History Textbooks from 1965-2010
As W.E. Marsden points out in his typically meticulous and thoughtful book about the development
and role of the textbook in the teaching of history and geography, textbook research in Britain is
something of a ‘black hole’.1 He notes a dearth of articles in education journals from the late 1980s to
1990s. However, in the past decade, there has been more interest, with a themed issue of the
International Journal of Historical Learning, Teaching and Research (Vol. 3:2, July 2003) and
several other articles on textbooks in other issues. Stuart Foster and Keith Crawford have also
published an article in Nicholls, J. (ed.) School History Textbooks across Cultures: international
debates and perspectives (Oxford Studies in Comparative Education: Symposium Books, 2006) and
their own book, War, Nation, Memory: International Perspectives on World War 2 in School History
Textbooks (IAP Publishing, 2007). Several of the oral history interviews include discussion with
textbook authors, principally John D. Clare, Chris Culpin, Ian Dawson, Penelope Harnett and Michael
Riley. Several of the teachers interviewed discuss the role of textbooks in their teaching. John Simkin
in his interview discussed the issues facing independent publishers and changes in the production of
textbooks, CD-roms and resources on the internet since the 1980s. In addition, I discussed the
development of history textbooks with Jim Belben at Hodder Education and with Ben Walsh, an
independent textbook author. I was also able to make use of the collection of textbooks in the Institute
of Education and had the opportunity to look through the private collection of Ian Colwill.
Textbooks in the teaching of history in English state schools
Marsden identifies an ambivalent attitude towards textbooks amongst history teachers. They have
continued to buy textbooks in large numbers, but at the same time, the ideal history teacher is one
who does not rely on the textbook, or at least not on one textbook but instead, as a mark of teacher
professionalism and autonomy, creates his or her own resources particularly suited to each class or
course. This attitude seems to have reached its apogee in the 1970s, with the ‘home-brewed textbook’,
facilitated by the spread of technology in schools, such as the banda and photocopier.2 Thus the
textbook has been characterised as a ‘crutch’ for the weaker teacher rather than an essential tool for
the transmission of the curriculum, as in other countries. This attitude was not necessarily new in the
1960s – historically spending on textbooks in Britain was low compared with other nations and
textbooks seem to have had a low priority in the classroom, though history teachers seem to have
given them more priority than geographers.3
Marsden attempts to explain this anti-textbook attitude in a number of ways. Firstly, he locates it in
the growing popularity of child-centred education in primary schools which led to an ‘anti-subject and
anti-textbook’ approach, apparently (but not actually) sanctioned by the Plowden Report of 1967.4
This is confirmed by Penelope Harnett in her interview (p. 2). Secondly, he points to the influence of
curriculum change in the US in the 1960s which emphasised the process of teaching (methods) over
the content of subjects (knowledge). Post-modernist influences also conspired to cast doubt on the
value of the textbook since its construction and contents came to be seen as ‘a politicised and socially
biased selection from the culture’ of those in power in society.5 More prosaically, changes in the
structures of schooling in England also helped to challenge any traditional attachment to textbooks (at
least those of the traditional narrative text type). Comprehensive schools, the need to cater for the less
1
W.E. Marsden, The School Textbook: Geography, History and Social Studies (Woburn Press, 2001), p. 56.
David Warnes, ‘The Home-brewed Textbook’ in Teaching History, No. 31 (October 1981), pp.26-7.
3
Ibid., p. 69.
4
Ibid., p. 59.
5
Ibid., p.64.
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able (especially after the raising of the school leaving age in 1973) and the popularity of curriculum
innovation all promoted the teacher’s creativity in the classroom. New approaches were required to
meet the needs of a wider range of ability levels. The secondary modern school teachers interviewed
found they had few textbooks to use for history teaching, either because there was a view that they
were not necessary for a good teacher who relied on his own expertise or because they were boring
for the students.6 Instead teachers who wanted a more lively approach concentrated on amassing their
own resources, such as postcards and photographs (Evelyn Hinde). During the seventies, the spread of
banda and photocopying machines encouraged teachers to produce their own materials – this was the
start of the ‘worksheet revolution’. Reliance on one textbook came therefore to be associated with
reactionary teaching and a lack of imagination by the teacher.7
None the less, history teachers continued to purchase textbooks for their pupils throughout the
seventies and eighties, often with the intent of photocopying parts of them to create their own
versions. The photocopier also facilitated the production of materials tailored to local study or special
topics of interest – the curriculum was flexible and now the technology facilitated the production of
materials to support a great diversity of courses. The popularity of the Mode 3 CSE enabled many
teachers to indulge their enthusiasms, produce their own exams and then design the materials to go
with it.8 For a few it was the start of a career in textbook writing.9 The link between the examination
and the textbook is not a new development – the more specific examinations have become the more
reliant teachers have become on textbooks. GCSE introduced much more specific assessment and thus
fuelled demand for textbooks which offered to help students (and teachers) meet the requirements of
the examination. Textbooks offered reassurance, alongside training, for teachers that they could
deliver the new courses – and examiners were often the people writing the books and delivering the
training.10
But GCSE paled into insignificance compared with the amounts spent on history textbooks for the
National Curriculum. At primary level, there was a 38% increase in spending on textbooks between
1988/9 and 1991/2 (from £29m. to £40m. approx.) and a 28% increase in secondary level spending on
textbooks in the same period (£39m. to £50m.). The spending on primary history textbooks increased
greatly from 0.7% of the total to 5.5%, which Marsden claims reflected the more prescriptive content
of the NC history syllabus at Key Stage 2 (ages 7-11).11 It may also reflect the relative lack of
expertise and confidence felt by many primary school teachers about delivering the history NC with
its novel assessment approach, an issue noted by Penelope Harnett in her interview (p. 18).
At secondary level, teachers also sought reassurance in a good textbook. The lure of the potential
market meant a huge choice in the 1990s and, though there has been contraction in the sales now that
the National Curriculum is established, secondary schools have continued to invest in textbooks.
However, the position of the textbook in history teaching is currently a matter for debate. Teachers
have access to high quality colour illustrated texts with accompanying CDs of electronic material and
suggested activities for learning. Marsden contends that such materials have usurped the control over
the learning process which is the creative heart of the history teacher’s professional role. On the other
hand, the sheer quantity of resources available for the classroom in electronic form, on the internet, to
6
Houlder transcript, p. 8; HInde transcript, p. 8, Patricia Dawson transcript, p. 6.
Ibid., p. 208.
8
Clare transcript, pp. 6-7.
9
Culpin transcript, p. 4.
10
Ibid., p. 12.
11
Ibid., p. 222.
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support the study of history in schools would suggest the imminent demise of the textbook and the
promotion of teacher – and perhaps student – design of the learning process.
To some extent, one would expect the textbook to have been displaced in recent years by video then
computer-based materials, first CD-rom then the internet. The continuing strong market for history
textbooks in 2010 suggests that this has not been the case even though the style and content of
textbooks has changed significantly to reflect changes in the methods of teaching and learning and the
requirements of examinations. Most history textbooks now carry a CD with materials from the book
which teachers can ‘cut and paste’ and use on an electronic whiteboard. Jim Belben of Hodder
Education believes this is now an ‘essential’ item for teachers – to some extent the hard copy is the
‘extra’ rather than the CD. Web-based materials (with subscription) are also replacing the CD. None
the less, he estimates that only 15% of teachers would be willing to sacrifice the textbook completely
and have everything delivered online. Both pupils and parents also like to have a textbook to use for
study (this may change with the widespread use of e-book devices). History teachers are still much
more committed to the use of textbooks than geographers (who use the web and fieldwork more).12
The development of history textbooks since the 1960s
Content , presentation and the introduction of ‘process’ into textbooks
In the 1960s, where formal learning still dominated primary education, textbooks played a significant
role in the teaching of history between the ages of 7 and 11. In primary schools, the dominant
influence was Unstead. His text books for primary children were overwhelmingly British (English)
history arranged chronologically, though his books contained few dates and concentrated on what
might be broadly called social history as well as well-known historical stories.13 The importance of
Unstead in primary history in the 1960s and 70s is confirmed by the interviews with Harnett and
Wood.14 However, as child-centred methods of teaching spread, with ‘topic-study’ as the main vehicle
for learning, text books played a lesser role, supporting cross-curricular topics or as part of reading
schemes rather than defining a history curriculum in the primary school.
Unstead’s books represented a blending of ‘traditional’ content with less formal narrative writing for
children, which was intended to appeal to the imagination. This ‘imaginative turn’ in history teaching
was very significant in primary education, as it dove-tailed with the child-centred philosophy, but it
had influence also in the lower secondary school, where ‘bringing history alive’ was the purpose of
the more innovative textbooks, such as the Then and There series edited by Marjorie Reeves and
Paula Hodgson. Reeves’ commitment to verisimilitude extended to including photographs and case
studies from original sources adapted to the age and reading level of younger children.15 Inevitably,
the use of original sources in class, which was a growing trend in history teaching, led to discussion of
the inherent language issues. Traditionalists preferred to have a narrative in which children could
become absorbed.16 On the other hand, some of the supporters of ‘new history’ were perfectly willing
to ‘bowdlerise’ sources to aid historical understanding.17
History textbooks started to include questions for pupils to answer. At first, these were discreetly
positioned at the end of each chapter, in order not to interrupt the flow of the text. Illustrations, still
12
Interview with Jim Belben, 19 November 2009.
Marsden, School Textbook, p.119.
14
P. Harnett transcript p. 3; R. Wood transcript, p. 4.
15
Marsden, School Textbook, p.119.
16
Ibid., p.121.
17
Clare transcript, p. 10.
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only black and white in the sixties, were progressively thinner on the ground as pupils progressed up
the school. Both of these aspects started to change in the seventies, especially in books for the less
able pupil, where graphic diagrams and cartoons made their appearance and questions were more
prominent and broke up the text.18 The series of books by Peter Moss proved popular, though they
were limited in the range of activities for pupils.19 The ‘easily-digested’ double-page spread was used
to enable a pupil to read all about a single topic or event in one ‘viewing’.20 Trends in presentation
continued to make history textbooks more visually stimulating. By the seventies, textbooks for
younger secondary pupils included large photographs of authentic historical artefacts or sites, like the
lavishly-illustrated The Ancient World by R.J. Cootes and L.E. Snellgrove in the Longman Secondary
Histories series (1970). Innovation in the content of textbooks for secondary schools led away from
the ‘one size fits all’ textbook which encompassed a year’s British history in dense text between two
hard covers. The ‘patch’ approach required in-depth studies to supplement an outline narrative – the
Then and There series provide examples.21 But this required more books and that meant increased
costs for schools.
New history began to influence the content and layout of textbooks. Initially, original sources were
provided in supplementary packs, such as the Jonathan Cape Jackdaw series; these sold well, partly
because one needed to buy only one or at most a few packs to use in class. However, one wonders
how often they were used by teachers, except as a novelty (the author recalls a unique lesson during
which she and her class wandered round a display of facsimile documents making notes on each one
to answer a question about Guy Fawkes – this was a highly novel diversion from the usual diet of
note making). The challenge of using sources in class was one most history teachers had never
encountered – textbooks had traditionally been largely non-directive in terms of classroom activities.
Teaching History attempted to fill the gap with advice about how to teach using the ‘source method’.
The standard-bearer for new history was the Schools Council History Project, which produced a set of
books to support its History 13-16 course. These balanced narrative text with a large collection of
source materials and questions. The SCHP was not the first to produce books with sources in, but
these had been used more for illustration or to give a sense of period, as in the Then and There books,
than as the focus for historical study, which was the SCHP approach. SCHP also provided teachers’
materials which made it clear how the topics were to be delivered in the classroom, what activities
were suitable and what their purposes were in terms of conceptual learning by the pupils. As Ian
Dawson reflected, ‘The ‘What is History?’ material started people thinking because they
clearly required a different kind of engagement with the kids.’22 This was novel because it
incorporated a particular philosophy of history teaching, which the teacher was expected to follow in
the classroom. None the less, Dawson stresses the pragmatism of SCHP – it did not push teachers to
change their approach to teaching to radically unless they wanted to. SCHP was also novel in terms of
its content and this probably increased teachers’ reliance on the textbooks because some of it, for
instance the history of medicine, would have been unfamiliar to them, as well as their pupils, though
other topics, such as the modern world history topic on the Arab-Israeli conflict reflected a growing
trend in post-14 history courses.23 The SCHP materials were expensive to buy, partly because each
unit had a separate book devoted to it. This probably restricted the take-up of SCHP somewhat; some
18
E.G. Peter Moss, History Alive (Hart-Davies Educational, 1976-7).
Clare transcript, p. 13.
20
Marsden, School Textbook, p. 50.
21
For instance, M. Reeves, The Medieval Town (Then and There, 1988)
22
Dawson transcript, p. 12.
23
For the SCHP syllabus, see SCHP, A New Look at History (Holmes McDougall, 1976), p. ?
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schools innovated instead by introducing a modern world history syllabus for O level and CSE in the
seventies and early eighties, for which there was a great choice of textbooks. The wider availability of
TV documentaries and then video also influenced history teachers to move to modern world history.
Tony Howarth’s Twentieth Century History: The World since 1900 (Longman, 1979), for instance,
was written to accompany a BBC television series for schools.
At the same time as textbooks became more varied, better illustrated and more ‘authentic’ with the
use of original sources and thus presumably more appealing to teachers and pupils, a complementary
development took place. This was the burgeoning of ‘DIY’ history textbooks created by individual
teachers for their classes. The major driver for this development was the widespread availability in
schools of reprographic technology, such as the banda and photocopier. Teachers were able to
customise existing textbooks, add local material and produce cheaper versions of their own materials
which pupils could keep and use for homework. Marsden argues these did not necessarily lead to
better materials in the classroom, as teacher-produced materials were heavily criticised by school
inspectors in the 1980s.24 However, the practice of creating their own materials led some teachers to
become textbook authors themselves. Several of the interviewees became textbook authors because
they had developed their own materials and their books could be recommended as ‘classroom tested’
to others. John D. Clare, for instance, was inspired by the SCHP-style materials coming onto the
market in the early 1980s to offer to do a textbook of his own. It took him four years to complete,
whilst continuing to teach full-time.25 John Simkin found his pupils were disappointed when they
discovered that the ‘starter’ topic on historical evidence in the SCHP’s ‘What is History?’ booklet was
based on a fictional character, so he created his own ‘mystery’ with real historical evidence based on
the Marie Celeste. 26
The inclusion of suggested classroom activities and assignments for pupils in textbooks has been one
of the most significant changes in the content and presentation of school history in England since the
1960s.27 The key role of the Schools History Project in first promoting a particular pedagogical
‘process’ via textbooks was extended by the National Curriculum as SHP moved into publishing
books for the 11-14 age group and for A level. These have proved extremely influential as SHP as a
course is taught in approximately a third of state schools in England – but its books for Key Stage 3
have a much wider reach. Mostly, these offer activities alongside factual text and source examples,
which teachers can decide to use or not, so one could argue that teachers are still exercising their
professional judgement and will mould the book to suit their own teaching style.
However, this is less likely with books which are entirely modelled around a particular pedagogical
process. An example of this is King John: a Key Stage 3 Investigation into Medieval Monarchy by
Dale Banham and Ian Dawson (Hodder Education, 2000). This book, narrowly focused on the reign
of one monarch, is designed to lead the pupils through an evaluation and eventually to write an essay
on the question ‘Was King John a bad king?’ It is highly structured and directs the pupil to plan the
essay via an imaginative ‘car race’ on the final double spread page. King John could be seen as an
effective vehicle for the teacher who wishes to introduce essay-writing in Year 7 (age 11-12) –
however, it is highly deterministic, but perhaps this reflects a trend in teachers’ preferences. In an age
when the demands of many wider educational and curricular initiatives from government affect the
work of teachers, there is less time for the creative preparation of materials. Belben argues that history
24
Ibid., p.63.
Clare transcript, pp. 17-18.
26
Simkin transcript, pp. 14-15.
27
Marsden, School Textbook, pp.127, 223.
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teachers no longer look on the textbook as the last refuge of the unimaginative or inexpert. Few
teachers could match the quality of illustration in a contemporary textbook using home publishing
technology and the lesson ideas in textbooks come from leading practitioners who have published
their ideas in forums on the web or in the pages of Teaching History. Indeed, they are now demanding
complete schemes of work and ready-made lesson plans.28
The source-based books dominate the market, and will continue to do so as long as GCSE and A level
assessment in history is based on sources. None the less, experimental textbooks are being written
(though not necessarily sold in huge quantities). Christine Counsell’s series of books built around the
idea of mentalités offers an alternative to ‘meaningless source exercises’ in some textbooks by
building a narrative intended to open up the world (and thinking) of a period and the people who lived
through it. As Michael Riley explained, ‘we thought that lots of children were actually struggling
with history because in many classrooms supported by lots of textbooks, history becomes
something of a parlour game, spotting historical bias in sources at a hundred metres’.29
Changes in the content of history books has, since the advent of the National Curriculum,
been more predictable as they follow the prescribed topics. One notable feature of the recent
revision to Key Stage 3 has been the increased prominence of slavery in the British Empire
and the Holocaust on the syllabus. The ending of slavery is now covered in much more detail
than was the case before 2007, even though the topic has been on the National Curriculum
from 1990. The topic is often ‘completed’ by a study of civil rights in the USA (the
popularity of this topic prompted Niall Ferguson’s complaint that pupils now know who
Martin Luther King was but not who Martin Luther was).30 However, there is little evidence
of an appetite to study other Black history, including the topic of recent migration into
Britain. John D. Clare has recently published A Nation of Immigrants on this topic has not
sold well, perhaps because as he himself conceded, it addresses some ‘really hot potatoes’.31
The most strident criticisms of current history textbooks are reserved for those used in GCSE and A
level. Here the issue is the too-close relationship between publishers, profits and the examination
bodies – indeed in the case of Pearson and Edexcel, they are one and the same.32 Frequent revisions to
syllabuses and to the National Curriculum have put pressure on publishers and authors to produce
books quickly, as John D. Clare acknowledged, ‘now people will ring you up and say, “We have a
GCSE textbook, 260 pages.” “Ah, when do you need it?” “August”. And you say, “Well, that’s a
hard...” “Well, you’ve got the holidays.” And you sit down and you write these things at a frenetic
pace, and what’s more, without copy editors, as you used to have, checking you. And it’s a miracle
that the textbooks are of the quality they are.’33 Books endorsed by examiners which almost guarantee
that the users will have all they need to pass the exam discourage wider reading and encourage a
narrow focus on examination assessment objectives, which distort the work of students and even
repress initiative and flair, especially at A level. Chris Hinton refers to, ‘the influence of assessment
methods, the dubious link between chief examiners and textbook writing and the all-pervading Ofsted
28
Belben interview, 19 November 2009.
Riley transcript, p. 23.
30
Simon Bishop’s school in Cumbria
31
Clare transcript, p. 29.
32
K.Crawford & S. Foster, ‘The Political Economy of History Textbook Publishing in England’, in J. Nicholls
(ed.) School History Textbooks Across Cultures (Oxford Studies in Comparative Education, Symposium Books,
2006), pp. 93-104.
33
Clare transcript, p.15-16.
29
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and league table regime’ as a factor which leads schools to slavishly follow an often rushed and illprepared textbook.34
None of this is encouraging for the future of the history textbook.
N.Sheldon
6 June 2011
34
Chris Hinton transcript, pp.. 9-10.
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