lead to cultural homogeneity throughout the world.
60. "The depth of knowledge to be gained from books is richer and broader than what can be learned from direct
experience."
Position: Knowledge gained from books is broader but not necessarily richer than what can be learned from direct
experience.
A. Knowledge gained
from books,
the results of countless other people's direct experiences, systematically
arranged, is broader than what one can learn from his or her direct experience.
B. However, direct experience, though limited by time and space, provides one with an opportunity to gain a more
accurate and richer understanding of a matter.
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C. The best way to learn is to put what we gain from books into practice.
61. "In any field of endeavor-the sciences, the humanities, the social sciences, industry, etc.-it is not the attainment
of a goal that matters, but rather the ideas and discoveries that are encountered on the way to the goal."
Position: In some cases, this statement makes sense; in other cases, it does not.
A. In academic studies, the goal of a project is but a general direction; what matters are the unexpected concrete
findings on the way to the goal.
B. However, in industry, what is more important might be the attainment of a specific goal rather than the process
toward that goal.
C. In politics, failing to achieve a promised goal might mean a calamity for a politician.
62. "It is possible to identify a person's politics within a very short time of meeting him or her. Everything about
people—their clothes, their friends, the way they talk, what they eat—reflects their political beliefs."
Position: A person's words and behavior could directly reflect his or her political beliefs.
A. What one wears and eats indicates the way of life he or she advocates.
B. We can also identify a person's ideals, qualities and values from the type of friends he or she associates with.
C. Of course, it is also necessary to watch a person's deeds if we want to know for sure what he or she truly
believes in.
63. "Instant foods, instant communication, faster transportation—all of these recent developments are designed to
save time. Ironically, though, instead of making more leisure time available, these developments have contributed
to a pace of human affairs that is more rushed and more frantic than ever before."
Position: Ironically, modern technologies have actually quickened our pace of life.
A. Theoretically speaking, such recent inventions as instant foods, instant communication, and faster transportation
have made it possible for us to set aside more time for repose and relaxation.
B. Actually we are living a more hurried life today than our ancestors centuries ago.
C. What makes us hurry today is our values that give too much stress to competition and efficiency.
64. "The past is no predictor of the future."
Position: The past may not be an exact predictor of the future, but without knowledge of the past, we have nothing
to rely on to deal with the challenges of the future.
A. No one knows for sure what will happen in the future.
B. However, knowledge of the past tells us what might happen in the future.
C. Personally or socially, the wisdom of the past provides necessary resources to help us confront the old or new
problems of the future.
65. "Society's external rewards are no measure of true success. True success can be gauged in relation to the goals
one sets for oneself,"
Position: Success should be gauged on a personal base.
A. Society's external rewards can be regarded as society's recognition of one's contribution to society.
B. For an individual person, a correct attitude is to gauge success in relation to the goals one sets for oneself.
C. Overemphasizing the social criterion of success tends to belittle the worth of an individual.
66. "Practical people, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are in fact the
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unknowing slaves of values and ideas that were worked out by intellectuals of the past." Position: Even practical
people could not escape the influence of existing values and ideas.
A. A typical misconception held by the so-called "practical" people is that exempt from any intellectual influences,
they fix their eyes only on facts.
B. The fact, however, is that no one could stand out of the realm of culture.
C. Even the idea "Be practical!" has its cultural and historical roots.
67. "Technology is a necessary but not always a positive force in modern life." Position: Technology is neither a
positive nor a negative force; it is a neutral force.
A. Undoubtedly, technology is a necessary force, without which contemporary society could not survive for even
one day.
B. It is true that new technologies are often used for negative or even evil purposes.
C. However, it is humans rather than technologies that should be responsible for the negative effects seemingly
brought about by technologies.
68. "The problems of modern society have led many people to complain: 'We live in terrible times.' Yet, given the
choice, no one today would prefer to live in any other time."
Position: Comparatively speaking, we live in the best time of history.
A. In the first place, our living conditions today are superior to those of any past generations.
B. In the second place, technologies have made it possible for men to work under much more comfortable working
conditions today than before.
C. The problems confronting us today should not blind us from seeing the problems that once troubled former
generations.
69. "Students should be encouraged to realize that mental agility and rhetorical skill must be accompanied by
sincerity and the true conviction of their own beliefs."
Position: Without sincerity and beliefs, students will not be able to make great achievements.
A. Today's education gives too much stress to academic skills.
B. No man can afford to express, through words or acts, that which is not in harmony with his own beliefs, and if
he does so, he must pay by the loss of his ability to influence others.
C. Our beliefs about what we are and what we can be precisely determine what we will be.
70. "While most of the environmental problems we face result from the use of technology, society must depend
upon technology to find solutions to these problems."
Position: Depending upon technology to tackle environmental problems is an important but not sufficient solution.
A. The use of technology should be largely responsible for the environmental problems.
B. It is true that technology will help us solve many environmental problems.
C. However, if human beings do not change their attitude toward nature, technology alone will not be able to save
us.
71. "What we call progress is a matter of exchanging one problem for another." Position: To some extent, this
statement makes sense.
A. Industrialization, a great progress in human history, has brought about environmental problems.
B. Urbanization, another breakthrough in human history, has witnessed a dramatic rise in crime rates and the
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disintegration of communities.
C. However, there is no need to be pessimistic about progress.
72. "Artists should pay little attention to their critics.* Criticism tends to undermine and constrain the artist's
creativity."
* those who evaluate works of art, such as novels, films, music, paintings, etc. Position: Artists can benefit from
criticism.
A. Theoretically speaking, critics, with their profound knowledge of aesthetics and a taste in art, could offer
valuable advice to artists.
B. Interestingly, few artists ever showed any gratitude to their critics.
C. Still, I believe artists could benefit from critics' work.
73. "A crucial test of character is whether one is able to adapt to changing social conventions without sacrificing
one's principles."
Position: How to confront changing social conventions is a crucial challenge to one's character.
A. In the history of the United States, F. D. Franklin, the president who led the country out of the Great Depression
in the 1930s-40s, was a man who managed to adapt to the changing economic climate without sacrificing his
principles regarding capitalism.
B. In China, Deng Xiaoping could be counted as one who succeeded in maintaining his socialist principles when
he introduced market economy into his country.
C. However, an even more praiseworthy character is one who is willing to change his principles to adapt to the
changing situations when those principles are out of date.
74. "Many people admire idealism, but it usually leads to disappointment or danger." Position: Idealism does more
harm than good to society as well as individuals.
A. An idealist is one who, on noticing that a rose smells better than a cabbage, concludes that it will also make
better soup.
B. Political idealism such as communism brought catastrophes to former socialist countries.
C. Individually, idealism, if it were not balanced by pragmatism, would lead to personal failure.
D. However, idealism, guided by practical plans, give people hope and enthusiasm.
75. "One of the most harmful technological innovations of all time is the automobile."
Position: Automobiles have done more harm than good to society.
A. Automobiles add to the environmental pollution.
B. Automobiles waste a huge amount of energy.
C. Automobiles pose a grave threat to human lives.
76. "The most practical and effective way to protect wilderness areas is to attract more tourists to these areas
through environmentally sensitive projects."
Position: The environmentally sensitive projects to attract more tourists to the wildness areas may prove
counterproductive.
A. Tourists swarming to visit the environmentally sensitive projects may pose a serious threat to the wildness
areas.
B. The most practical and effective way to protect wilderness areas is to leave those places to take care of
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themselves.
77. "To guarantee quality education in elementary and secondary schools, the students' parents must be actively
involved in defining the schools' educational policies."
Position: To what extent should students' parents get involved in defining the schools' educational policies is an
issue worth careful examination.
A. Undoubtedly, parents' cooperation and participation will contribute to the success of elementary and secondary
education.
B. The problem is to what extent should parents get involved in the policy-making process of schools.
C. Allowing parents to unduly interfere in educators' business will turn out to be counterproductive.
78. "Both parents and communities must be involved in the local schools. Education is too important to delegate
solely to a group of professional educators."
Position: It is crucial for educators to cooperate with parents and communities.
A. A large part of elementary and secondary education is carried out actually at students' home.
B. The community in which a school is located exerts significant impact on its students.
C. The most effective way to educate children is through the joined efforts of educators, parents and the
community.
79. "One often hears about the need for individuals to take responsibility for their own lives. However, the
conditions in which people find themselves have been largely established long before people become aware of
them. Thus, the concept of personal responsibility is much more complicated and unrealistic than is often
assumed."
Position: Realizing the implications of the title statement helps us to understand better the concept of personal
responsibility.
A. We all live in conditions that have been largely established by others.
B. The environments in which we act, often uncontrollable, exert unforeseeable influence on our behavior.
C. Therefore, it is necessary to take into account the objective conditions when we require a person to assume
responsibility.
80. "What most people consider 'normal' or 'natural' merely reflects the unexamined beliefs and preconceptions
that this person received uncritically while growing up."
Position: "Normal" or "natural" are rather subjective terms that might mean entirely different things to different
people.
A. What is regarded as "normal" or "natural" in one culture might appear abnormal in another culture.
B. As we grow up, many things that we once regarded as "normal" or "natural" have gradually become
unreasonable.
C. It is highly important for us to remain critical to the seemingly "normal" or "natural" things around us in our
lives.
81. "Important truths begin as outrageous, or at least uncomfortable, attacks upon the accepted wisdom of the
time."
Position: It is the customary fate of new truths to begin as heresies.
A. Copernicus's heliocentric theory in the 16th century was a direct attack upon the accepted wisdom of the time,
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the geocentric view of the universe postulated by Aristotle and Ptolemy.
B. When Darwin first declared that the wide variety of animal species was due to a process of development over
many millennia, he challenged the traditional Christian belief and outraged the religious fundamentalists.
C. In former socialist countries, it took a long and painful time for people to give up the old idea of state-owned
economy and to accept the idea of market economy.
82. "It is possible to pass laws that control or place limits on people's behavior, but legislation cannot reform
human nature. Laws cannot change what is in people's hearts and minds."
Position: It is necessary to realize the limits of laws when we hail "rule by law."
A. Common sense tells us that without laws, society would fall into a state of chaos.
B. However, legislation cannot reform human nature.
C. Society should depend on education to cultivate people's hearts and minds.
83. "What most human beings really want is not discovery and change but reassurance." Position: Human nature is
much more complex than what the title statement assumes.
A. On the one hand, people easily become dissatisfied with whatever is in their possession.
B. On the other hand, in terms their deeply held beliefs, most people tend to be conservative.
C. When any significant social reform is introduced, it seems customary that most people would choose to defend
the status quo or would accept only superficial changes to keep the status quo as long as possible.
84. "It is dangerous to trust only intelligence."
Position: Intelligence is sufficient in some cases but not in any case.
A. In scientific studies regarding the physical world, we should depend only on intelligence for discovering and
testing truths.
B. However, in the realm of human affairs, we have to use both our intelligence and our hearts for solving
problems.
85. "If people disregard the great works of the past, it is because these works no longer answer the needs of the
present."
Position: People today no longer pay much attention to the great works of the past for various reasons.
A. One reason why people disregard the great works of the past is that some of these works are largely irrelevant to
the present.
B. Another reason is that today's education does not attach much importance to the literary classics of the past.
C. However, it is naive to say that all great works of the past no longer answer our needs of the present.
86. "Education should be equally devoted to enriching the personal lives of students and to training students to be
productive workers."
Position: Education should aim at helping students to develop in an all-round way.
A. The first purpose of education is to cultivate students' minds, helping them to grow up to become good citizens
and happy persons.
B. For this purpose, schools should stress the teaching of humanities.
C. Another purpose of education is to train students to be productive workers.
D. For this purpose, schools should also include occupational training courses in the curriculum.
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87. "Success in any realm of life comes more often from taking chances or risks than from careful and cautious
planning."
Position: Careful and cautious planning is just as important as taking chances or risks.
A. Whatever goal we intend to accomplish, the first thing to do is planning.
B. Chance favors only the prepared minds.
C. Taking risks without any planning is nothing but rashness.
88. "It is not the headline-making political events but the seldom-reported social transformations that have the
most lasting significance."
Position: The social transformations often ignored by the mass media have the most lasting significance.
A. The headline-making political events are often superficial and short-lived.
B. The commercial interests of the mass media determine their preoccupation with the news value of events rather
than the social value of events.
C. Social transformations usually take place slowly, and are hard to notice at their beginnings.
89. "The best preparation for life or a career is not learning to be competitive, but learning to be cooperative."
Position: Learning to be cooperative is more important than learning to competitive.
A. Cooperation benefits every member of the team.
B. Every field of life requires people who are ready to cooperate with others.
C. Only through cooperation can we accomplish great tasks.
D. What is most needed today might be learning to compete in the spirit of cooperation.
90. "Instead of encouraging conformity, society should show greater appreciation of individual differences."
Position: There is no doubt that society should encourage individuals to stand out to show their unique character
and qualities.
A. Conformity leads to the death of creativity.
B. A society that encourages individual differences will benefit from the creations and vitality of its people.
C. "Whatever crushes individuality is despotism, by whatever name it may be called." (John Stuart Mill)
91. "Truly innovative ideas do not arise from groups of people, but from individuals. When groups try to be
creative, the members force each other to compromise and, as a result, creative ideas tend to be weakened and
made more conventional. Most original ideas arise from individuals working alone." Position: Original ideas may
arise from individuals working alone as well as from groups of people working together.
A. It is true that individual thinkers or scientists working alone formulated many original ideas in history.
B. However, one should see that those great individuals actually benefited a lot from the work either of his
contemporaries or of the people before their time.
C. While members of a group might force each other to compromise, it is also true that they may inspire and
enlighten each other.
92. "The most elusive knowledge is self-knowledge, and it is usually acquired through solitude, rather than
through interaction with others."
Position: Both solitude and interaction with others can contribute to self-knowledge.
A. To lead a happy life, the first thing is to know ourselves. ("An unexamined life is not worth living.")
B. One way to know ourselves is to examine ourselves alone.
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C. However, interaction with others can also help us see more clearly who we are.
93. "Unlike great thinkers and great artists, the most effective political leaders must often yield to public opinion
and abandon principle for the sake of compromise."
Position: For political leaders, practicality should take precedence over principles.
A. Great thinkers and great artists do not have to appeal to the opinions of the public.
B. However, for political leaders, winning the favor of the public is key to effective leadership.
C. In addition, political policies are often made based on the compromise of different interest groups and the
dictates of the situation.
94. "We learn through direct experience; to accept a theory without experiencing it is to learn nothing at all."
Position: It is naive to say that theories are useless if we cannot experience them.
A. It should be confessed that the best way to learn a theory is to put it into practice.
B. By putting a theory into practice, we can either improve it or prove its truth,
C. However, there is no need for us to experience every theory before accepting and benefiting from it.
95. "As societies all over the world have more and more access to new information, the effects on life-long
learning can only be positive."
Position: The effects of the abundant information available through the electronic media on life-long learning are
not always positive.
A. There is no doubt that the electronic media such as the Internet can make great contributions to life-long
learning by providing people with on-line education throughout their lives.
B. However, we should not equate information with education.
C. There are still many problems to be solved before people everywhere in the world can use the Internet for
life-long learning.
96. "People should not be too quick in trying to take action; instead they should stop to think of the possible
consequences of what they might do."
Position: It is always wise to think thrice before you act.
A. More haste, less speed.
B. It might not be too difficult to persuade people to consider the possible impacts of their actions on themselves.
C. People should also think of the impacts of their actions on other people.
97. "Any decision—whether made by government, by a corporation, or by an individual person-must take into
account future conditions more than present conditions."
Position: We should take into consideration both future and present conditions when we make a decision.
A. Any decision that does not take into account future conditions will become obsolete as time passes by.
B. And we should remember that we can never be one hundred percent certain about what might occur in the
future.
C. Meanwhile, if we ignore the present conditions, our decision will not work at all.
98. "Too much emphasis has been placed on the need for students to challenge the assertions of others so that they
can learn to criticize the views of others. In fact, the ability to compromise and work with others—that is, the
ability to achieve social harmony—should be a major goal in every school." Position: Encouraging students to
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think critically does not necessarily conflict with our pursuit of social harmony.
A. Critical thinking is key to students both academically and politically.
B. It is necessary for students to criticize the views of each other in their studies, which does not necessarily lead to
conflicts among them.
C. Compromising is harmful in academic pursuits.
99. "The bombardment of visual images in contemporary society has the effect of making people less able to focus
clearly and extensively on a single issue over a long period of time."
Position: With the bombardment of visual images through mass media in contemporary society, it is possible that
people will become more and more passive audience rather than creative thinkers.
A. Throughout history, artists have skillfully used images to make people think.
B. Today, with the introduction of CAI into the classroom, teachers can make their courses more vivid, more
attractive and more effective.
C. Unfortunately, however, electronic media such as TV and the Internet tend to bombard people with images,
stimulating their senses rather than their thinking.
100. "In order to produce successful original work, scholars and scientists must first study the successful work of
others to learn what contributions remain to be made."
Position: Naturally, to make new contributions in any field of study, scholars and scientists should first master the
existing work done by their fellow scholars and scientists.
A. No one can produce any original work without first assimilating the contributions of former generations in his
or her field.
B. The defects of the work of other scholars and scientists are where we can possibly make our contributions.
C. In a large sense, what is called "original" work is usually but an improvement on the work done by previous
scholars and scientist.
101. "The private lives of public officials are irrelevant to their work in governing and serving the public and
therefore should not be subjected to public scrutiny and comment."
Position: Generally speaking, I agree that society should respect the privacy of public officials.
A. Just like ordinary people, public officials are entitled to have their own privacy protected by law or by the moral
conscience of society.
B. The publicity of the private lives of public officials such as U.S. president Clinton's love affairs does more harm
than good to society.
C. The public's expectation that public officials should be moral leaders of the society is becoming more and more
unrealistic.
D. However, if what public officials do in their private lives affects their duties to the public or violates laws, then
their private acts should be subject to public scrutiny and comment.
102. "Now that computer technology has made possible the rapid accessing of large amounts of factual
information, people are less likely than ever to think deeply or originally. They feel unable to compete with—much
less contribute to—the quantity of information that is now available electronically." Position: The availability of
large amounts of factual information through the Internet does not necessarily hinder people from thinking deeply
or originally.
A. No one would doubt that computer technology has led us into an age of information, putting us on an
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unprecedented advantageous position to access and use the boundless sea of information.
B. And there is no denying the possibility that we suffer from a new problem—information overload.
C. However, we should be clear that the task of human beings today is not to compete with computer technology in
terms of the quantity of information we can produce.
D. We should and we can make full use of the large amounts of information available electronically for research
purposes and make original contributions.
103. "The increase in knowledge is forcing people to specialize. As a result, the distance between fields of
specialization has become so vast that specialists in different areas are unable to influence each other."
Position: Overspecialization in the academic world is liable to exert negative impacts on academic researches in
various fields, which makes it necessary for education to encourage interdisciplinary studies.
A. The dramatic increase in knowledge today has made it impossible for any one to keep pace with the latest
developments in all academic fields.
B. As a result, specialists in different areas tend to focus only on their own area of study.
C. However, this overspecialization is harmful not only academically but also socially.
D. Schools should aim at cultivating not only specialists but also generalists.
104. "Learning for learning's sake is an outdated concept. Today, education must serve an ulterior purpose and be
directed toward clear goals."
Position: While education must serve clear purposes, "learning for learning's sake" is not necessarily out-dated.
A. The primary purpose of education is to cultivate qualified citizens and builders of a democratic society.
B. Another purpose of education is to train creative workers who can fill in all the occupations of society.
C. The idea of "learning for learning's sake" does not necessarily conflict with education's pursuit of the above
purposes.
105. "Education is primarily a personal matter; it has little to do with school or college."
Position: Education is not a personal matter in a large sense, and it certainly has a lot to do with school or college.
A. It is not difficult to understand that education directly benefits the individual receiver of education.
B. Furthermore, the education of an individual concerns the interests of the whole society.
C. With the dramatic increase in knowledge today, it is impossible to educate oneself without the involvement of
school or college.
106. "Censorship is rarely, if ever, justified."
Position: Censorship can contribute to the interests of the public.
A. It is true that government officials often use censorship to protect their vested interests.
B. What is also true is that the mass media tend to abuse their freedom of expression in order to maximize their
commercial interests.
C. Government is responsible for preventing its people from potential harmful effects of the mass media.
107. "To remain vigorous, any academic field needs to be led by truly independent thinkers who are willing to
ignore established boundaries and challenge long-standing assumptions."
Position: It seems self-contradictory to require academic leaders to ignore established boundaries and challenge
long-standing assumptions.
A. There is no doubt that academic leaders should be independent thinkers.
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B. However, an academic leader in any field is supposed to represent an established paradigm in that field.
C. What might also be important is the academic leader's ability to organize the scholars of his field to promote
academic development
108. "The best way to learn a new subject or skill is to study small segments or details in great depth rather than to
start by trying to develop a sense of the whole."
Position: To learn a new subject, one should start by developing a sense of the whole rather than focusing on
segments or details.
A. A sense of the whole subject enables us to identify the specific areas where we can make original contributions.
B. A sense of the whole subject provides necessary background knowledge for any in-depth exploration into
particular areas of that subject.
C. Studying small segments or details in great depth would in turn contribute to our understanding of the whole
subject.
109. "College students—and people in general—prefer to follow directions rather than make their own decisions.
Therefore, colleges should eliminate as many choices as possible in order to offer students clear direction."
Position: Universities should and can offer students both many choices and clear direction.
A. Even if college students prefer to follow directions, it is educators' duty to help them become independent
thinkers.
B. To become independent thinkers, students need to learn to make choices.
C. Offering students clear direction does not necessarily conflict with providing them with many choices.
110. "The purpose of education should be to create an academic environment that is separate from the outside
world. This kind of environment is ideal because it allows students to focus on important ideas without being held
back by practical concerns."
Position: It is near-sighted to isolate students from the outside world.
A. A common misconception about education is that the so-called "important idea" students learn at schools have
nothing to do with the practical world.
B. Actually, students' knowledge of the outside world contributes to their academic studies.
C. Furthermore, the ultimate purpose of education is to train workers and citizens who can adapt themselves to and
make contributions to the society outside the campus.
111. "Encouraging young people to believe that they can accomplish great things if they try hard enough is both
misleading and potentially harmful."
Position: Encouraging young people to believe that they can accomplish great things does more good than harm to
them.
A. No one knows how much he or she can achieve before trying.
B. Encouraging young people to believe that they can accomplish great things gives them confidence, which helps
to bring out their potential.
C. Some of them may finally get frustrated because not every one can accomplish great things; however, every one
will make progress through doing their best.
112. "Computers and video technology can make facsimiles of original works such as paintings and historical
documents available to everyone. The great advantage of this new technology is that it will enable anyone—not
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just scholars—to conduct in-depth research without having access to the original works."
Position: The speaker exaggerates the power of computers and video technology in academic research.
A. Undoubtedly, the new technology can make paintings and historical documents available to more people, thus
contributing to academic research.
B. However, not anyone can conduct in-depth research once research sources are available.
C. Besides, the facsimiles made by the new technology—no matter how accurate they are—can never replace the
original works.
113. "Heroes and heroines are not people with outstanding strength of character; instead, they are usually just
people who happened to be in the right place at the right time."
Position: Modern trend of leveling all people is a double-edged sword.
A. In a large sense, it is reasonable to say that heroes and heroines are no different from ordinary people.
B. On the one hand, the belief that heroes and heroines are "just like you and me" gives people comfort and
confidence, and may encourage people to act like heroes and heroines when chance comes.
C. On the other hand, this somewhat cynical view of heroes and heroines tend to discourage people from
cultivating their minds and improving their qualities.
114. "Although it is easy to respond positively to the work of another person or group, it is far more worthwhile to
give negative feedback."
Position: Encouragement proves more valuable than negative feedback.
A. People may not be as good as we tell them they are, but they will try harder thereafter.
B. Encouragement makes people happy.
C. Admittedly, honest negative feedback may help people see their weaknesses.
15. "An individual's greatness cannot be judged by his or her contemporaries. The most objective
evaluators of a person's greatness are not his or her contemporaries but rather those who belong to a later time."
Position: The most objective evaluators of a person's greatness are not his or her contemporaries but rather those
who belong to a later time.
A. An individual's contemporaries may be emotionally connected with him or her.
B. It takes time for the significance of an individual's deeds to reveal itself.
116. "Societies should try to save every plant and animal species, regardless of the expense to humans in effort,
time, and financial well-being."
Position: There is no need to save every plant and animal species regardless of the human costs.
A. The history of natural evolution has witnessed the disappearance of some plants and animal species, which did
not result in any harm to the environment.
B. Of course, if scientists can more or less prove that the extinction of a certain plant or species will cause some
disastrous chain effects, we should make every effort to save it.
C. The primary responsibility of humans is to try to maintain the environment at its natural state, and then let
nature do the rest job.
117, "Most societies do not take their greatest thinkers seriously, even when they claim to admire them." Position:
Great thinkers are often wronged or ignored in many societies.
A. Confucious is regarded as a great thinker in China, but today few people including scholars pay much attention
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to what he actually said.
B. John Dewey was one of the greatest thinkers in American history, but few Americans including scholars know
much about him.
C. In ancient Greece, the great thinker Socrates was sentenced to death.
第十一章
写作高分突破补充资料
The Pool of Issue Topics
(October, 2002)
1. "Only by being forced to defend an idea against the doubts and contrasting views of others does one really
discover the value of that idea."
_____________
2. "If a society is to thrive, it must put its own overall success before the well-being of its individual citizens."
_____________
3. "National governments should devote more of their social programs and services to children than to adults."
_____________
4. "Reform is seldom brought about by people who are concerned with their own reputation and social standing.
Those who are really in earnest about reforming a government, an educational system, or any other institution must
be willing to be viewed with disdain by the rest of the world."
_____________
5. "Many people believe that a few individuals or small groups (family, friends, teachers, celebrities, for example)
have caused them to think and behave in the way they do. Yet it is always society as a whole that defines us and
our attitudes, not a few individuals."
_____________
6. "Contemporary technology makes available many small pieces of factual information. As a result, people have
become so preoccupied with bits of fragmented information that they pay too little attention to the larger issues and
overall perspectives."
_____________
7. "People in positions of power are most effective when they exercise caution and restraint in the use of that
power."
_____________
8. "No one can possibly achieve success in the world by conforming to conventional practices and conventional
ways of thinking."
_____________
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9. "A school or college should pay its teachers at the same rate in all disciplines, regardless of differences in
salaries for related fields in the world outside of school. For example, entry-level teachers in mathematics and in
the arts should receive the same pay, even if outside of school, math specialists earn a much higher salary on
average than do specialists in the arts."
_____________
10. "Instead of requiring students to take courses in a variety of disciplines—that is, courses ranging from the arts
and the humanities to the physical and biological sciences—colleges and universities should allow students to
enroll only in those courses that will help prepare them for jobs in their chosen fields. Such concentration is
necessary in today's increasingly work-oriented society."
_____________
11. "No matter what the situation, it is more harmful to compromise one's beliefs than to adhere to them."
_____________
12. "In most societies, competition generally has more of a negative than a positive effect."
_____________
13. "The intellectual benefits of attending a university or college are vastly overrated: most people could learn
more by studying and reading on their own for four years than by pursuing a university or college degree."
_____________
14. "Because learning is not a solitary activity but one that requires collaboration among people, students of all
ages will benefit academically if they work frequently in groups."
_____________
15. "Government should not fund any scientific research whose consequences, either medical or ethical, are
unclear."
_____________
16. "Government officials should rely on their own judgment rather than unquestioningly carrying out the will of
the people whom they serve."
_____________
17. "We owe almost all our knowledge not to people who have agreed, but to people who have disagreed."
_____________
18. "The university community consists of three different worlds—the sciences, the humanities, and the social
sciences. Because each world operates on its own assumptions and has its own special habits of thinking, rarely is
there meaningful interaction among the sciences, the humanities, and the social sciences."
_____________
19. "Every new generation needs to redefine 'right' and 'wrong' in its own terms and according to the conditions of
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its own time."
_____________
20. "Contemporary society offers so many ways of learning that reading books is no longer very important."
_____________
21. "Choice is an illusion. In reality, our lives are controlled by the society in which we live."
_____________
22. The arts (music, dance, visual arts, etc.) are vitally important to students' education and should therefore
receive as much emphasis as mathematics, science, reading and other mainstream subjects."
_____________
23. "Most people live, whether physically or morally, in a very restricted circle. They make use of a very limited
portion of the resources available to them until they face a great problem or crisis."
_____________
24. "Over the past century, the most significant contribution of technology has been to make people's lives more
comfortable."
_____________
25. "The best way to teach—whether as an educator, employer, or parent—is to praise positive actions and ignore
negative ones."
_____________
26. "Most people prefer restrictions and regulations to absolute freedom of choice, although they would probably
deny such a preference."
_____________
27. "Conformity almost always leads to a deadening of individual creativity and energy."
_____________
28. "Much of the information that people assume is 'factual' actually turns out to be inaccurate. Thus, any piece of
information referred to as a 'fact' should be mistrusted since it may well be proven false in the future."
_____________
The Pool of Argument Topics
(October, 2002)
1. The following appeared in the business section of a newspaper.
"Given that the number of people in our country with some form of arthritis is expected to rise from 40 million to
60 million over the next twenty years, pharmaceutical companies that produce drugs for the treatment of arthritis
should be very profitable. Many analysts believe that in ten years Becton Pharmaceuticals, which makes Xenon,
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the best-selling drug treatment for arthritis, will be the most profitable pharmaceutical company. But the patent on
Xenon expires in three years, and other companies will then be able to produce a cheaper version of the drug. Thus,
it is more likely that in ten years the most profitable pharmaceutical company will be Perkins Pharmaceuticals,
maker of a new drug called Xylan, which clinical studies show is preferred over Xenon by seven out of ten patients
suffering from the most extreme cases of arthritis."
_____________
2. The following appeared in a memo from the chief executive of a video game company.
"We have recently been offered the opportunity to buy the rights to produce a video game based on the
soon-to-be-published children's book "Squirrel Power," by Peter Wood. While the cost of the rights is substantial
and will place economic constraints on our company in the short-term, there are two reasons that the purchase of
these rights will undoubtedly be a wise investment. First, Wood's last three books have been best sellers and the
movie based on his first book was highly profitable. Second, the popular characters and story line in "Squirrel
Power" will save us time in developing our video game, thereby reducing our costs."
_____________
3. When Ida McAllister ran for mayor of Lake City four years ago, she failed to win even 30 percent of the vote.
But since then, McAllister has made public her commitment to environmental causes. She would be wise,
therefore, to announce her intention to close all Lake City parks to automobile traffic, thus following the example
of the former mayor of Plainsville, Alecia Yu . On the recommendation of a small group of concerned citizens,
Mayor Yu prohibited automobile traffic in all Plainsville parks, and therefore was credited with solving the
pollution problem and improving the quality of life in Plainsville. This action would have great appeal to the
citizens of Lake City, most of whom participate in the community's recycling program, and would guarantee
McAllister's success in her current quest to be Lake City's new mayor.
_____________
4. According to information recently reported in the Eliottown Gazette, the number of people who travel to
Eliottown has increased significantly over the past several years. So far this year over 100,000 people have arrived
on flights to Eliottown's airport, compared with only 80,000 last year and 40,000 the year before. Eliottown's train
station has received more than 50,000 passengers this year, compared with less than 40,000 last year and 20,000
the year before. Clearly tourism in Eliottown has been increasing, thanks to the new Central Park and Museum of
Modem Art that opened last year. Therefore, the funding for the park and museum should be increased
significantly.
_____________
5. The following appeared in the editorial section of a newsmagazine.
"Some states are creating new laws that restrict the use of of handheld cell phones by drivers of automobiles. Such
legislation, however, is sheer folly. Although some people with cell phones undoubtedly cause problems on the
road, including serious accidents, the majority do not. Besides, problems are also caused by drivers who are
distracted by any number of other activities, from listening to the radio to disciplining children. Since there is no
need to pass legislation restricting these and other such activities, it follows that there is no need to restrict people's
freedom to use a device that they find convenient—or helpful in emergencies."
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_____________
6. Until recently, people in Hiparia did most of their shopping by driving to shopping malls. They are beginning,
however, to do more of their shopping by ordering merchandise from mail-order catalogs and the Internet. These
purchases are delivered to them by mail or by a delivery service. For many purchases, Hiparians no longer need to
drive to and from shopping malls; there will therefore be a resulting reduction in the consumption of vehicle fuel in
Hiparia.
_____________
7. The following report appeared in an archaeology journal.
"The discovery of distinctively shaped ceramic pots at various prehistoric sites scattered over a wide area has led
archaeologists to ask how the pots were spread. Some believe the pot makers migrated to the various sites and
carried the pots along with them; others believe the pots were spread by trade and their makers remained in one
place. Now, analysis of the bones of prehistoric human skeletons can settle the debate: high levels of a certain
metallic element contained in various foods are strongly associated with people who migrated to a new place after
childhood. Many of the bones found near the pots at a few sites showed high levels of the metallic element.
Therefore, it must be that the pots were spread by migration, not trade."
_____________
8. Milk and dairy products are rich in vitamin D and calcium, substances essential for building and maintaining
bones. Many people therefore believe that a diet rich in dairy products can help prevent osteoporosis, a disease in
which the bones weaken significantly with age and that is linked to both environmental and genetic factors. But a
long-term study of a large number of people has found that those who have consistently consumed dairy products
throughout the years of the study have a higher rate of bone fractures than any other participants in the study. Since
bone fractures are a symptom of osteoporosis, this study result shows that a diet rich in dairy products may
actually increase, rather than decrease, the risk of osteoporosis.
_____________
9. The following appeared in the summary of a study on headaches suffered by the residents of Mentia.
"Salicylates are members of the same chemical family as aspirin, a medicine used to treat headaches. Although
many foods are naturally rich in salicylates, for the past several decades food-processing companies have also been
adding salicylates to foods as preservatives. This rise in the commercial use of salicylates has been found to
correlate with a steady decline in the average number of headaches reported by participants in our twenty-year
study. Recently, food-processing companies have found that salicylates can also be used as flavor additives for
foods. With this new use for salicylates, we can expect a continued steady decline in the number of headaches
suffered by the average citizen of Mentia."
_____________
10. The following appeared in an article written by Dr. Karp, an anthropologist.
"Twenty years ago Dr. Field, a noted anthropologist, visited the island of Tertia and concluded from his
observations that children in Tertia were reared by an entire village rather than by their own biological parents.
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However, my recent interviews with children living in the group of islands that includes Tertia show that these
children spend much more time talking about their biological parents than about other adults in the village. This
research proves that Dr. Field's conclusion about Tertian village culture is false, and thus that the
observation-centered approach to studying cultures is invalid. Because they are using the interview-centered
method, my team of graduate students working in Tertia will establish a much more accurate understanding of
child-rearing traditions there and in other island cultures."
_____________
11. Woven baskets characterized by a particular distinctive pattern have previously been found only in the
immediate vicinity of the prehistoric village of Palea and therefore were believed to have been unique to the
Palean people. Recently, however, archaeologists discovered such a "Palean" basket in Lithos, an ancient village
across the Brim River from Palea. The Brim River is very deep and broad, and so the ancient Paleans could only
have crossed it by boat, but there is no evidence that the Paleans had boats. And boats capable of carrying groups
of people and cargo were not developed until thousands of years after the Palean people disappeared. Moreover,
Paleans would have had no need to cross the river—the woods around Palea are full of nuts, berries, and small
game. It follows that the so-called Palean baskets were not unique to Palea.
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12. The following memo appeared in the newsletter of the West Meria Public Health Council.
"An innovative treatment has come to our attention that promises to significantly reduce absenteeism in our
schools and workplaces. A study reports that in nearby East Meria, where fish consumption is very high, people
visit the doctor only once or twice per year for the treatment of colds. Clearly, eating a substantial amount of fish
can prevent colds. Since colds are the reason most frequently given for absences from school and work, we
recommend the daily use of Ichthaid, a nutritional supplement derived from fish oil, as a good way to prevent
colds and lower absenteeism."
_____________
13. The following appeared in a memorandum from the president of Humana College.
"Last year the number of students who enrolled in long-distance degree programs at Omni University increased by
50%. During the same year, Omni showed a significant decrease from prior years in expenditures for dormitory
and classroom space, most likely because instruction in the long-distance programs takes place via interactive
video computer connections. In contrast, over the past three years, enrollment at Humana College has diminished
and costs of maintaining buildings have risen. Thus, to increase enrollment and solve the problem of budget
deficits at Humana College, we should initiate and actively promote long-distance degree programs like those at
Omni."
_____________
14. The following appeared in a memorandum from the president of Excello Food Markets.
"In 90 towns where Excello has food markets, natural-food stores specializing in organic food products—products
containing no chemical preservatives and made with foods grown without pesticides—have opened nearby as
competitors. Surveys of our own customers reveal a growing concern about foods grown using pesticides or
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preserved with chemicals. Recently our market in Sun City participated in a local food tasting fair, and 75 percent
of the fair goers who visited the Excello booth requested free samples of organic fruit. Such evidence indicates that
to increase our profits, we should begin to stock a full line of organic food products in all our markets,"
_____________
15. The following appeared in a memo from the vice president of a food-distribution company with food-storage
warehouses in several cities.
"Recently we signed a contract with The Fly-Away Pest-Control Company to provide pest-control services at our
fast-food warehouse in Palm City, but last month we discovered that over $20,000 worth of food there had been
destroyed by pest damage. Meanwhile, the Buzzoff Pest-Control Company, which we have used for many years,
continued to service our warehouse in Wintervale, and last month only $10,000 worth of the food stored there had
been destroyed by pest damage. Even though the price charged by Fly-Away is considerably lower, our best means
of saving money is to return to Buzzoff Company for all our pest-control services."
_____________
16. The following appeared in a proposal from the economic minister of the country of Paraterra.
"In order to strengthen its lagging economy, last year the government of the nearby country of Bellegea began an
advertising campaign to promote ecologically sound tourism (ecotourism). This year the number of foreign visitors
arriving at Bellegea's main airport doubled, and per capita income in Bellegea increased by ten percent. To provide
more income for the population of Paraterra and also preserve the natural environment of our tiny country, we too
should begin to promote ecotourism. To ensure that our advertising campaign is successful, we should hire the
current director of Bellegea's National Tourism Office as a consultant for the campaign."
_____________
17. The following appeared as part of a business plan developed by the manager of the Rialto Theater.
"Despite its downtown location, the Rialto Movie Theater, a local institution for five decades, must make big
changes or close its doors forever. It should follow the example of the new Apex Theater in the mall outside of
town. When the Apex opened last year, it featured a video arcade, plush carpeting and seats, and a state-of-the-art
sound system. Furthermore, in a recent survey, over 85 percent of respondents reported that the high price of newly
released movies prevents them from going to the movies more than five times per year. Thus, if the Rialto intends
to hold on to its share of a decreasing pool of moviegoers, it must offer the same features as Apex."
_____________
18. The following is a recommendation from the business manager of Monarch Books.
"Monarch Books should open a cafe in its store to attract more customers and better compete with Regal Books,
which recently opened a cafe. Monarch, which has been in business at the same location for more than twenty
years, has a large customer following because it is known for its wide selection of books on all subjects. Opening
the cafe would clearly attract more customers. The cafe would require relatively little space. Space could be made
for the cafe by discontinuing the children's book section, which will likely become less popular given that the last
national census indicated a significant decline in the percent of the population who are under age ten."
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19. The following appeared as an editorial in a wildlife journal.
"Arctic deer live on islands in Canada's arctic region. They search for food by moving over ice from island to
island during the course of a year. Their habitat is limited to areas warm enough to sustain the plants on which they
feed, and cold enough, at least some of the year, for the ice to cover the sea separating the islands, allowing the
deer to travel over it. Unfortunately, according to reports from local hunters, the deer populations are declining.
Since these reports coincide with recent global warming trends that have caused the sea ice to melt, we can
conclude that the decline in arctic deer populations is the result of deer being unable to follow their age-old
migration patterns across the frozen sea."
_____________
20. Although black bears are common in the eastern Canadian province of Labrador, grizzly bears—often similar
in color, but much larger—were believed to exist only in the western provinces. Despite a nineteenth-century
explorer's account of having startled and narrowly escaped from a grizzly bear deep in the woods in Labrador,
modem scientists find no physical evidence that grizzly bears have ever lived in Labrador. But recent research into
the language and legends of the Innu, a people who have lived in Labrador for thousands of years, reveals that
their language has words for two different kinds of bears, and their ancient legends attribute different
characteristics to the two kinds of bears. Therefore, there probably were grizzly bears in Labrador, and the
explorer's account probably accurately identified the bear.
_____________
21. Scientists studying historical weather patterns have discovered that in the mid-sixth century, Earth suddenly
became significantly cooler. Although few historical records survive from that time, some accounts found both in
Asia and Europe mention a dimming of the sun and extremely cold temperatures. Either a huge volcanic eruption
or a large meteorite colliding with Earth could have created a large dust cloud throughout Earth's atmosphere that
would have been capable of blocking enough sunlight to lower global temperatures significantly. A large meteorite
collision, however, would probably create a sudden bright flash of light, and no extant historical records of the
time mention such a flash. Some surviving Asian historical records of the time, however, mention a loud boom that
would be consistent with a volcanic eruption. Therefore, the cooling was probably caused by a volcanic eruption.
_____________
22. The following appeared in a newspaper article published in the country of Corpora.
"Twenty years ago, one half of all citizens in Corpora met the standards for adequate physical fitness as then
defined by the national advisory board on physical fitness. Today, the board says that only one quarter of all
citizens are adequately fit and suggests that spending too much time using computers may be the reason. But since
overall fitness levels are highest in regions of Corpora where levels of computer ownership are also highest, it is
clear that using computers has not made citizens less physically fit. Instead, as shown by this year's unusually low
expenditures on fitness-related products and services, the recent decline in the economy is most likely the cause,
and fitness levels will improve when the economy does."
_____________
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23. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a newsletter on health issues.
"For the past decade, most health experts have advised teenagers to avoid eating greasy foods in order to prevent
acne and related skin conditions, but the number of teenagers who sought medical help for these skin problems has
actually risen over the same period, In a recent study, teenagers who avoided greasy foods for a month reported
approximately as many outbreaks of acne and related skin conditions as did those who ate an average of two
servings of greasy food per day. Such data indicate that eating greasy foods is unlikely to be a cause of acne and
related skin conditions. Therefore, health experts should no longer recommend that people avoid such foods."
_____________
24. From a draft textbook manuscript submitted to a publisher.
"As Earth was being formed out of the collision of space rocks, the heat from those collisions and from the
increasing gravitational energy of the planet made the entire planet molten, even the surface. Any water present
would have evaporated and gone off into space. As the planet approached its current size, however, its gravitation
became strong enough to hold gases and water vapor around it as an atmosphere. Because comets are largely ice
made up of frozen water and gases, a comet striking Earth then would have vaporized. The resulting water vapor
would have been retained in the atmosphere, eventually falling as rain on the cooled and solidified surface of Earth.
Therefore, the water in Earth's oceans must have originated from comets."
_____________
25. The following appeared in a medical newsletter.
"Doctors have long suspected that secondary infections may keep some patients from healing quickly after severe
muscle strain. This hypothesis has now been proved by preliminary results of a study of two groups of patients.
The first group of patients, all being treated for muscle injuries by Dr. Newland, a doctor who specializes in sports
medicine, took antibiotics regularly throughout their treatment. Their recuperation time was, on average, 40
percent quicker than typically expected. Patients in the second group, all being treated by Dr. Alton, a general
physician, were given sugar pills, although the patients believed they were taking antibiotics. Their average
recuperation time was not significantly reduced. Therefore, all patients who are diagnosed with muscle strain
would be well advised to take antibiotics as part of their treatment."
_____________
26. The following appeared in a memo to the human resources manager at Baobob Inc., a large architectural firm.
"Several well-known, retired architects were interviewed in Architecture Today about changes in the field. Only
one had earned a college degree in architecture. All others had come into the field at an early age by serving
apprenticeships that required them to work under the direct supervision of an experienced architect. Several of the
colleges that we recruit from report that many promising architecture students leave school early in their
undergraduate career. Therefore, because finding talented architecture graduates is becoming more difficult,
Baobob Inc. should start an aggressive apprenticeship program and hire students who express an interest in
architecture directly out of high school rather than wait for them to get out of college."
_____________
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27. Thirteen years ago, researchers studied a group of 25 infants who showed signs of mild distress when exposed
to unfamiliar stimuli such as an unusual odor or a tape recording of an unknown voice. They discovered that these
infants were more likely than other infants to have been conceived in early autumn, a time when their mothers'
production of melatonin—a hormone known to affect some brain functions—would naturally increase in response
to decreased daylight. In a follow-up study conducted earlier this year, more than half of these children—now
teenagers—who had shown signs of distress identified themselves as shy. Clearly, increased levels of melatonin
before birth cause shyness during infancy and this shyness continues into later life.
_____________
28. The following appeared in a newsletter on dental health.
"A recent research study reported the experience of dentists whose patients had, over a period of five years,
regularly used Flux Dental Floss as part of their dental hygiene routine. The report indicates that these dentists had
50 percent fewer cases of gum disease than did dentists whose patients did not use Flux regularly. In addition, most
of the Flux users who were surveyed by their dentists agreed that Flux's mint flavor would encourage people to
floss more often. Thus, even though Flux may cost more than other brands of floss, it is clearly a worthwhile
investment for those who want to be assured of healthy teeth and gums."
_____________
29. The following appeared in a Letter to the Editor of the Shady Village newspaper.
"Commuters are complaining that the rush hour traffic on Blue Highway between Shady Village and Bright City
has doubled their commuting time. Some commuters have asked that an additional traffic lane be built, but the
recent creation of such a lane on nearby Green Highway apparently attracted more commuters, judging from the
fact that rush-hour traffic jams actually increased there this past winter. To reduce rush-hour traffic on Blue
Highway, a bicycle lane should be added instead of a traffic lane. This approach will succeed because many
citizens of Shady Village are avid bicyclists; 75 percent of respondents to a recent questionnaire distributed there
said they would like to bicycle more hours per week than they currently do."
_____________
30. Collectors prize the ancient life-size clay statues of human figures made on Kali Island but have long wondered
how the Kalinese artists were able to depict bodies with such realistic precision. Since archeologists have recently
discovered molds of human heads and hands on Kali, we can now conclude that the ancient Kalinese artists used
molds of actual bodies, not sculpting tools and techniques, to create these statues. This discovery explains why
Kalinese miniature statues were abstract and entirely different in style: molds could only be used for life-size
sculptures. It also explains why few ancient Kalinese sculpting tools have been found. In light of this development,
collectors should expect the life-size sculptures to decrease in value and the miniatures to increase in value.
_____________
31. The following appeared in a newsletter on nutrition and health.
"Although the multimineral Zorba pill was designed as a simple dietary supplement, a study of first-time ulcer
patients who took Zorba suggests that Zorba actually helps prevent ulcers. The study showed that only 25 percent
of those ulcer patients who took Zorba under a doctor's direction developed new ulcers, compared to a 75 percent
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recurrence rate among ulcer patients who did not take Zorba. Clearly, then, Zorba will be highly effective in
preventing recurrent ulcers and if health experts inform the general public of this fact, many first-time ulcers can
be prevented as well."
_____________
32. The following appeared in an article from a popular newsmagazine.
"In 1888 a stone was unearthed in northern Wisconsin with an inscription in an old Scandinavian alphabet and
bearing the date 1362. Scandinavians were not, however, exploring or emigrating to northern Wisconsin in the
fourteenth century. Recent analysis proves, in fact, that the stone had been buried in the spot where it was found
for no more than 100 years. Moreover, the community near the discovery site was home to a group of people who
had formed a club to study medieval Scandinavian culture—a period that includes the fourteenth century. The
stone, therefore, is not a genuine artifact of medieval Scandinavian culture inscribed in the fourteenth century but
most likely a hoax perpetrated by the group."
_____________
33. The following appeared in an article in the health section of a newspaper.
"According to the available medical records, the six worst worldwide flu epidemics during the past 300 years
occurred in 1729, 1830, 1918, 1957, 1968, and 1977. These were all years with heavy sunspot activity—that is,
years when the Earth received significantly more solar energy than in normal years. People at particular risk for the
flu should therefore avoid prolonged exposure to the Sun."
_____________
34. The following appeared in the health section of Glenntown's local newspaper.
"Several national medical studies suggest that older people who have pets tend to enjoy better health than those
who do not have pets: those who have pets have lower rates of high blood pressure and arthritis. It seems clear that
having to care for an animal promotes good health for the older person. Therefore, Glenntown should establish a
program to give a small pet such as a dog or cat to all of its citizens who are over the age of 65. This will help to
insure that our senior citizens enjoy good health and have fewer medical bills."
_____________
35. The following appeared in a report by the School District of Eyleria.
"Nationally, the average ratio of computers to students in kindergarten through grade 12 (K-12) is 1:5. Educators
indicate that this is very good ratio. This means that across the country, all students have access to and can use
computers daily in their classrooms. In Eyleria's K-12 schools, the ratio of computers to students is 1:7. This
number is sufficient to ensure that all of Eyleria's students, by the time they graduate from high school, will be
fully proficient in the use of computer technology. Thus, there is no reason to spend any of the schools' budget on
computers or other technology in the next few years."
_____________
36. The Treasury has once again introduced a dollar coin, the Pine Tree dollar. Neither the Presidential dollar coin,
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introduced 11 years ago, nor the Eagle dollar coin, introduced 3 years ago, remained in circulation long: people
simply preferred spending paper dollars. However, a survey conducted soon after its release indicates that the Pine
Tree dollar is far more appealing than other dollar coins: 76 percent of respondents own the coin; 62 percent of
those owning multiple coins consider it so attractive that they are still saving rather than spending the most recent
coin to come into their possession. Since the Pine Tree coin promises. to become the dollar currency of choice, the
Treasury is correct to begin saving money by dramatically reducing the costly printing of paper dollars.
_____________
37. When Stanley Park first opened, it was the largest, most heavily used park in town. It is still the largest park,
but it is no longer heavily used. Video cameras mounted in the park's parking lots last month revealed the park's
drop in popularity: the recordings showed an average of only 50 cars per day. In contrast, tiny Carlton Park in the
heart of the business district is visited by more than 150 people on a typical weekday. An obvious difference is that
Carlton Park, unlike Stanley Park, provides ample seating. Thus, if Stanley Park is ever to be as popular with our
citizens as is Carlton Park, the town will obviously need to provide more benches, thereby converting some of the
unused open areas into spaces suitable for socializing.
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38. The following appeared in a memo from the Dean of the College of Education at Omni State University.
"Only seven of our state's high schools offer even one course in Latin, but over 80 percent of the graduates who
study Latin at those seven schools enroll in college. Furthermore, a recent study shows that students who have
mastered Latin perform much better in logic and critical thinking. Thus, in order to increase the percentage of our
high school students who graduate from college as well as to ensure that they receive a better education in critical
thinking, Omni State University should begin an intensive program to prepare our future teachers to teach high
school Latin."
_____________
39. The following appeared in a memo from the president of a chain of cheese stores located throughout the United
States.
"For many years all the stores in our chain have stocked a wide variety of both domestic and imported cheeses.
Last year, however, the five best-selling cheeses at our newest store were all domestic cheddar cheeses from
Wisconsin, Furthermore, a recent survey by Cheeses of the World magazine indicates an increasing preference for
domestic cheeses among its subscribers. Since our company can reduce expenses by limiting inventory, the best
way to improve profits in all of our stores is to discontinue stocking many of our varieties of imported cheese and
concentrate primarily on domestic cheeses."
_____________
40. The following appeared in a letter from a firm providing investment advice to a client
"Homes in the northeastern United States, where winters are typically cold, have traditionally used oil as their
major fuel for heating. Last year that region experienced 90 days with below-average temperatures, and climate
forecasters at Waymarsh University predict that this weather pattern will continue for several more years.
Furthermore, many new homes have been built in this region during the past year. Because of these developments,
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we predict an increased demand for heating oil and recommend investment in Consolidated Industries, one of
whose major business operations is the retail sale of home heating oil."
_____________
41. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of a newspaper serving the villages of Castorville and
Polluxton.
"Both the villages of Castorville and Polluxton have experienced sharp declines in the numbers of residents who
pay property taxes. To save money and improve service, the two villages recently merged their once separate
garbage collection departments into a single department located in Castorville, and the new department has
reported few complaints about its service. Last year the library in Polluxton had 20 percent fewer users 'than
during the previous year. It follows that we should now further economize and improve service, as we did with
garbage collection, by closing the library in Polluxton and using the library in Castorville to serve both villages."
_____________
42. The following appeared in a memo from a budget planner for the City of Grandview.
"To avoid a budget deficit next year, the City of Grandview must eliminate its funding for the Grandview
Symphony. Our citizens are well aware of the fact that while the Grandview Symphony Orchestra was struggling
to succeed, our city government promised annual funding to help support its programs. Last year, however, private
contributions to the Symphony increased by 200 percent, and attendance at the Symphony's concerts-in-the-park
series doubled. The Symphony has also announced an increase in ticket prices for next year. Such developments
indicate that the Symphony can now succeed without funding from city government and we can eliminate that
expense from next year's budget. This action will surely prevent a budget deficit."
_____________
43. Yellow-legged frogs were once common in high-altitude lakes in the Sierra Nevada mountains, but they have
become increasingly rare. Trout feed on tadpoles and young frogs. Few lakes in the Sierra Nevada had any trout in
them until a hundred years ago. At that time, many lakes were stocked with trout for recreational fishing, and now
trout are common in virtually all bodies of water in the Sierra Nevada. Researchers removed the trout from one
lake, and the frog population soon quadrupled. Since frogs are capable of moving several miles over land,
removing trout from just a few lakes is clearly the way to restore the frog population to its former levels.
_____________
44. Studies show that in 70 percent of traffic accidents, at least one driver involved is less than 10 miles from home
when the accident occurs. This statistic indicates that drivers have a tendency to drive incautiously when they are
close to home, probably because familiar surroundings give them a false sense of security. Thus, the places where
people feel safest are the places where they are in fact at greatest risk of serious injury.
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45. Copper occurs in nature mixed with other minerals and valuable metals in ore, and the proportion of copper in
the ore can vary considerably. Until fairly recently, the only way to extract pure copper from ore was by using a
process that requires large amounts of electric energy, especially if the proportion of copper in the ore is low. New
copper-extracting technologies can use up to 40 percent less electricity than the older method to process the same
amount of raw ore, especially when the proportion of copper in the ore is high. Therefore, we can expect the
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amount of electricity used by the copper-extraction industry to decline significantly.
_____________
46. In measuring electrical activity in different parts of the brain, researchers found that people who describe
themselves as generally happy have more activity in the left prefrontal lobe of their brains than do other people.
Therefore, a medication for stimulating the left prefrontal lobe of the brain would be an effective treatment for
clinical depression.
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47. The following appeared in a memo from a manager of a car dealership.
"Ten years ago, long-term car leasing became available in our country of Mohilia as an alternative to outright car
ownership, and leasing has steadily risen in popularity. For each of the last five years, the number of people leasing
new cars has surpassed the number buying new cars. The average age of cars driven in Mohilia is six years; hence,
if new car leases again outnumber purchases this year, it is likely that the majority of drivers will be driving leased,
not individually owned, cars. Therefore, we should change the focus of our business from selling cars to leasing
them."
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48. The following appeared in a newsletter about education policy.
"The average annual earnings of high school dropouts are significantly less than the average annual earnings of
high school graduates. To address this problem, the state governor has proposed that the state should establish free
vocational training programs for high school dropouts. But the availability of such programs would probably
encourage some students who would otherwise have graduated to drop out in order to pursue vocational training.
Hence the proposed programs would lower, not raise, the average earning potential of young people. Therefore, the
state should not establish the vocational training programs but should instead focus on improving academic
programs in our high schools."
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49. The following appeared in a newsletter about health.
"The proportion of children in the United, States who are overweight is greater now than ever before. Obesity rates
among children have been increasing since the 1970's, and during that same time period, the proportion of children
living in suburbs has increased. Whereas children in rural areas tend to have outdoor active chores and children in
cities often walk to school or other places they need to go, children in suburbs are typically driven everywhere.
Thus the increase in childhood obesity is probably due mainly to the suburbanization of America and the
associated decrease in the opportunities children have for exercise."
_____________
50. The following appeared as part of an article in a health and beauty magazine.
"A group of volunteers participated in a study of consumer responses to the new Luxess face cream. Every
morning for a month, they washed their faces with mild soap and then applied Luxess. At the end of that month,
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most volunteers reported a marked improvement in the way their skin looked and felt. Thus it appears that Luxess
is truly effective in improving the condition of facial skin."
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51. The cities of East Sacunda and West Sacunda are in an earthquake-prone area. Since 1985 both cities have had
stringent building codes requiring all new buildings to have specific features designed to prevent damage in an
earthquake. Buildings built before 1985 are exempt from the codes, but many building owners have modified their
buildings to make them conform to the 1985 codes. Last year a major earthquake hit the area, and many people
lost their homes. The number of people who were left homeless was much higher in East Sacunda than in West
Sacunda, however, so we can conclude that building owners in East Sacunda were less likely to modify their
buildings so as to bring them up to the 1985 code standards.
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52. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of an archaeological magazine.
"Archaeologists excavated a cave that had been inhabited by prehistoric people for thousands of years. These
people hunted wild animals, many of whose bones were found at levels corresponding to different times of
habitation. Most of the bones at the oldest levels, over 40,000 years old, were from a deer species whose
modern-day descendants are known to prefer woodland habitats, whereas most of the bones at more recent levels,
dating from 30,000 to 10,000 years ago, were from a gazelle species whose modem-day descendants are known to
prefer grasslands. We can thus conclude that the climate of the area changed dramatically between 40,000 and
30,000 years ago, causing the terrain to change from woodland to grassland."
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53. The following appeared in a magazine for the trucking industry.
"The Longhaul trucking company was concerned that its annual accident rate (the number of accidents per mile
driven) was too high. It granted a significant pay increase to its drivers and increased its training standards. It also
put strict limits on the number of hours per week each driver could drive. The following year, its trucks were
involved in half the number of accidents as before the changes were implemented. A survey of other trucking
companies found that the highest-paid drivers were the least likely to have had an accident. Therefore, trucking
companies wishing to reduce their accident rate can do so simply by raising their drivers' pay and limiting the
overall number of hours they drive."
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54. The following appeared as an editorial in a health magazine.
"Clormium 5 is an odorless, tasteless, and generally harmless industrial by-product that can enter the water supply.
A preliminary study has linked cooking with water containing clormium 5 to an increased incidence of allergies
and skin rashes. Tests of the drinking water in several areas have revealed the presence of clormium 5. Although it
is possible to remove clormium 5 from water, the costs of routine testing and purification are higher than many
communities can afford. Therefore, in order to prevent allergies and skin rashes, communities that cannot afford to
rid their drinking water of clormium 5 should replace drinking fountains in public buildings, such as schools and
libraries, with bottled-water coolers."
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55. Allergies are an overreaction of the immune system to certain stimuli. One view is that allergies can develop as
the result of childhood exposure to certain irritants, such as dust or animal dander, while the immune system is not
yet mature. Another view is that exposure to particular bacteria early in childhood actually triggers the proper
development of the immune system, and that limiting exposure to these bacteria through excessive hygiene can
cause children's immune systems to overreact to certain irritants later on. A new study supports the second view:
children who are washed especially frequently and whose parents clean their homes especially frequently are more
likely to develop allergies than are other children. So in order to reduce the incidence of allergies in children and
adults, parents should not limit children's exposure to irritants or bacteria.
_____________
56. The following appeared in a letter to an editor.
"In many countries, wood is the primary fuel used for heating and cooking, but wood smoke can cause respiratory
and eye problems, and extensive use of wood causes deforestation, a major environmental problem. In contrast,
charcoal, made by partially burning wood in a controlled process, is a fuel that creates less smoke than wood does.
Moreover, although charcoal costs slightly more than wood, less charcoal is needed to produce the same amount of
heat. Therefore, people who use wood as their primary fuel can, without experiencing economic hardship, switch
to charcoal and can thereby improve their health and preserve the environment."
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57. The following appeared in a memo from the business manager of Medicine, Inc., a local drugstore.
"Most business analysts for the drugstore industry have stated that even when a nation's economy is weak,
drugstores' profits are unlikely to decline appreciably. While consumers might put off some kinds of purchases
when the economy is slow, prescription and over-the-counter drug purchases are dictated by consumers' health
needs, which are independent of the economy. Therefore, Medicine Inc. is likely to continue to have increasing
profits and should plan to open an additional drugstore next year."
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58. The following appeared in a memo written by the head of the Gorham School.
"Our school cafeteria should make changes in the lunches that it serves in order to improve the health of our
students. Several teachers and I have observed that students who eat these meals tend to eat the main course and
the dessert, but seldom finish the vegetable portion. This pattern means that students are missing the vital
nutritional benefits of fruits and vegetables, which are typically rich in vitamins and minerals. Therefore, the
school cafeteria should serve larger fruit and vegetable portions along with smaller main course and dessert
portions. This change will be effective because, according to research conducted at the Rose Children's Hospital,
children eat the same amount of food served to them—about 55 percent, on average—no matter what the main
course is."
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59. The following appeared in the letter to an editor of a Myrian newspaper.
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"Under Governor Winslow's leadership over the past four years, Myria has enjoyed unprecedented prosperity.
Average wage increases this year are higher than they have been at any time since the 1970's, the number of people
who report being unemployed has decreased by 10 percent, and construction of new homes is up by one third. In
contrast, over the past four years Governor Winslow's opponent, Mr. Homer, has been mayor of a city in which
only a small number of new businesses have opened. If Myrians want another four years like the past four years,
they should reelect Governor Winslow."
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60. The following appeared in a memo from a member of the Clark City School Board.
"Mason Elementary School is faced with a shortage of classroom space. At the same time, parents in our district
are increasingly expressing the desire to see improvements in their children's reading abilities. Therefore, we
should reduce the number of physical education classes at Mason Elementary and convert part of the gymnasium
to class-room space. The school will gain the additional space for classrooms without the cost of extending the
building and can use the time that students would have spent in physical education classes to provide more reading
instruction. This plan will lead to improvements in students' reading skills."
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61. The following appeared in a memo to managers of Christine's, a chain of craft stores.
"Several major newspapers have recently run articles noting an increased interest in pottery. The number of potters
in this country has risen by eighteen percent in the past five years, and pottery is particularly gaining popularity on
college campuses. In order to take advantage of these trends, Christine's should immediately begin carrying a
larger volume of pottery supplies. Since several of our stores have recently experienced a decrease in sales of
painting supplies, all store managers should reallocate shelf space from the painting area for the display of pottery.
Stores should display posters showing pottery that is designed to appeal to college-age individuals. These actions
will undoubtedly increase our profits dramatically."
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62. The following appeared in a newsletter about health published in the country of Sauria.
"According to Sauna's leading nutritional experts, a diet high in complex carbohydrates, and low in fat is optimal
for good health and longevity. Because this was the diet of the people who lived in ancient Sauria, one would
expect them to have had long and healthy lives. Yet the mummified remains of Sauna's ruling classes from two to
three thousand years ago show the existence of many medical problems among the ancient Saurians, including
dental problems, elevated blood pressure, obesity, heart disease, and early mortality. Clearly, the diet of the ancient
Saurians was responsible for these problems. The high incidence of high blood pressure, obesity, and heart disease
in Sauria today even among those who have tried low-fat, high-carbohydrate diets further proves that Sauna's
leading nutritional experts are wrong."
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63. The following appeared in a newspaper published in the state of Celera.
"Speed limits on our state's highways should be eliminated in order to increase our state's prosperity. Because
greater speed means more efficient travel, commercial deliveries will be faster, increasing business profits.
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Elimination of speed limits will also make driving more attractive to motorists, so that more people will use the
highways, providing more highway toll revenues for the state. At the same time, safety on our highways will not
be affected: daytime speed limits were eliminated last year in the western states of our country, and no significant
increase in the number of accidents in these states has been reported."
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64. The following appeared in an editorial on health problems in the country of Corpora.
"Some pharmacies now feature ultrasound machines that screen for an elevated risk of stroke. For a fee, a
technician presses a probe against the neck to determine whether any plaque has thickened the walls of the main
artery leading to the brain. Researchers have shown that a thickening of artery walls is associated with elevated
stroke risk, and such scans typically find that anywhere from 5 to 20 percent of clients have detectable plaque. All
pharmacies should offer this service, because early detection of increased risk for stroke will encourage clients to
consult with their doctors and make important life-style changes to reduce their risk of having a stroke. This in turn
will cause a decrease in overall medical costs in Corpora."
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65. The following appeared in an article in Supplements Today.
"Dieticians have long known that professional athletes who eat a lot of nuts have higher levels of endurance than
those who do not. Researchers have recently discovered that the particular combination of vitamin N and fiber
found in some nuts provides a boost for those who participate in strenuous physical activities daily. Both vitamin N
and fiber supplements are easily synthesized and widely available. As a result, all those who participate in athletic
activities will be able to increase their endurance and win more games by taking vitamin N along with a fiber
supplement."
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66. The following is a recommendation from the human resources department at Techforce Computer Company.
"Many working parents report that problems related to their childcare arrangements are a major reason for
absenteeism from their jobs. Bridgewell Corporation, a tele-communications company, implemented an on-site
childcare program and after one year, the company reported that unscheduled absences had declined by 25 percent.
Since Techforce has had an increase in unscheduled employee absences over the past year, we should therefore
implement our own on-site childcare program. The program will undoubtedly reduce our unscheduled employee
absences, resulting in significantly increased productivity."
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67. The following appeared in a memo from a vice president of a large, highly diversified company.
"Ten years ago our company had two new regional office buildings built in two different regions. The buildings
were erected by two different construction companies—Alpha and Zeta. Even though the two buildings had
virtually identical floor plans, the building constructed by Zeta cost 30 percent more to build, and its expenses for
maintenance last year were twice those of the building constructed by Alpha. Furthermore, the energy consumption
of the Zeta building has been higher than that of the Alpha building every year since its construction. Such data,
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plus the fact that Alpha has a stable workforce with little employee turnover, indicate that we should use Alpha
Construction Company, rather than Zeta, for all future building projects."
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68. The following appeared in a memo from the president of Bower Builders, a company that constructs new
homes.
"A nationwide survey reveals that the two most desired home features are a bathroom with a whirlpool tub and a
large kitchen. Homes in a nearby development built by our competitor, Domus Construction, have whirlpool tubs
and have sold much faster and at significantly higher prices than the average. To increase our sales and profits, we
should include whirlpool tubs and larger kitchens as standard features in all our new homes. Since our recent
buyers have voiced no complaints about small yards, we can also increase profits by decreasing the size of our
yards."
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69. The following appeared in a memo from a budget planner in Sophia County.
"Census data indicate that the number of retired couples without children who are moving into Sophia County is
steadily rising; private schools in our county report substantial increases in enrollment; and a statewide survey of
parents shows that over 10 percent now support the idea of home schooling instead of public schooling funded by
the county government. Such demographic trends suggest that our county will not have to construct new school
buildings and that we can therefore decrease the budget for county-funded public schools."
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70. The following appeared in a magazine focusing on health and fitness.
"A recent study of several nutritional supplements showed that subjects who took a daily pill containing luceen had
significantly better vision of distant objects than subjects in the study who took other nutritional supplements.
Luceen appears naturally in a tasty fruit that grows on the island of Bonopia, and very few inhabitants of that
island wear eyeglasses or other corrective lenses. Such evidence suggests that people who develop vision problems
should take regular luceen supplements."
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71. The following appeared in a memo from the manager of television station KICK.
"A nationwide survey reveals that a sizeable majority of men would like to see additional sports programs on
television. After television station WACK increased its sports broadcasts, its share of the television audience in its
viewing area almost doubled. To gain a larger audience share in our area, and thus increase company profits, KICK
should also revise its broadcast schedule to include more sports coverage."
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72. The following appeared in a memo from the director of a large group of hospitals.
"In a laboratory study of liquid antibacterial hand soaps, a concentrated solution of Nadasept killed 40 percent
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more bacteria than the liquid hand soaps currently used in our hospitals. During a subsequent test of Nadasept at
our hospital in Saluda, that hospital reported significantly fewer cases of patient infection than did any of the other
hospitals in our group. Therefore, to prevent serious patient infections, we should supply Nadasept at all hand
washing stations throughout our hospital system."
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73. The following appeared in a memo from the economic minister of the small country Paucia.
"Using a newly developed variety of seed, farmers in our neighboring country Abundia produced 80 percent more
rice last year than in any previous year. To increase the income of farmers in our own country, we should
encourage them to cultivate this new variety of rice rather than some of their traditional crops. Such high yields of
rice will also improve our country's balance of trade by enabling us to begin exporting it."
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74. The following appeared in a memo from the chief operating officer of the Presto Manufacturing Company.
"Since orders for our major product increased by over 200 percent last quarter, we should promptly expand
production by building a new manufacturing plant in Summit City. Summit City is the ideal location for the new
plant because it has low property taxes, extensive blocks of land available for immediate purchase, and a large
number of residents who are not currently employed."
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75. The following appeared in a memo from the president of a company that makes breakfast cereals.
"In a recent study, subjects who ate soybeans at least five times per week had significantly lower cholesterol levels
than subjects who ate no soy products. By fortifying our Wheat-O cereal with soy protein, we can increase sales by
appealing to additional consumers who are concerned about their health. This new version of Wheat-O should
increase company profits and, at the same time, improve the health of our customers."
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76. The following appeared in a letter from the mayor of Tudor City.
"After a major airline chose Yorkville as its regional flight hub, the number of businesses in that city almost
doubled and local tax revenue increased by 50 percent. In addition, as travel to Yorkville became easier, most
respondents to a survey of the country's top executives identified Yorkville as a desirable place to transact business.
To secure efficient transportation for Tudor City and stimulate our local economy, we should build a new airport,
like the one in Yorkville, that is suitable for a regional flight hub."
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77. Blue City Highway had always been notorious for its tight curves and poor roadway visibility, and the accident
rate there was generally very high. Last year the highway was redesigned to broaden the curves and improve
roadway visibility. Drivers report that they now feel much safer driving on the highway and that the redesign has
been a big improvement. But the number of accidents on the highway has not been significantly lower in the six
months since the redesign than it was in the six months before the redesign. Therefore, the redesign clearly did not
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improve the curves and roadway visibility enough to make a difference.
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78. One kind of brain-scanning device is used by doctors to monitor normal as well as abnormal activity in a
patient's brain. The device provides precise measurements of blood flow in the brain, a known indicator of how the
brain is working. Unfortunately, the device requires patients to remain completely still with their heads in the
scanning machine, which makes a very loud noise. Under these uncomfortable conditions, it is doubtful that
doctors can get accurate measurements. A new head-mounted device that measures eye movements rather than
blood flow and allows patients to move around will undoubtedly provide better brain measurements. Thus, the new
head-mounted device should replace the older device at all hospitals and research institutions.
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79. The following appeared in a health newsletter.
"According to a recent study, people with many social ties report catching colds less often than do people with few
social ties. Consequently, researchers conclude that having an active social life probably helps strengthen the
immune system. The researchers note that catching a cold—one of a family of highly contagious viruses—gives
the cold-sufferer temporary immunity to that virus in the future, but not to the many other related viruses. Merely
being exposed to a new cold virus, however, is not enough for a person to catch a cold, since a strong immune
system can successfully fight off some new viruses. Thus, in order to prevent catching a cold, people should
strengthen their immune systems by becoming more active socially."
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80. The following editorial appeared in a newspaper in the country of Solaria.
"The Eliot Valley region was primarily agricultural twenty years ago. In the past twenty years, however, many
computer-chip manufacturers have opened factories there. A recent study found that water pollution in the region
was worse than in any other region in the country. Moreover, the computer-chip factories, which use large
quantities of water to manufacture the chips, are probably responsible for the low levels of water in the region's
lakes and reservoirs. Therefore, if the region's computer-chip makers had limits placed on the amount of water they
could use, water quality would improve."
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81. The following appeared in an editorial in the Seatown newspaper.
"Seatown has a large port exclusively for fishing boats, whose owners pay fees for the upkeep of the docks and for
facilities for cleaning engines and repairing nets. In recent years, declining fish populations have decreased fishing
revenue and forced many owners to stop fishing altogether. As a result, the port has a high vacancy rate and port
managers are considering allowing pleasure boats, including cruise ships and other large vessels, to use the port in
order to increase revenue. But allowing pleasure boats into the port would be a mistake, because the fishing boats
would be forced out of the port. We should preserve the port for the fishing fleet, which, unlike pleasure boats,
contributes to the prosperity of Seatown."
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82. The following appeared in a Brenton newspaper.
"The Brenton power plant draws water from Scott's River for its cooling system and releases the warmed water
back into the river. The town council recommends that the plant install a more efficient cooling system that uses
less water, claiming it will be more environmentally sound. However, in Uptown, where the new system is used, a
study found that the complex network of pipes in the new system tends to accumulate algae. The build up of algae
can be avoided by scrubbing the pipes, which is costly, or by adding an herbicide to the water in the pipes to
prevent algae accumulation. But water containing the herbicide cannot be released back into the river and it is
known that low water levels can harm river ecosystems accustomed to higher levels. Therefore, Brenton power
plant should continue to use the old cooling system exclusively."
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83. The following appeared in a letter to the editor of the Maple City newspaper.
"Twenty years ago Pine City established strict laws designed to limit the number of new buildings that could be
constructed in the city. Since that time the average housing prices in Pine City have increased considerably.
Chestnut City, which is about the same size as Pine City, has over the past twenty years experienced an increase in
average housing prices similar to Pine City, but Chestnut City never established any laws that limit new building
construction. So it is clear that laws limiting new construction have no effect on average housing prices. So if
Maple City were to establish strict laws that limit new building construction, these laws will have no effect on
average housing prices."
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84. The following appeared in a memo from the Principal of Sherwood Junior High School.
"It appears that the lighting in Sherwood High's classrooms, which have large windows but minimal overhead light
sources, is impairing student academic performance and teacher morale. Records show that during December and
January, the two months with the fewest hours of daylight, attendance rates fall, average daily class participation
drops, and grades decline. Teacher resignations are also highest during these months. According to a study of
Tundra Vocational School, which experiences entire seasons with little daylight, students' grade point averages
increased when Day Glow light bulbs, which mimic sunlight, were installed in classrooms. This study suggests
that Sherwood can improve students' academic performance and teachers' morale by using Day Glow light bulbs in
winter."
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85. The following appeared in a memo from the vice president of marketing at Dura-Sock, Inc.
"A recent study of Dura-Sock wearers suggests that our company is wasting the money it spends on its patented
"Endure" manufacturing process, which ensures that our socks are strong enough to last for two years. Dura-Sock
has always advertised its use of the "Endure" process, but the new study shows that the average Dura-Sock
customer actually purchases new Dura-Socks every three months. Furthermore, Dura-Sock customers surveyed in
our largest market, northeastern United States cities, say that they most value Dura-Sock's stylish appearance and
availability in many colors. These findings suggest that Dura-Sock can increase its profits by discontinuing its use
of the "Endure" manufacturing process."
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86. The following proposal was raised at a meeting of the Franklin City Council.
"Franklin Airport, which is on a bay, is notorious for flight delays. The airport management wants to build new
runways to increase capacity but can only do so by filling in 900 acres of the bay. The Bay Coalition organization
objects that filling in the bay will disrupt tidal patterns and harm wildlife. But the airport says that if it is permitted
to build its new runways, it will fund the restoration of 1,000 acres of wetlands in areas of the bay that have
previously been damaged by industrialization. This plan should be adopted, for it is necessary to reduce the flight
delays, and the wetlands restoration part of the plan ensures that the bay's environment will actually be helped
rather than hurt."
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87. The following was published by a consumer protection agency.
"Three years ago, So-Low launched a nationwide ad campaign, focusing heavily on sunny regions and distributing
free sunglasses there. But although So-Low sunglasses cost less than higher-priced brands, they block a smaller
proportion of the Sun's rays, including the type of rays known to damage the eyes even when the person wearing
the sunglasses feels no discomfort. A recent study suggests that So-Low sunglasses can actually increase the risk of
damage to people's eyes by creating a false sense of security. The study shows a sharp increase in the incidence of
vision problems in the sunny regions over the past three years. These findings suggest that anyone concerned about
eye damage from the Sun should avoid So-Low brand and instead either pay for higher-priced brands or wear no
sunglasses at all."
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88. A recently completed study shows that people dwelling in stairs-only apartment buildings (that is, buildings
without elevators) live an average of three years longer than do people who live in buildings with both elevators
and stairs. A second study shows that elderly residents of buildings with elevators make, on average, twice as many
visits to doctors each year as do elderly residents of buildings without elevators. These findings suggest that even a
very moderate amount of daily exercise, such as that required to use the stairs leading to and from one's apartment,
can increase people's health and longevity. The findings also suggest that new apartment buildings should be
constructed with as few elevators as possible.
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89. The following appeared in a clothing industry trade journal in the country of Sartoria.
"A popular fashion magazine recently conducted a survey of consumers' opinions about clothing prices, using
prepaid mailing envelopes. Eighty-nine percent of the approximately 20,000 respondents reported that they were
either "dissatisfied" or "very dissatisfied" with current clothing prices. The large number of responses indicates that
the Sartorian clothing industry is at risk. Given the survey results, clothing manufacturers must find a way to
reduce prices in order to keep their existing customers and maintain their businesses."
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90. The following appeared in a memo from Grocery Town's regional manager.
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"The new Grocery Town store in Elm City, located near a new residential development, has a high-low' pricing
policy where average prices are relatively high, but deep discounts are offered on some items in weekly specials.
This store has been showing increased profits every month as the nearby residential development gets closer to full
capacity. It follows that people prefer a pricing policy where they can find bargains on specific items. Since there
is a new residential development planned in Oak City, we should change the pricing policy at all of our Oak City
stores from our current 'everyday low prices' policy to a "high-low" policy. This will increase the profits at all of
our stores in Oak City."
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91. The following is a memo from the business manager of Valu-Mart stores.
"Over 70 percent of the respondents to a recent survey reported that they are required to take more work home
with them from the workplace than they were in the past. Since Valu-Mart has not seen impressive sales in its
office-supply departments in the past, we should take advantage of this work-at-home trend by increasing at all
Valu-Mart stores the stock of home office machines such as printers, small copy machines, paper shredders, and
fax machines. We will also increase stock of office supplies such as paper, pens, and staplers. With these changes,
our office-supply departments will become the most profitable component of our stores."
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92. The following appeared in a newsletter from a national astronomy association.
"Various sources are predicting higher-than-average temperatures across the country next winter, including in Sun
City, the traditional location of our yearly winter conference. Higher winter temperatures are sure to result in
higher-than-usual tourism in Sun City, a location already known for its attractive beaches and good weather. Hotels
will have fewer rooms available, transportation will be more difficult to reserve, and public places such as parks
and restaurants will be more crowded. These conditions are likely to significantly reduce attendance at the
conference. We should therefore move our conference to a city less popular with winter tourists."
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93. The following is a letter to the editor of the Waymarsh Times.
"Traffic problems here in Waymarsh are obviously reaching record levels. While just three months ago it would
take me 15 minutes to get to work, it now takes closer to 25. Waymarsh should follow the example of our
neighboring city Gearsville. Last year, Gearsville implemented a policy that rewards people who share rides to
work with coupons for free gas. Pollution levels in Gearsville have dropped since the policy was implemented, and
several friends who live in Gearsville tell me that their trip to work is quicker than it used to be. With the terrible
traffic and high pollution in Waymarsh, we must implement a policy similar to Gearsville's."
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94. The following appeared in a health newsletter.
"A ten-year nationwide study of the effectiveness of wearing a helmet while bicycling indicates that ten years ago,
approximately 35 percent of all bicyclists reported wearing helmets, whereas today that number is nearly 80
percent. Another study, however, suggests that during the same ten-year period, the number of accidents caused by
bicycling has increased 200 percent. These results demonstrate that bicyclists feel safer because they are wearing
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helmets and they take more risks as a result. Thus, to reduce the number of serious injuries from bicycle accidents,
the government should concentrate more on educating people about bicycle safety and less on encouraging or
requiring bicyclists to wear helmets."
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95. The following is a memo from the president of Cyberell Computer Company.
"All of our customer-service employees recently attended a two-day retreat during which they received retraining
in effective customer service. Subsequently, Cyberell's employee-performance study showed that the retreat
benefited new employees—hose who have worked with Cyberell for less than two years—far more than it did
experienced employees. According to the study, after the retreat new employees were able to handle an average of
ten percent more calls per hour, and the total number of customer complaints about new employees decreased, but
experienced employees showed little improvement in these areas. Therefore, Cyberell should send only new
employees to future retreats and should use the resulting savings to double the length of the retreats so that the
retreats will be more likely to yield optimum employee performance."
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96. The following appeared in the Pine City Gazette.
"Fifteen years ago, Pine City launched an electricity-conservation program that reimbursed residents some of the
cost for replacing energy-wasteful motors, home office equipment, and home appliances with energy-efficient ones.
For ten years, spending on this program increased annually, and annual total energy consumption declined. But
spending on the program began to decline five years ago, and since then Pine City's total electricity consumption
has increased sharply. If this increased usage continues, the city will have to build a costly new power plant.
Obviously the best way to avoid this expense is to increase reimbursement to residents for replacing
energy-wasteful equipment. This will reduce energy usage to the levels of five years ago."
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97. The following appeared in a health newsletter.
"Eating a heavy meal may increase the risk of heart attack. A recent survey of 2,000 people who had had a heart
attack revealed that 158 of them said they had eaten a heavy meal within 24 hours before their heart attack, and 25
of them said they had eaten a heavy meal within 2 hours before their heart attack. Eating and digesting food
releases hormones into the bloodstream and temporarily increases heart rate and blood pressure slightly. Both of
these things put stress on the heart. Therefore, people who are at risk of having a heart attack can lower that risk by
not overeating."
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98. The following is a memo from the business manager of National Daily News.
"To expand the home delivery service of our national newspaper, we should concentrate on the state of Urba rather
than on the state of Sylva. First, the population of Sylva is more widely dispersed, which would require us to spend
more money to deliver our papers in that area, resulting in less profit per customer. Second, a long-term study of
television viewing habits suggests that Sylvans prefer local to national news, since they spend twice as much time
viewing local news programs as they do viewing national programs. Finally, because events in Urba receive more
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coverage in our newspaper than do events in Sylva, we can expect Urbans to be more interested in reading our
newspaper."
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99. The following is a recommendation from the president of Appleby College.
"Whereas Appleby College holds class reunions every five years, Edelston College holds annual reunions for all
classes, during which Edelston's alumni are treated to banquets, lectures, arid student performances, enhancing
their loyalty to the college and their willingness to donate money. Edelston College receives most of its alumni
donations during or shortly after these reunions. Therefore, the best way for Appleby to increase its alumni
donations is to offer similar reunion activities and to have each graduating class hold annual reunions."
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100. The following appeared in a health magazine.
"It has long been believed that getting at least eight hours of sleep a night is good for health. But a recent six-year
study of adult sleeping habits found that people who reported sleeping eight or more hours a night had a higher
rate of certain health problems than did those who reported sleeping seven hours a night. People who reported
sleeping five hours a night also had an increased rate of the health problems, but this increase was slight compared
to that for people who reported sleeping eight or more hours a night. Clearly, people should try to get seven hours
of sleep, and they should worry more about getting too much sleep than too little."
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101. The vice president for human resources at Climpson Industries sent the following recommendation to the
company's president.
"In an effort to improve our employees' productivity, we should implement electronic monitoring of employees'
Internet use from their workstations. Employees who use the Internet from their workstations need to be identified
and punished if we are to reduce the number of work hours spent on personal or recreational activities, such as
shopping or playing games. By installing software to detect employees' Internet use on company computers, we
can prevent employees from wasting time, foster a better work ethic at Climpson, and improve our overall profits."
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102. The following appeared in an editorial in the Garden City Gazette.
"To address the parking problems in our downtown business district, it has been proposed that the city increase
parking capacity by building a four-story parking garage. However, this project would cost more than it would to
improve the downtown pedestrian plaza. Because the pedestrian plaza is an important attraction that draws people
to the downtown area, improvements to it will increase business for downtown merchants. The merchants' higher
profits will ultimately produce increased tax revenues for the city. Therefore, we should invest in the plaza
improvements first and then use the revenues thus generated to pay for the construction of the parking garage."
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103. The following appeared in the Sherwood Times newspaper.
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"A recent study reported that pet owners have longer, healthier lives on average than do people who own no pets.
Specifically, dog owners tend to have a lower incidence of heart disease. In light of these findings, Sherwood
Hospital should form a partnership with Sherwood Animal Shelter to institute an 'adopt-a-dog' program. The
program would encourage dog ownership for patients recovering from heart disease, which will help reduce
medical costs by reducing the number of these patients needing ongoing treatment. In addition, the publicity about
the program will encourage more people to adopt pets from the shelter, which will reduce the risk of heart disease
in the general population."
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104. The following appeared in the annual report of a chain of stores that sell supplies for do-it-yourself home
improvements.
"Current reports indicate that sales of new homes nationwide declined by 9 percent during the past year, while
sales of existing homes increased by 16 percent. Thus we can expect that the percentage of homeowners who will
be making repairs or improvements to their homes will also increase. In addition, people who buy existing homes
will have more money left over after the purchase to spend on home improvements. Finally, people who buy
existing homes are more likely to make improvements themselves, as opposed to paying; someone else. These
factors combined indicate we can expect an increasing demand for products in all our stores nationwide, thus
increasing our profits in the coming year."
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105. The following appeared in an environmental newsletter published in Tria Island.
"The marine sanctuary on Tria Island was established to protect certain marine mammals. Its regulations ban
dumping and offshore oil drilling within 20 miles of Tria, but fishing is not banned. Currently many fish
populations in Tria's waters are declining, a situation blamed on pollution. In contrast, the marine sanctuary on
Omni Island has regulations that ban dumping, offshore oil drilling, and fishing within 10 miles of Omni and Omni
reports no significant decline in its fish populations. Clearly, the decline in fish populations in Tria's waters is the
result of overfishing, not pollution. Therefore, the best way to restore Tria's fish populations and to protect all of
Tria's marine wildlife is to abandon our regulations and adopt those of Omni."
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106. The following appeared in an editorial in the local newspaper of Workville.
"Workers should be allowed to reduce their workload from 40 to 25 or even 20 hours per week because it is clear
that people who work part-time instead of full-time have better health and improved morale. One store in
Workville, which began allowing its employees to work part-time last year, reports that fewer days of sick leave
were taken last year than in previous years. In contrast, the factory in Workville, which does not allow any of its
employees to work part-time, had a slight increase in the number of days of sick leave taken last year. In addition,
a recent survey reports that most of the store employees stated that they are satisfied with their jobs, while many of
the factory employees stated that they are dissatisfied with their jobs."
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107. The following is a memo from the principal of Academia High School.
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"Academia High School should abolish its after-school performing-arts programs and replace them with
computer-technology programs. When nearby Techno High School did so last year, total enrollment in all of its
after-school activities remained about the same. Moreover, on entering college, many Techno students chose a
major directly related to their after-school activities. On the other hand, last year only 10 percent of Academia's
graduating seniors chose performing arts as their major field of study in their first year of college, clearly
indicating that most students do not have a strong interest in the performing arts."
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108. The following was taken from a guide for aspiring writers.
"New writers usually cannot convince large, prestigious publishers that their work is marketable, so they must first
publish with smaller, less well-known presses to establish a sales record. But the editors of Mystery Writers
Magazine have good news for aspiring writers: the number of mystery novels published in the last two years has
grown significantly, and more people read mysteries than any other type of novel. In addition, almost half of the
mystery novels published last year were written by first-time novel writers. Since there is apparently an expanding
market for mystery novels, all publishers will want to increase the number of mystery novels they publish.
Therefore, new writers should write mystery novels to increase their chances for first-time publication with a larger,
prestigious company."
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109. The following is a memorandum from the business manager of WLSS television station.
"Over the past year, our late-night news program has devoted increasingly more time to covering national news
and less time to covering weather and local news. During the same time period, most of the complaints we
received from viewers were concerned with the station's coverage of weather and local news. In addition, several
local businesses that used to run advertisements during our late-night news program have just cancelled their
advertising contracts with us. Therefore, in order to attract more viewers to our news programs and to avoid losing
any further advertising revenues, we should expand the coverage of weather and local news on all our news
programs."
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110. The following is part of a letter from the Brookfree School Board.
"As part of our new educational reform program, we identified ten schools most in need of immediate
improvement. An advisory committee is now recommending that we hire consultants to study further the schools'
problems and to propose a plan of action. Only two years ago, however, another group of consultants determined
that several schools in our district had problems because their principals were inexperienced. Thus, if we want to
see immediate improvement in our schools and save the district the money it would spend on hiring more
consultants, we should replace all the principals in the ten worst schools with ten of our most experienced
principals in the district."
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111. The following appeared in an editorial in the Mason City newspaper.
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"At present, Mason City residents seldom use the nearby Mason River for any kind of recreational activity, even
though surveys of the region's residents consistently rank water sports (swimming, fishing, and boating) as a
favorite form of recreation. Since there have been complaints about the quality of the water in the river, residents
must be avoiding the river because they think that it is not clean enough. But that situation is about to change: the
agency responsible for rivers in our region has announced plans to clean up Mason River. Therefore, recreational
use of the river is likely to increase, so the Mason City council will need to increase its budget for improvements to
the publicly owned lands along the Mason River."
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112. The following report appeared in a memo from the vice president of the Southside Transportation Authority.
"We should abandon our current five-year plan to purchase additional buses to serve the campus of Southside
University, because students there are unlikely to use them. Consider the results of the recent campaign sponsored
by the Environmental Club at Southside University: in a program on the campus radio station, the club asked
students to call in and pledge that they would commute to school by bus instead of by automobile at least one day
per week. Only ten percent of the students called in and pledged. In view of the campaign's lack of success, we can
assume that the bus service we currently offer will continue to be sufficient to serve the university."
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113. The following appeared in the editorial section of an educational publication.
"One study at Lee University found that first-semester grades of teenage students who had always attended public,
tax-supported schools were slightly lower than the grades of students who had received some home schooling
instruction by parents at home, although the grade differences disappeared in the second semester. These results
suggest that home schooling is the best way to educate teenage children. Therefore, instead of spending more
money on public education, the government should provide financial incentives so that home schooling is an
option for more parents. After all, children schooled at home receive more attention, since they are taught by the
best possible teacher: a parent who has a high stake in educating them well."
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114. Sadly, widespread negative images of businesspeople have been created in large part by television. Consider
the fact that, although they make up a mere 10 percent of the characters in dramatic roles on television,
businesspeople are responsible for about one-fifth of all the crime on television shows. In fact, in a recent survey
of television producers, only 35 percent of the television roles for businesspeople were viewed as positive ones.
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115. The following appeared as part of a recommendation made by a faculty member to the president of a large
university.
"Never once in our 150-year history as a university have we clarified our objectives. How, then, can we hope to
adapt as an institution to the new challenges facing higher education. As a first step in this evolutionary process,
therefore, we should send out questionnaires asking faculty members why they teach, asking students what they
want from this university, and asking former students what they gained from their own education here. When the
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replies come in, we can tabulate them and formulate an official statement of our educational mission. This will
surely result in improved programs at our university."
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116. There is a general idea that a translation always fails to preserve some of the qualities that distinguish the
original work—.e., that 'something always gets lost in translation.' Writers, critics, and the general reading public
unthinkingly accept this cliche. But this belief is unwarranted: translators are sometimes distinguished authors
themselves, and some authors may even translate their own works. As the translator pointed out in the preface to
an English version of Dante's works, the violin and the piano make different, sounds, but they can play what is
recognizably the same piece of music.
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117. There is a general idea that waiters and waitresses are more likely to receive larger gratuities from large
groups of people. A recent research study suggests this is not true. The researchers examined the relationship
between the size of tips in restaurants and the number of meals charged on the bill. They found that, while most
tips were around 15 percent, the minimum percentage considered appropriate, people dining alone tipped
consistently more (19 percent) and those dining in groups of four or more tipped considerably less (13 percent)
than this 15 percent standard. These results strongly suggest that people dining in a group are less likely to feel
personally responsible for leaving an adequate or generous tip.
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118. The following appeared in an article in a magazine for writers.
"A recent study showed that in describing a typical day's conversation, people make an average of 23 references to
watching television and only 1 reference to reading fiction. This result suggests that, compared with the television
industry, the publishing and bookselling industries are likely to decline in profitability. Therefore, people who wish
to have careers as writers should acquire training and experience in writing for television rather than for print
media."
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119. The following appeared as an editorial in one of Coleville's city newspapers.
"Even though a high percentage of Coleville City's businesses failed last year, we who live in Coleville City should
keep in mind the fact that the Coleville region has attracted a great many new businesses over the last three years.
It is well known that new businesses are, on average, much more likely to fail than are long-established ones, so
the business failures should not be considered a sign of poor economic health. Indeed, many analysts regard the
presence of a significant number of new companies among a region's businesses as a sign of economic health.
Thus Coleville City appears to be in good, not poor, economic shape."
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120. The following appeared as part of a memo from the manager of a hazardous-waste disposal company.
"Our new plan will help us better protect our staff against exposure to toxic chemicals: we are fitting each new
safety suit with an alarm that will sound in the main control booth when the suit is punctured. The control booth
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will notify the managers on duty, who will then take the necessary steps to ensure employees' safety. In addition to
the obvious safety-related benefits, the fast reaction time will ensure minimal work stoppage and thus result in
increased worker productivity and company profitability."
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121. The following appeared as a letter to the editor of a local Solano newspaper.
"The Solano school district should do away with its music education programs. After all, music programs are not
especially popular in our schools: only 20 percent of our high school students participated in music programs last
year. Furthermore, very few of the Solano district's college-bound students are interested in majoring in music at
the university level. Also, when the school district of our neighboring town of Rutherford eliminated its music
programs two years ago, the overall grade point average in the high school increased by 10 percent the next year.
Surely the money spent on Solano music programs could be better used to improve the quality of traditional
academic courses."
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