Oxford English for
Computing
Keith Boeckner
P. Charles Brown
Oxford University Press
Unit 1
Personal computing
The processor
Language focus A
Contextual reference
Page
4
4
8
11
Language focus B
13
13
20
24
Language focus C
28
28
32
36
Unit 4
39
Unit 2
Portable computers
Operating systems
Word formation prefixes
Unit 3
Online services
Data transmission
Word formation suffixes
Programming and languages
C language
Language focus D
Organizing information
Unit 5
Computer software
Comparing software packages
Language focus E
Making comparisons
Unit 6
Computer networks
Network configurations
Language focus F
Time sequence
39
44
49
52
52
57
61
66
66
70
75
Unit 7
Computer viruses
Computer security
78
78
81
Language focus G
86
Listing
Unit 8
Computers in the office
Information systems
Language focus H
The passive
88
88
94
97
Unit 9
Computers in education
CALL
Language focus I
Page
100
100
103
108
Giving examples
Unit 10
110
Computers in medicine
110
Data storage and management 115
Language focus J
120
Explanations and definitions
Unit 11
123
Robotics
123
Robot characteristics
128
Language focus K
131
Compound nouns
Unit 12
Virtual reality
VR input devices
Language focus L
Classifying
134
134
139
142
Language focus M
145
145
148
152
Appendix 1
176
Unit 13
Machine translation
Al and expert systems
Cause and effect
Unit 14
155
Multimedia
155
Computer-to-video conversion 160
Language focus N
164
Making predictions
Unit 15
167
Computer graphics
167
24-bit colour
172
Letter writing
Appendix 2
Glossary of terms
197
Personal computing
Task 1
a
Task 2
4
Start-up
Name these devices. What are they used for?
Listening
You will hear two interviews between a market researcher and visitors to a
computer exhibition. As you listen, fill in the missing information in the table
opposite.
Interview 1
Interview 2
Name:
Occupation:
Type of PC used:
Reasons for choice: 1
2
3
Reading
Task 4
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Before reading the text on the following page, match each word with the
correct definition:
the set of software that controls a computer system
mainframe
a a very small piece of silicon carrying a complex
b electrical circuit
mouse
a big computer system used for large-scale operations
icon
c the physical portion of a computer system
operating system d a device moved by 'hand to indicate position on the
e screen
software
a visual symbol used in a menu instead of natural
hardware
f language
data, programs, etc., not forming part of a computer,
g but used when operating it.
microchip
5
Task 5
Now read the text and decide on a suitable title for it.
I
n 1952, a major computing
company took a decision to
get out of the business of making
mainframe computers. They
5 believed that there was only a
market for four mainframes in the
whole world. That company was
IBM. The following year they
reversed their decision.
1()
In 1980, IBM decided that there
was a market for 250,000 PCs, so
they set up a special team to
develop the first IBM PC. It went on
sale in 1981 and set a world-wide
15 standard for IBM-compatibility
which, over the next ten years, was
only seriously challenged by one
other company, Apple Computers.
Since then, over seventy million
PCs made by IBM and other
manufacturers have been sold.
Over this period, PCs have become
commodity items. Since IBM made
the design non-proprietary, anyone
25 can make them.
The history of the multi-billion
dollar PC industry has been one of
mistakes. Xerox Corporation
funded the initial research on
20
30
35
40
personal computers in their Palo
Alto laboratory in California.
However, the company failed to
capitalize on this work, and the
ideas that they put together went
into the operating system
developed for Apple's computers.
This was a graphical interface:
using a mouse, the user clicks on
icons which represent the function
to be performed.
The first IBM PC was developed
using existing available electrical
components. With IBM's badge on
the box it became the standard
machine for large corporations to
purchase. When IBM were looking
for an operating system, they went
initially to Digital Research, who
were market leaders in command50 based operating systems (these are
operating systems in which the
users type in commands to perform
a function). When the collaboration
between IBM and Digital Research
55 failed, IBM turned to Bill Gates, then
45
Vocabulary
25 years old, to write their
operating system.
Bill Gates founded Microsoft
on the basis of the development
60 of MS/DOS, the initial operating
system for the IBM PC. Digital
Research have continued to
develop their operating system,
DR/DOS, and it is considered by
65 many people to be a better
product than Microsoft's.
However, without an
endorsement from IBM, it has
become a minor player in the
Novell, the leaders in PC
networking, now own Digital
Research, so things may
70 market.
change.
The original IBM PC had a
75 minimum of 16K of memory, but
this could be upgraded to 512K if
necessary, and ran with a
processor speed of 4.77MHz. Ten
years later, in 1991, IBM were
so making PCs with 16Mb of
memory, expandable to 64Mb,
running with a processor speed
of 33MHz. The cost of buying the
hardware has come down
85 considerably as the machines
have become commodity items.
Large companies are
considering running major
applications on PCs, something
90 which, ten years ago, no one
would have believed possible of
a PC. In contrast, many
computers in people's homes
are just used to play computer
9 5 ga me s.
The widespread availability of
computers has in all probability
changed the world for ever. The
microchip technology which
loo made the PC possible has put
chips not only into computers,
but also into washing-machines
and cars. Some books may never
be published in paper form, but
105 may only be made available as
part of public databases.
Networks of computers are
already being used to make
information available on a world110 wide scale.
commodity items (1. 2 3) — items which can be produced and traded freely
non-proprietary (I. 24) — not belonging to any single company
capitalize on (I. 3 3) — profit from, turn to one's advantage
6
Task 6
When you read the text to decide on a title, which of the following did you do?
Did you:
read the text slowly and try to understand every word?
Fl read quickly and try to understand the main theme?
underline or mark sentences that you thought were important?
make notes about important points?
Which of these reading strategies do you think is most appropriate for this kind
of task? Which do you think is least appropriate?
Task 7
Task 8
Task 9
Answer these questions about the text.
1 How many mainframes did IBM think it was possible to sell in 1952?
2 How many PCs have now been sold?
3 Who paid for the initial research into PCs?
4 Which company later used the results of this research to develop their
operating system?
5 What are command-based operating systems?
6 DR/DOS is an acronym. What does it stand for?
7 Since the invention of the IBM PC, many of its features have been improved.
Which of the following features does the text not mention in this respect?
a memory
b speed
c size
d cost
8 Give three examples from the text of how the availability of computers has 'in
all probability changed the world for ever'.
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words that have a
similar meaning to:
1 international (lines 10-15)
2 contested (lines 15-20)
3 errors (lines 25-30)
4 paid for (lines 25-30)
5 buy (lines 45-50)
6 first (lines 60-65)
7 recommendation (lines 65-70)
8 improved (lines 75-80)
Writing
Translate the sixth paragraph (starting 'The original IBM PC...') into your own
language. Look carefully at the tenses before you start.
Speaking
Task 10
The article states that 'many computers in people's homes are just used to play
computer games'.
Discuss the following questions:
1 In what other ways are computers used at home, or outside work?
2 If you already have a PC, how do you use it? (If not, how would you use one?)
7
The processor
Reading
Task 11
Read this passage about the structure of the processor and fill in the gaps using
the words below.
Structure of the processor
The processor consists of a'
which are mounted 2
components linked together by 3
form of control, address, and data 4
, which is a circuit board on
chips, memory chips, and other
lines or channels in the
. In addition, a processor
has
, which are electronic circuits providing specialized
functions such as graphics, or which connect a system board to
6
. The system board also consists of electronic devices, such
as an electronic
8
and various 9
8
for controlling the speed of operation;
, which store numeric data during the course of processing;
_, including sequence control register, address
register, and function register.
adaptor boards
registers
microprocessor
clock
system board
conductive
accumulators
buses
input or output devices
Reading
Task 12
Use the information in the reading passage and the diagram to help you match
the terms below with the appropriate explanation or definition.
A processor consists of many different electronic circuits and devices for
performing control functions, arithmetic and logic operations, and data
transfers. Data may be transferred from backing storage to the internal
memory or from the internal memory to the arithmetic unit by means of
5 conductive channels known as buses. The part of the processor which
controls data transfers between the various input and output devices is
called the control unit.
1
2
microprocessor chip a
b
registers
3
accumulators
c
4
control bus
d
5
address bus
e
6
data bus
f
7
8
clock
RAM
g
h
9
ROM
i
used to send address details between the memory
and the address register
consists of an arithmetic-logic unit, one or more
working registers to store data being processed, and
accumulators for storing the results of calculations
a group of signal lines used to transmit data in
parallel from one element of a computer to another
groups of bistable devices used to store information
in a computer system for high-speed access
an electronic circuit, usually a quartz crystal, that
generates electronic pulses at fixed time intervals to
control the timing of all operations in the processor
used for storing part of the operating system and
application software known as 'firmware'; can only
be read; cannot be written to or altered in any way
used to store numeric data during processing
a group of signal lines dedicated to the passing of
control signals
used for the temporary storage of application
programs and data; can be written to and read from
9
Speaking
Task 13
Work in pairs. Write down the list of terms (1-9) in Task 12 on a piece of
paper. Without referring to your book, take turns to ask and answer questions
about their functions.
10' Useful expressions
What does/do . . . do%
What is/are . . .?
Across
1 A conductive line such as a data bus. (7)
2 A visual symbol used in a menu to represent a file or program. (4)
3 An input device used in computer games. (7)
4 An ____ device converts the electrical signals inside a computer into a form
that can exist outside the computer. (6)
S The name given to system software that is held in ROM. (8)
6 A device with one or more buttons used to point at locations on a computer
screen. (5)
7 The part of the CPU that transmits co-ordinating control signals and
commands to the computer. (7,4)
8 1,048,576 bytes. (8)
9 A large store of computerized data. (8)
10 The _____ system was first used commercially on the Apple Macintosh
computer, but is now widely used on IBM machines. (7)
11 A signal route dedicated to sending information about locations within a
computer. (7,3)
Down
12 A register containing the results of an operation performed by the arithmetic-
logic unit. (11)
10
Language focus A
Contextual reference
Transitional markers are words used to link ideas together so that the text is
easier to read. When pronouns such as it, they, them, I, he, she, which, who,
whose, that, such, one, and demonstrative adjectives such as this, that, these and
those, are used as transitional markers, they refer to a word, or words,
mentioned earlier in the sentence or paragraph. Their function is to take your
thoughts back to something that has already been mentioned. Other words
which are often used to refer backwards are the former, the latter, the first,
second, etc., the last.
Exercise 1
Using the sample paragraph as a model, draw a rectangle around the word, or
words, that the circled words refer to. Then join the CD and the =with arrows.
11
Exercise 2
12
Using the line reference given, look back at the reading passage in Unit 1,
page 6, and find the reference for the words in italics.
1 anyone can make them (line 25)
2 the ideas that they put (line 34)
3 This was a graphical interface (line 37)
4 it became the standard machine (line 44)
5 these are operating systems (line 50)
6 it has become a minor player (line 68)
7 this could be upgraded (line 76)
Portable computers
`This is the smallest, most powerful computer in the world.'
`Those? Those are the batteries.'
Start-up
Task 1
Discuss the following questions:
1 How small do you think computers can usefully become?
2 To what extent does the size of a computer influence what it can be used for?
Think of examples to illustrate your answer.
13
Listening
Task 2
Listen to the following extract from a radio talk show called Computerworks in
which the host talks with Sandra Cavanah, a writer with a computer
magazine. As you listen, fill in the missing information about the various
portable computers.
Portable
Power:
Weight:
runs on
between 15 and
Screen size:
Inplnputvice:
about ten inches diagonally
keyboard
pounds
Notebook
Power:
batteries
Weight:
Screen size:
as little as
as small as _
Input device: keyboard
14
pounds
inches
Task 3
Task 4
Reading
Before reading the text, match these words with their definitions:
1 surface on which pictures or data are shown
a clipboard
2 electrical force
b stylus
3 pattern used as a guide for creating letters or characters
c screen
4 individual dot on a computer screen
d grid
5 network of lines crossing at right angles
e voltage
6 pointed implement for drawing or writing
f pixel
7 portable board with a clip at the top for holding papers
g template
Read the text and decide why the author chose the title Delete Keys. Can you
suggest a better title?
Delete Keys - Clipboard Technology
F Silicon Valley and Tokyo have
been working to design computers
OR THE LAST GENERATION,
that are ever easier to use. There is
one thing, however, that has
prevented the machines from
becoming their user-friendliest: you
still have to input data with a
keyboard, and that can require you
10 to do a lot of typing and to
memorize a lot of elaborate
commands.
Enter the clipboard computer, a
technology that has been in
15 development for the last 20 years
but took hold in the mass market
only this year. Clipboard PCs —
which, as their name suggests, are
not much bigger than an actual
20 clipboard — replace the keyboard
with a liquid crystal display (LCD)
screen and an electronic stylus.
Users input data by printing
individual letters directly on the
25 screen.
There are two technologies at
work in a clipboard PC: one allows
raw data to get into the computer
and the other allows the computer
30 to figure out what that data means.
The first technology relies
principally on hardware and varies
depending on the particular
computer. In one system, marketed
35 under the name GRIDPad, the
computer's LCD screen is covered by
a sheet of glass with a transparent
conductive coating. Voltage is sent
across the glass in horizontal and
5
15
vertical lines forming a fine grid;
at any point on the grid, the
voltage is slightly different.
When the stylus — which is
essentially a voltmeter — touches
45 the screen, it informs the
computer of the voltage at that
point. The computer uses this
information to determine where
the stylus is and causes a liquid
so crystal pixel to appear at those
coordinates. The position of the
stylus is monitored several
hundred times a second, so as
the stylus moves across the glass,
55 whole strings of pixels are
activated.
`What we do is sort of connect
the dots,' says Jeff Hawkins, the
creator of GRIDPad. 'Users can
60 then write whatever they want
on the screen with a kind of
electronic ink.'
Making that writing
comprehensible to the computer,
65 however, requires the help of
some powerful software. When
the stylus is being used, the
computer is programmed to look
for moments when the tip does
70 not touch the screen for a third
of a second or more. Every time
this happens — and it happens a
lot when somebody is printing —
the software assumes that one
75 letter or number has been
written. The pixel positions of
10.40
41 this fresh character are then passed
on to the computer's pattern
recognition software, which
so instantly identifies the letter or
number written.
The software does this by first
cleaning up the character —
smoothing out crooked lines and
85 removing errant dots. The
remaining lines and curves are then
compared with a series of templates
in the computer's memory that
represent hundreds of thousands of
90 different versions of every letter in
the English alphabet and all ten
numerals. When the computer finds
the closest match, it encodes the
character in memory and displays it
95 on the screen as if it had been typed.
The entire process takes just a
fraction of a second. To delete a
word, you simply draw a line
through it. To move to the next
too page, you flick the stylus at the
bottom of the screen as if you're
flicking the page of a book.
There are a handful of clipboard
computers now on the market,
105 including GRIDPad, which is sold in
the US; Penvision, manufactured by
NCR and sold around the world;
and Sony's Palmtop and Canon's
Al Note, both sold only in Japan.
1() IBM and Apple are also pouring
millions of dollars into the
technology.
In addition to this hardware, a
variety of software is also
115 making its way to the market.
Depending on the power of the
computer and the sophistication
of the software, clipboard
systems can be programmed to
120 understand the particular quirks
of a particular user's printing;
this is an especially useful
feature in Japan, where
elaborate kanji characters make
125 up most of the written language.
Improvements in software may
soon allow machines sold in the
US to understand not only
printing but continuous script as
130 well.
Given such flexibility, the
designers of clipboard computers
are predicting big things — and a
big market — for their products.
135 'There's no doubt about it,' says
an optimistic Hawkins. 'You're
going to own one of these things
in the not-too-distant future.' ■
1
► Vocabulary
printing (1. 73) (in this case) writing separated letters or numbers by hand
kanji (1. 124) — Japanese script which uses Chinese characters
—
Task 5
16
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) in relation to
the information in the text. lf you think a statement is false, change it to make
it true.
The Americans and the Japanese are working together to produce userfriendlier computers.
The clipboard computer was first sold twenty years ago.
On a clipboard, an electronic pen replaces the traditional keyboard.
ln the GRlDPad system, when the pen touches the screen, it informs the
computer and a liquid crystal pixel appears at that point.
The software decides that one character or number is complete if the tip of
the stylus is not in contact with the screen for more than half a second.
The whole process of recognizing letters or numbers and printing them on
the screen takes very little time.
There are many clipboard computers sold today which are all available
everywhere in the world.
Clipboard systems can be made to understand any kind of writing.
1
Task 7
Using the line reference given, look back in the text and find the reference for
the words in italics.
1 from becoming their user-friendliest (line 7)
2 one allows raw data to get (line 27)
3 it informs the computer (line 45)
4 Every time this happens (line 72)
5 which instantly identifies (line 79)
6 it encodes the character in memory (line 93)
7 this is an especially (line 122)
8 for their products (line 134)
Task 8
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases
that have a similar meaning to:
1 understand (lines 2 5-30)
2 sold (lines 30-35)
3 covering (lines 35-40)
4 points (lines 50-55)
5 join (lines 55-60)
6 making even (lines 80-85)
7 not straight (lines 80-85)
8 made by mistake (lines 85-90)
9 move quickly and sharply (lines 95-100)
10 unique features (lines 115-120)
17
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. You may have to change
some words slightly.
Task 9
1
electron, electronic, electronics, electronically
a An
p e n i s o ne e x a m p l e o f a n i n p u t d e v i c e .
b A computer solves problems
c M a ny _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ students go on to work as engineers.
2 technology, technological, technologically, technologist
a The computer is the greatest __________ invention of the twentieth
century.
b There are two
_______ involved in a clipboard PC.
c Today's computers are
far superior to those used a few years
ago.
3 identify, identifying, identifiable, identity
a The clipboard's pattern recognition software immediately
the letters and numbers written by the stylus.
b Most computer companies will not allow people without an
card to enter their premises.
c A password is a mechanism for ____________ the computer-user and
allowing access.
4 compute, computing, computation, computerize, computerization
a The
of the manufacturing division will be expensive in the
short term, but cost-effective in the long term.
b We should be able to ________________
_ our profit for next year fairly accurately
with the new program.
on the board that a maths lesson was
c I could tell from all the
in progress.
Writing
Tas 10
Task 11
18
Translate the third paragraph (starting 'There are two technologies...' ) into
your language. Check the meaning of any unfamiliar technical words in the
glossary at the back of this book.
Speaking
Discuss the following questions:
1 What are the limitations of portable computers?
2 Do you think students should be allowed to use portable computers in class?
•
Writing
Task 12
Write an advertisement for a real or imaginary notebook computer. Your
material should include its name and type, its size, price, and capacity, and the
features that make it superior to other models.
You may base your material on the advertisement above, but do not copy
straight from the text.
19
Task 13
Speaking
Work in pairs.
Student A: You are a sales representative trying to sell your company's
notebook computer. You are presenting your product to the Sales Director of a
manufacturing company which is thinking of buying 30 notebook computers
for the sales staff. Decide on the specifications and complete the table below.
Then try to persuade the Sales Director to buy your product.
Name
Type (size)
Processor type
Operating speed
Memory
Display
Power supply
Cost
Other features
 Useful expressions
It costs...
It runs/operates on...
It weighs...
Student B: You are the Sales Director of a manufacturing company. You are
considering buying 30 notebook computers for your sales staff. Find out about
all the specifications of the model on offer. Decide whether it is suitable for your
needs.
 Useful expressions
How much does it cost?
What power source does it use?
How big/heavy is it?
Operating systems
Reading
Task 14
Before you read the text, try to answer the following questions:
1 What is an operating system and what is its purpose?
2 Where is an operating system stored and how is it transferred to internal
memory?
3 List some of the tasks typically performed by an operating system.
Now read the text and check your answers.
20
General features of operating systems
An operating system is a master control program which controls the
functions of the computer system as a whole and the running of
application programs. All computers do not use the same operating
systems. It is therefore important to assess the operating system used on a
5 particular model before initial commitment because some software is only
designed to run under the control of specific operating systems. Some
operating systems are adopted as 'industry standards' and these are the
ones which should be evaluated because they normally have a good
software base. The reason for this is that software houses are willing to
1() expand resources on the development of application packages for
machines functioning under the control of an operating system which is
widely used. The cost of software is likely to be lower in such
circumstances as the development costs are spread over a greater number
of users, both actual and potential.
Mainframe computers usually process several application programs
concurrently, switching from one to the other, for the purpose of
increasing processing productivity. This is known as multiprogramming
(multi-tasking in the context of microcomputers), which requires a
powerful operating system incorporating work scheduling facilities to
20 control the switching between programs. This entails reading in data for
one program while the processor is performing computations on another
and printing out results on yet another.
In multi-user environments an operating system is required to control
terminal operations on a shared access basis as only one user can access
25 the system at any moment of time. The operating system allocates control
to each terminal in turn. Such systems also require a system for record
locking and unlocking, to prevent one user attempting to read a record
whilst another user is updating it, for instance. The first user is allocated
control to write to a record (or file in some instances) and other users are
30 denied access until the record is updated and unlocked.
Some environments operate in concurrent batch and real-time mode. This
means that a 'background' job deals with routine batch processing whilst
the 'foreground' job deals with real-time operations such as airline seat
reservations, on-line booking of hotel accommodation, or control of
35 warehouse stocks, etc. The real-time operation has priority, and the
operating system interrupts batch processing operations to deal with realtime enquiries or file updates. The stage of batch processing attained at the
time of the interrupt is temporarily transferred to backing storage. After
the real-time operation has been dealt with, the interrupted program is
40 transferred back to internal memory from backing storage, and processing
recommences from a 'restart' point. The operating system also copies to
disk backing storage the state of the real-time system every few minutes
(periodic check points) to provide a means of 'recovering' the system in the
event of a malfunction.
15
An operating system is stored on disk and has to be booted into the
internal memory (RAM) where it must reside throughout processing so
that commands are instantly available. The operating system commands
may exceed the internal memory capacity of the computer in which case
only that portion of the OS which is frequently used is retained internally,
50 other modules being read in from disk as required. Many microcomputers
function under the control of a disk operating system known as DOS.
45
21
Task 15
Answer these questions about the text.
1 Why is it important to assess the operating system on a computer before
buying it?
2 What is multiprogramming?
3 The text gives some examples of real-time processing. Can you think of some
examples of batch-processing?
Here is a list of typical tasks performed by an operating system. In each case the
main verb has been omitted. Fill in the blanks from the words given. Sometimes
more than one may apply.
A typical operating system will:
Task 16
input and output devices.
the status of hardware devices.
1
2
hardware interrupts.
new disks.
disk directories.
3
4
5
_ disk reading and writing operations.
6
7
d i s k
e r r o r s .
disk commands relating to the deletion, copying,
renaming, and dumping of files.
8
execute
monitor
format
diagnose
Task 17
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
22
Match these common DOS commands with the appropriate explanation.
a searches for a specific string of text in a file.
BACKUP
CHDIR or CD b allows a text file from the current directory to be
displayed on screen.
CHKDSK
c allows the user to change the name of a file.
d saves the contents of the hard disk to a floppy disk for
CLS
security purposes.
DEL
e is used when it is necessary to change the current
directory.
DIR:SORT
f clears data from the screen.
g alphabetically sors and lists a disk directory.
REN
h makes back-up copies of the contents of one disk to
TYPE
another.
deletes a specified file from the current directory,
FIND
i
specified drive, or specified path.
DISKCOPY j produces a status report of the currently logged-on
disk, indicating the amount of disk space used, the
available capacity (in bytes), and the number of files
on disk.
Word-play
Task 18
Find the hidden words in this square. Some appear vertically, some
horizontally, and some diagonally. They may be upside-down or back to front.
Use the clues below to help you. The number of letters in each word and the
first letter of the word appear in brackets after the clue. The first one has been
done for you.
Find words which mean:
1 a computer that is small enough to hold in the hand. (7, P)
2 an electronic pen. (6, S)
3 to erase or omit. (6, D)
4 one type of portable computer which operates with an electronic pen. (9, C)
5 the information that the computer processes. (4, D)
6 a network of lines crossing at right angles. (4, G)
7 a signal to a processor to suspend temporarily the current sequence of
instructions. (9, I)
8 a pattern used as a guide for creating letters or characters. (8, T)
9 an individual dot on a computer screen. (5, P)
23
Language focus B
Word formation: prefixes
When you are reading, you will come across unfamiliar words. lt is often
possible to guess the meanings of these words if you understand the way words
in English are generally formed.
An English word can be divided into three parts: a prefix, a stem, and a suffix.
Pre-means 'before'. A prefix, therefore, is what comes before the stem. Consider,
as an example, the prefix de- (meaning 'reduce' or 'reverse') in a word like
demagnetize (meaning 'to deprive of magnetism'). A suffix is what is attached
to the end of the stem. Consider, as an example, the suffix -er (meaning
`someone who') in programmer Ca person who programs').
Suffixes change the word from one part of speech to another. For example, -ly
added to the adjective quick gives the adverb quickly. Prefixes, on the other
hand, usually change the meaning of the word. For example, un- changes a
word to the negative. Unmagnetizable means 'not capable of being
magnetized'.
Let us now consider some prefixes, their usual meanings, and how they change
the meanings of English words.
Prefixes
24
Negative
and positive
Size
Location
Time and
order
Number
un-
semi-
inter-
pre-
mono-
nonindisre-
minimicro-
supertransexextraperi-
anteforepost-
bihexoctmulti-
Exercise 1
Study these tables. Try to find additional examples, using your dictionary if
necessary.
1 Negative and positive prefixes:
semiequiminimicro-
half, partly
equal
small
very small
macrolarge, great 1
semiconductor
equidistant
minicomputer
microcomputer
macroeconomics
mega-
megabyte
25
semimonobitriquadpentahexsept(em)octdecmulti-
Exercise 2
26
half
one
two
three
four
five
six
seven
eight
ten
many
semicircle
monochromatic
binary
triangle
quadruple
pentagon
hexadecimal
September
octal
decimal
multiplexor
Read the following sentences and circle the prefixes. For each word that has a
prefix, try to decide what the prefix means. Refer back to the table if you need
help.
1 Floppy disks are inexpensive and reuseable.
2 If a printer malfunctions, you should check the interface cable.
3 The multiplexor was not working because someone had disconnected it by
mistake.
4 Improper installation of the antiglare shield will make it impossible to read
what is on the screen.
5 After you transfer text using the 'cut and paste' feature, you may have to
reformat the text you have inserted.
6 You can maximize your chances of finding a job if you are bilingual or even
trilingual.
7 Peripheral devices can be either input devices (such as keyboards) or output
Exercise 3
devices (such as printers).
8 Your pay rise is retroactive to the beginning of June and you will receive a biannual bonus.
9 The octal and hexadecimal systems are number systems used as a form of
shorthand in reading groups of four binary digits.
10 As the results are irregular, the program will have to be rewritten.
Fill in the gaps with the correct prefix from the following list.
auto
maxi
mono
de dec inter
mega micro mini
multi semi sub
1 Most people prefer a colour screen to a _____ chrome screen.
2
_scripistacharcterorsymbolwritenbelowandtotherightofa
number or letter, often used in science.
3 A _ _ _ byte equals approximately one million bytes.
4 Once you finish your program, you will have to test it and ______ bug it to
remove all the mistakes.
5 The introduction of ____ conductor technology revolutionized the computer
industry.
6 If a computer system has two or more central processors which are under
common control, it is called a _____ processor system.
7 The
imal system is a number system with a base of 10.
8 When the user and the computer are in active communication on a graphics
system, we refer to this as ______ active graphics.
27
Online services
Task 1
Discuss the following questions:
1 What online services are available in your country?
2 What kind of facilities do online services provide?
Reading
Task 2
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) in relation to
the information in the text which follows. If you think a statement is false,
change it to make it true.
Most people choose an online service because of the price or the number of
available files.
Everybody has one service which he/she likes more than all the others.
You should judge each BlX.ice according to whether it is better or wBlXe
overall than the service you are currently using.
Eventually, all services will be accessible from the service you are using.
McGraw-Hill is owned byDELPHl'S
Tammy Ray and Jeanette Shearer think the BIX service is average.
French Minitel users have free access to an English-language version of
CompuServe, although they cannot use the e-mail facility.
DELPHI'S Hobby Shop now has two special-interest areas: onlfon classic
vehicles, and one on new cars and technology.
28
Online Services
I'm frequently asked which
online service is 'best', but the
answer is there is no best. Rating a
particular service over another is
entirely
5 subjective. Price is important to some
people, while the number of files
available for download is important to
others. Because of these and so many
other different judgments, there can be
10 no absolute. It all comes down to
individual needs and preferences.
Still, users tend to be fiercely loyal to
their 'home' online service-which is
usually the first online service they
15 ever used. They tend to judge all other
online services based on this first
service - often preventing themselves
from seeing the advantages of a
specific service. For my part, I like all
20 the services I use and I'm on two
dozen.
'
Each offers one or more products or
features that either do not exist
elsewhere or are superior to the same
25 features on other services. And I've a
really subjective reason for being on
one service - I use it to send monthly
articles to magazines in Japan.
So, the real answer to the question
30 is simple: the best online service is the
service that has what you want and is
easy for you to use. The point? Keep an
open mind when checking out an
online service. Judge it based on what
35 it offers and how it meets your needs not in comparison to what you're used
to using. (It takes a couple of sessions
to shake preconceived notions of what
an online service 'should' be.)
ao Eventually, we're all going to be
interlinked, no matter which service
we use, in what DIALOG's Richard
Ream calls a 'network of networks'.
Until then, most of us have to go
45 to more than one service to find
everything we need.
What's new on-line
BIX
TAB Book Clubs Online: You've
probably seen magazine ads for The
50 Computer Book Club and The
Computer Professionals' Book Society.
These are sponsored by TAB Books.
This division of McGraw-Hill (BIX's
parent company) is now online on
55 BIX, taking orders and answering
questions from members and
prospective members. The club
conference is moderated by Tammy
Ray and Jeanette Shearer. You can
60 check them out by typing JOIN
T A B. B O OK .C LU B S.
C om pu Se rve
Dell Computer Forum: Dell Computer
Corporation has opened a product
support area on CompuServe. The Dell
65 area is part of the PC Vendor D Forum.
Type GO DELL or GO PCVEND to take
a look.
Minitel Link to CompuServe
CompuServe bolstered its position in
Europe by making some of its services
70 available via France's national Minitel
system in July. French Minitel users
have access to an extra-cost service
that is essentially a 'limited edition',
English-language version of
75 CompuServe. Among the s ervices
available are software and database
downloads. E-mail and message-base
posting are not available to Minitel
users.
DELPHI
80 Hobby Group Expands: DELPHI's
Hobby Shop specia40interest group
continues to expand its areas of
interest. The most recent additions to
the database and group topics are
85 Antique Auto, which focuses on
classic vehicles, and Autotech, where
you can learn about new cars and
technology. Type Go GROUP.
And now, the news ...
IN. Vocabulary
It all comes down to (1. 10) — It is a question of
two dozen (1. 20) — about twenty-four
checking out (1. 33) — examining
is moderated by (1. 58) — is run by
bolstered (1. 68) — strengthened
29
Fill in the gaps in this summary of the first part of the text. Each clue is an
anagram. The first and last letters are correct.
Task 3
Task
In my opinion, there is no single 'best' online service. The choice depends on
your
(prltacuair) needs and preferences. Most users have their
own 2 ____________ (ftrvaioue), but this can prevent them from seeing the
3
________ (agtvndaaes) of other services. Each one offers something which
is either 4 (uqinue) to that service, or which is 5
(bteetr) than the same features on other services. So, when considering an
online service, decide whether its features 6_
(cosrernopd) to what
you need. Until all services are'
(iilktneernd), most of us will need
to __________ (cunoitne) using more than one.
Task 4
Do you think the English in the text is:
a formal?
b neutral?
c informal?
2 Do you think this article originally appeared in:
a a computer magazine?
b a general magazine for young people?
c a general magazine for adults?
d an online bulletin board?
e the science page of a newspaper?
Give reasons for your choices.
1
Make these words negative by adding the appropriate prefix from those given
below. The first one has been done for you.
Task 5
in- un- im- dis1
2
infrequently
loyal
3 _______advantages
specific
5 ______ like
6
real
4
7
8
Task 6
30
probably
available
Match each word or expression in the first column with a synonym in the
second column.
1 but (line 2)
a ultimately
2 while (line 6)
b however
3 still (line 12)
c whereas
4 for my part (line 19) d nevertheless
5 eventually (line 40)
e personally
6 until then (line 44)
f meanwhile
Tas
k
Listening
Task 7
Task 8
ri Listen
to Jean-Yves Martin, a sales representative of France Telecom,
explaining the Minitel online service to Paul Burgess, an English reporter.
Complete Paul's notes.
Answer these questions about the interview.
1 What is 'Minitel rose'?
2 When did the system start?
3 How many Minitel terminals did the PTT install originally?
4 Did the first users have to pay?
r
Data transmission
Reading
Task 9
32
Match up the jigsaw pieces to complete the definitions. One has been done for
Task 10
Using the completed definitions from Task 9 and the information in the text
below, fill in the gaps in this diagram.
Accounts
1
2
3
signals
4
5
6
signals
7
Analog transmission
The older telephone systems function on the basis of analog signals
representing voice modulation patterns which are represented by
variations in wave forms. When using telephone lines for transmitting
data by terminal to a computer, the digital signals from the terminal need
5 to be converted to analog signals by an acoustic coupler or modem prior to
transmission. A modem is a device which serves a dual purpose because it
acts as a MOdulator (digital to analog) and DEModulator (analog to
digital), hence the name MODEM. An analog communication system
requires a modem at either end of the communication line. When the
1() signals are received by the distant computer, the signals are reconverted to
digital form prior to being input for processing.
33
Reading
Task 11
Before reading the text below, answer these questions.
1 What are the advantages of digital transmission?
2 How does digital transmission differ from analog transmission?
3 What information does the code supply?
Now read the text to check your answers.
Digital transmission
Analog transmission has been in use for many years as the basis of
telephone technology and is very effective for this purpose, but it is not so
suitable for high-speed transmission of information. Digital transmission
consists of electrical pulses representing data in binary code as a series of
5 on/off pulses. A number of different codes exist, some of which are based
on a 6-, 7-, or 8-bit structure. ASCII is a 7-bit code and EBCDIC is an 8-bit
code. The codes represent characters, transmission control signals,
information separators, and device control. Digital technology has a
number of advantages compared to analog, including higher transmission
1() speed, lower incidence of errors, and the facility for mixing data consisting
of voice, image, and text on the same circuit. It is for this reason that data
transmissions will be increasingly digital in the future. A network
structure known as Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) facilitates
these aspects.
Speaking
Task 12
Work in pairs, A and B. Use the information in this unit to describe the
diagrams below. You may make notes first.
Student A: Describe diagram 1 to your partner.
AC — Acoustic coupler
CC — Cluster controller
M — Modem
MP — Multiplexor
PC — Personal computer
T — Terminal
34
Task 13
Writing
Write a paragraph to show the difference between analog and digital
transmission.
Across
1 A combination of electronic devices and conductors that form a conducting
path. (7)
2 An agreement that covers the procedures used to exchange information
between co-operating computers. (8)
3 This kind of transmission has been the basis for telephone technology for many
years, though it is gradually being replaced. (6)
4 To send programs or data from a central computer to a remote PC. (8)
5 Single vibrations of electric current. (7)
6 A VDU screen and keyboard used to interact with a computer, usually with no
computing capacity of its own. (8)
7 This kind of transmission consists of electrical signals representing data in
binary code. (7)
8 A public database, for example, that can be accessed over a computer or
telephone network. (6, 7)
9 A ____ controller controls a number of similar peripheral device such as
terminals and links them to the main computer. (7)
10 This merges information from several channels into one channel. (11)
11 A device that converts the computer's digital bit stream into an analog signal
for transmission over a telephone line. (5)
12 A ___ board is a public teleconferencing system that allows users to read and
write messages. (8)
Down
13 The process of sending signals electronically. (1-2)
35
Language focus C
Word formation: suffixes
We have already seen how prefixes can change the meaning of a word. Let us
now consider some suffixes, their usual meanings, and how they change the
meanings of English words.
Suffixes
Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs
-ance
-ence
-ize
-ate
fy
en
ify
able
-ible
-less
-ic
ical
-ish
lye
-ly
-or
-er
-1st
ness
Exercise 1
Study these tables and try to make additional examples. Use your dictionary if
necessary.
1 Noun-forming suffixes:
ist, -yst
i a n -tion,
-ation -ness
-ion
-ing
ment
ity
ism
dom
ship
36
state
quality of
a person who
a thing which
a person who
pertaining to
the act of
condition of
action/state
activity
state, action
state, quality
condition/state
domain/condition
condition/state
performance
independence
programmer, operator
compiler, accumulator
analyst, typist
electrician
compilation
readiness
conversion
multiplexing
measurement
electricity
magnetism
freedom
relationship,
partnership
2 Verb-forming suffixes:
Suffix
Meaning
ize/-ise
ate
to make
if

ye
n
Examples
computerize
automate, activate,
calculate
simplify
harden, widen
Adverb-forming suffix:
Suffix
Meaning
Examples
ly
in the manner of
electronically,
logically, comparably,
helpfully
4 Adjective-forming suffixes:
Suffix
Meaning
having the quality
of
capable of being
Examples
computational, logical
circular
magnetic, automatic
electrical
comparable
divisible
like, full of
dangerous
characterized by
without
like
helpful
careless
yellowish
having the quality
of
computed
interactive
Note: Words ending in -ing are formed from verbs. The -ing form
may be used as a noun, part of a noun phrase, or part of a verb.
Examples:
1 Programming is an interesting job. (noun)
2 Programming in C is interesting. (part of noun phrase)
3 He is working as a programmer. (part of verb)
Exercise 2
Read the following sentences and circle the suffixes. Underline the stem if it can
be used on its own. The first one has been done for you.
1 A programmes designs, writes, and tests programs for perperformingrious
tasks on a comcomputer
2 A systems analyst studies organizational systems and decides what action
needs to be taken to maximize efficiency.
37
3 Laser printers are preferable to other types of printing devices because of their
speed and quietness.
4 The microcomputer we have purchased does not have a FORTRAN compiler. It
is programmable in BASIC only.
5 We have found that operators who have the freedom to take short breaks
during the day greatly improve their performance.
6 The number of shipments will increase over the coming months.
7 We decided to computerize the entire plant to give each division more
independence.
8 Spooling is a way of storing data temporarily on disk or tape until it can be
processed by another part of the system.
9 Turning your office into a paperless environment may be expensive at the
beginning but can produce big savings in the long run.
10 Software developers are producing increasingly sophisticated applications for a
growing global market.
Now, for each word that has a suffix, indicate what part of speech the word is
(e.g. noun, verb, etc.).
38
Programming and languages
Start-up
Task 1
Can you identify these programming languages?
a
/* this program finds the minimum of two integers
#-include <stdio.h>
main()
int j,k,m;
printf("Input two integers:
scanf("%d%d",&j.&k);
m=min(j,k);
printf("\n%d is the minimum of %d and %d\n\n"
m,j,k);
39
Reading
Before reading the text, try to fill in the gaps in these sentences.
Task 2
1A
is a program written in one of the high-level
languages.
2 A program written in a high-level language must be interpreted into
before the computer will read and process it.
3 A program designed to perform a specific task is called an
4 The
or _____________________ is the program
produced when the original program has been converted into machine code.
5A
is a program that converts a high-level language into machine
code.
6 The systems program which fetches required systems routines and links them
to the object module is known as the
7 The
is the program directly executable by the
computer.
Now read the text to check your answers.
Programs and programming languages
Computers can deal with different kinds of problems if they are given the
right instructions for what to do. Instructions are first written in one of the
high-level languages, e.g. FORTRAN, COBOL, ALGOL, PL/I, PASCAL,
BASIC, or C, depending on the type of problem to be solved. A program
5 written in one of these languages is often called a source program, and it
cannot be directly processed by the computer until it has been compiled,
which means interpreted into machine code. Usually a single instruction
written in a high-level language, when transformed into machine code,
results in several instructions. Here is a brief description of some of the
io many high-level languages:
FORTRAN acronym for FORmula TRANslation. This language
is used for solving scientific and mathematical problems. It consists of
algebraic formulae and English phrases. It was first introduced in the
United States in 1954.
15
COBOL acronym for COmmon Business-Oriented Language. This
language is used for commercial purposes. COBOL, which is written using
English statements, deals with problems that do not involve a lot of
mathematical calculations. It was first introduced in 1959.
ALGOL acronym for ALGOrithmic Language. Originally called IAL,
zo which means International Algebraic Language. It is used for
mathematical and scientific purposes. ALGOL was first introduced in
Europe in 1960.
40
PL/I Programming Language I. Developed in 1964 to combine
25
30
features of COBOL and ALGOL. Consequently, it is used for data processing
as well as scientific applications.
BASIC acronym for Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction
Code. Developed in 1965 at Dartmouth College in the United States for use
by students who require a simple language to begin programming.
C developed in the 19 70s to support the UNIX operating system. C is a
highly portable general-purpose language.
Other such languages are APL (developed in 1962), PASCAL (named after
Blaise Pascal and developed in 1971), and LISP and PROLOG, both of
which are used for work in artificial intelligence. LOGO is a development of
LISP which has been used to develop computer-based training (CBT)
35 packages.
When a program written in one of these high-level languages is designed
to do a specific type of work such as calculate a company's payroll or
calculate the stress factor on a roof, it is called an applications program.
Institutions either purchase these programs as packages or commission
40 their own programmers to write them to meet the specifications of the
users.
The program produced after the source program has been converted into
machine code is referred to as an object program or object module. This is
done by a computer program called the compiler, which is unique for each
45 computer. Consequently, a computer needs its own compiler for the
various high-level languages if it is expected to accept programs written in
those languages. For example, in order that an IBM RS/6000 may process
a program in FORTRAN, it needs to have a compiler that would
understand that particular model and the FORTRAN language as well.
The compiler is a systems program which may be written in any language,
but the computer's operating system is a true systems program which
controls the central processing unit (CPU), the input, the output, and the
secondary memory devices. Another systems program is the linkage
editor, which fetches required systems routines and links them to the
55 object module (the source program in machine code). The resulting
program is then called the load module, which is the program directly
executable by the computer. Although systems programs are part of the
software, they are usually provided by the manufacturer of the machine.
50
Unlike systems programs, software packages are sold by various vendors
60 and not necessarily by the computer manufacturer. They are a set of
programs designed to perform certain applications which conform to the
particular specifications of the user. Payroll is an example of such a
package which allows the user to input data — hours worked, pay rates,
special deductions, names of employees — and get salary calculations as
65 output. These packages are coded in machine language (Os and 1s) on
magnetic tapes or disks which can be purchased, leased, or rented by users
who choose the package that most closely corresponds to their needs. ■
■
Vocabulary
payroll (1. 62) — list of employees and the amount of money to be paid to each of
them
41
These are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions.
Task 3
1 No, it is quite wordy so it is used for commercial purposes.
2 To support the UNIX operating system.
3 An applications program.
4 It is done by the compiler.
5 It fetches required systems routines and links them to the object module.
6 No, they are also sold by other vendors.
Summarize the information on different high-level computer languages by
completing the table below.
Task 4
Language
Developed
Function
Characteristic
FORTRAN
1959
mathematical
and scientific
purposes
combines features
of COBOL and
ALGOL
BASIC
to support Unix
operating system
1962
Find the passages in the text where the following ideas are expressed. Give the
line references.
Task 5
line
1._
2 1.
Systems programs control the work of the computer system.
3
Usually, every high-level instruction translates into many more in
machine code.
1
42
Software packages are not always sold by the manufacturer.
4
1.
Systems programs are usually provided by the manufacturer.
5
1.
Programmers may be required to write software for their employers.
Task 6
Using the line reference given, look back in the text and find the reference for
the words in italics.
1 if they are given the right (line 1)
2 it cannot be directly processed (line 5)
3 it is called an applications program (line 38)
4 commission their own programmers (line 40)
5 to write them to meet (line 40)
6 that would understand (line 48)
7 which controls the central (line 51)
8 links them to the object (line 54)
9 They are a set of programs (line 60)
10 which can be purchased (line 66)
Task 7
Using the line references given, refer back to the text and find words or phrases
that have a similar meaning to:
1 converted (lines 5-10)
2 give the responsibility to (lines 35-40)
3 brings (lines 50-55)
4 are compatible with (lines 60-65)
5 matches (lines 65-67)
Task 8
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. You may have to change
some words slightly.
1
instruction, instruct, instructed, instructor
a
Our maths
arithmetic.
We were ______________
c Both ___________________
b
explained to us the principles of binary
to document our programs very carefully.
and data have to be changed to machine code before
the computer can operate on them.
2 compilation, compiler, compile, compiled
a
Our university computer does not have a PASCAL __________
b
Usually, a programmer ________ his program before he puts in the
data.
c A source program cannot be directly processed by the computer until it has
been _______
3
result, results, resulting
a
The linkage editor links systems routines to the object module. The
__________ program, referred to as the load module, is directly
executable by the computer.
b
The___________ of these mathematical operations were obtained from
the university mainframe and not from my micro.
43
4 specification, specify, specific, specified, specifically
a Our company bought three packages with very
________ applications:
payroll, accounts receivable, and accounts payable.
b An applications program is designed to do a
type of work,
such as calculating the stress factor of a roof.
c Did the analyst give the new programmer the
necessary to
start on the project?
C language
Listening
Listen this terview with David Wendt, an expert on C. Are the following
#tt#M#M111
EIM
sentences true (T) or false (F)?
C was written to support the development of the MS/DOS operating
system.
C was based directly on a language called BCPL.
UNIX was rewritten in C in 1973.
C is rarely used for systems programming now.
C's main disadvantage is that it has a small set of operators.
C is more powerful than Assembler.
C can be used to access memory addresses directly.
Pascal and C produce equally fast and efficient code.
C is the ideal language for everyone.
A language called D is expected to replace C.
Listen again. Change the sentences that are false to make them true.
44
Task 10
Listen again to the cassette and fill in the gaps in the tapescript below.
Could you give some examples of how it does that?
INTERVIEWER:
DAVID WENDT:
Yes. With C, the programmer can access the underlying
hardware. He can access memory addresses directly, he can perform
operations on values stored as _________ , and he can store variables in
registers, just as in Assembler. This produces faster and more
code than is produced by high-level languages like PASCAL. At the same time,
it provides the fundamental 3
constructs required
for well-structured programs: decision-making, loops, and
These features combined together provide a very powerful tool for the
programmer.
INTERVIEWER:
You make it sound like the ideal language for everyone.
DAVID WENDT:
that are 6
Well, no, I'm not saying that. But if you need to write programs
f a s t i n e x e c u t i o n, a n d y e t 7 f r o m o ne
,
computer to another, then C is the language you should be using.
Reading
Task 11
Read the program below and the text on the next page, then complete the
sentences which follow.
/* CALCULATE AVERAGES */
main()
f
float a,b,c,d,average;
printf("Enter three numbers:");
scanf("%f %f %f",&a,&b,&c);
d=a+b+c;
average=d/3.0;
printf("The average is %f", average);
1
45
Comment Lines
A C source program consists of statements and comment lines. Comment
lines are enclosed by the characters /* (at the start of the comment) and */
(at the end of the comment).
The Function main{ }
Every C program must have a function called main which must appear
5 only once in a program. The parentheses following the word main must
be present, but there must be no parameters included. The main part of
the program is enclosed within braces {} , and consists of declaration
statements, assignment statements, and other C functions. In the above
program there are six statements within the braces: a declaration
10 statement (the first statement of the main program starting with the word
float), two assignment statements (the fourth and fifth statements starting
with the variable names d and average), and three function statements,
two to print information on the screen and one to scan the keyboard for
input.
15
As C is a free form language, the semicolon (;) at the end of each line is a
must. It acts as a statement terminator, telling the compiler where an
instruction ends. Free form means that statements can be identified and
blank lines inserted in the source file to improve readability, and
statements can span several lines. However, each statement must be
20 terminated with a semicolon. If you forget to include the semicolon, the
compiler will produce an error, indicating the next line as the source of the
error. This can cause some confusion, as the statement objected to can be
correct, yet as a syntax error is produced.
Variables and the Declaration Statement
25
A variable is a quantity that is referred to by name, such as a, b, c; d, and
average in the above program. A variable can take on many values
during program execution, but you must make sure that they are given an
initial value, as C does not do so automatically. However, before variables
can be used in a program, they must be declared in a type declaration
statement.
1 The Function ____________ must appear only once in a program.
2 /* CALCULATE AVERAGES */ is a __________ line.
3 The statement float a,b,c,d,average; is a ___________ statement.
4 The program below contains ___________ function statements.
5 The assignment statements are on lines ____________ and ___________
6 The main part of the program is enclosed within __________
7 Each line of any C program must end with a __________ , which acts as a
statement
8 Ifyou forget to include the correct punctuation, the
will produce
a __________ error.
9 A quantity referred to by name is known as a
10 A
46
_____________________ statement must be used to declare variables.
Task 12
Task 13
Find words in the text which mean:
1 brackets (lines 5-10)
2 not fixed (lines 10-15)
3 systematically check (lines 10-15)
4 recognized (lines 15-20)
5 completed (lines 20-25)
6 starting (lines 25-29)
The table below shows C's relational operators. Fill the gaps in the table.
Writing
Task 14
Using the completed table above, write sentences to illustrate the following:
1 a != b
2a>b
3 a <= b
4 a >, b
5a<b
6a==b
Task 15
Speaking
Read the statements below. Which do you agree with more? Why?
`Learning a programming language is like learning any natural language. The
only difference is that you are communicating with a machine instead of
another person.'
`I get annoyed when I hear people comparing programming languages with
natural languages. They have almost >=thing in common.'
47
Word-play
Task 16
1
2
Solve the anagrams in the right-hand column and match them with the words
in the left-hand column to complete the phrases. The first one has been done
for you.
a mestnttae
high-level
b thirmacite
machine
3
systems
c
peat
4
object
d
taporeor
5
linkage
e
omelud
6
magnetic
f
egguanal
7
binary
declaration
comment
g
h
i
trodite
deco
enil
relational
i
nituroe
8
9
10
48
language
Language focus D
Organizing information
A paragraph is a group of related sentences that develop an idea. In nearly
every paragraph, there is one idea that is more important than all the others.
The main idea of the paragraph is usually found at the beginning.
Sample paragraph 1:
All computers, whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities.
They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations. They all have a
way of communicating with the person(s) using them. They also have
circuits for making decisions.
In sample paragraph 1, the first sentence, All computers, whether large or small,
have the same basic capabilities. expresses the main idea of the paragraph.
All main idea sentences have a topic and say something about the topic.
Example:
All computers [topic], whether large or small, have the same basic capabilities
[about the topic].
In some of your reading, finding main ideas may serve your needs but, in much
of your studying, you need to understand details. It is sometimes more difficult
to understand details than main ideas. You will find it helpful if you think of
details as growing out of the main idea. In sample paragraph 1, there are three
major details growing out of the main idea. These are the major details:
1 They have circuits for performing arithmetic operations.
2 They all have a way of communicating with the person(s) using them.
3 They also have circuits for making decisions.
A major detail often has minor details growing out of it. These minor details tell
more about a major detail, just as major details tell more about a main idea. In
studying, you often find a paragraph that has many small details that you must
understand and remember. Breaking up a paragraph of this kind into its three
components: the main idea, major details, and minor details will help you to
understand and remember what it is about.
Sample paragraph 2:
It is the incredible speed of computers, along with their memory capacity,
which makes them so useful and valuable. Computers can solve problems in
a fraction of the time it takes man. For this reason, businesses use them to
keep their accounts, and airline, railway, and bus companies use them to
control ticket sales. As for memory, modern computers can store
information with high accuracy and reliability. A computer can put data
into its memory and retrieve it again in a few millionths of a second. It also
has a storage capacity for as many as a million items.
49
If you were to organize this paragraph into its three components, it would look
like this:
Main idea
Major details
Minor details
It is the incredible speed of computers, along with their
memory capacity, which makes them so useful and
valuable.
Computers can solve
Modern computers
problems much faster
can store information
than humans.
with high accuracy
and reliability.
Businesses
Transport
A computer
use them
to keep
accounts.
companies
use them
to keep
track of
ticket
sales.
can put
data into
its memory
and
retrieve it
again in
a few
millionths
of a
second.
It also has a
storage
capacity
for as many
as a million
items.
In making a block diagram you don't have to write every word in the main
idea sentence or in each of the detail sentences.
Exercise 1
Practise finding the main idea, major details, and minor details by completing
the block diagram after reading the following paragraph.
The computer has changed the production of copy in the newspaper industry.
There are three steps involved in the process: input, correction, and output.
First, the computer numbers each story, counts words, and gives a listing of the
length of each story, Then, a page is made up, advertisements are placed in, the
copy is shifted or deleted, and corrections are made.)Finally, the computer
hyphenates words, and the result of all this is a newspaper page.
Main idea
The computer has changed the production of copy in the
newspaper industry.
Major details
Minor details
50
Exercise 2
Practise finding the main idea, major details, and minor details by completing
the diagram after reading the following paragraph.
Railway companies use large computer systems to control ticket reservations
and to give immediate information on the status of their trains. The computer
system is connected by private telephone lines to terminals in major train
stations, and ticket reservations for customers are made through these phone
lines. The passenger's name, type of accommodation, and the train schedule is
put into the computer's memory. On a typical day, a railway's computer
system gets thousands of telephone calls about reservations, space on other
railways, and requests for arrivals and departures. A big advantage of the
railway computer ticket reservation system is its rapidity because a cancelled
booking can be sold anywhere in the system just a few seconds later. Railway
computer systems are not used for reservations alone. They are used for a
variety of other jobs including train schedules, planning, freight and cargo
loading, meal planning, personnel availability, accounting, and stock control.
Main idea
Major details
Terminals for ticket
reservations
Minor details
Thousands of
calls for
reservations,
space, arrivals,
and departures
51
Computer software
Start-up
Task 1
_
_
_
_
_
_. A M M N Y N I M U . i a •
Make a list of software products that you use (e.g. word processing,
spreadsheets, etc.). Are there some features of the products you never use? Are
there any features missing?
Reading
Task 2
In the magazine article which follows, a number of software developers
expnions on the future of software technology. Read the article and tick
( V ) the relevant boxes to show which opinions are expressed by the speakers.
Opinions
In general, customers are getting what they want.
In general, customers are not getting what they want.
Software is too complex.
Software is not complex enough.
Software developers know what users want.
Software developers don't know what users want.
Catherine Bull investigate s
This week: software
c)
4
I chose four well-known software developers and asked each to talk about
current and future trends in software technology. Their comments reveal
some common and diverse themes.
10 I began by asking them if they thought that software purchasers are getting
what they need? What should developers be doing differently to give
purchasers a better product?
In general, I think people are getting what they want —there
are a lot of creative things being done with paint software, word
15 processing, DTP (desktop publishing) systems, and the like. Do users
want more? Of course! Users will always want more. The computer is an
incredibly powerful tool, and any software that makes it easier, faster, more
creative, or more cost-effective will inevitably be in demand. But I'm
generally optimistic about the way things are going
20 at the moment. I think most of the major software manufacturers are
able to read the market quite well.'
Mary Evans
'I'm afraid I completely disagree with Mary. I just don't
think that software purchasers are getting the technical support they need.
While the products are getting more and more complex, and
25 more and more expensive, it seems that support is starting to be thought
of as an additional business opportunity. More generally, I've thought for
some time that applications are getting too big, and that they're trying to do
too much. Yes, they're versatile and powerful, but they're also often
overwhelming. I think what we need are simple little
30 programs that are easy to understand and use, and that work together
to accomplish more complex tasks.'
Gerry Harper
'I really can't agree with that. To imagine we can just
go back to "simple little programs" just ignores the complex needs of
many of today's software users. No, I'm sure that you can't stop
35 progress. Suppliers know what their customers want — they just can't
supply it quickly enough. I've studied the market very closely, and I've
found that purchasers' needs seem always to exceed the capability of the
available software by a constant time-frame of about six to twelve months.'
Matt Andrews
Bob Bolton 'I think users are getting what they want, provided that
their needs fit the off-the-shelf application. Specialized software is usually so
specific that it should be written in-house for businesses. Developers should
add features that the customer needs, not what they think customers want.
Some effort should be made to get
45 feedback from the users before making an upgrade so that the proper
features are added.'
40
Vocabulary
a flash in the pan (1. 6) — a success that lasts only a short time and is
not repeated
off-the-shelf (1. 41) — mass-produced: not made according to the individual
needs of the customer
53
Task 3
Each of the following comments from the text is followed by two paraphrases.
Decide which paraphrase (a or b) is closer in meaning to the original comment.
Remember to look at the comments in their original context.
1 'Developers have to cut through a jungle of computer languages, operating
environments, and shifting standards...' (line 1)
a The huge number of languages, environments, and standards makes life
difficult for software developers.
b Software developers have to act to reduce the number of languages,
environments, and standards which currently exist.
`Their comments reveal some common and diverse themes.' (line 8)
a They talk about ordinary and wide-ranging topics.
b They agree about some issues, but disagree about others.
3 'I think most of the major software manufacturers are able to read the market
quite well.' (line 20)
a Most software manufacturers understand what consumers want.
b Most software manufacturers know how to influence users to buy more of
their products.
4 `...it seems that support is starting to be thought of as an additional business
opportunity.' (line 25)
a Increased technical support is a means of making software more attractive
to businesses.
b Software manufacturers are using the fact their products are complex to
start selling technical support to their customers.
5 `... purchasers' needs seem always to exceed the capability of the available
software by a constant time-frame of about six to twelve months.' (line 37)
a It takes about six to twelve months for purchasers to understand fully the
software they buy.
b The software customers want now what will only become available in
about six to twelve months.
Task 4
Task 5
Which of the four speakers do you most agree with? Why?
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases
in the text that have a similar meaning to:
1 penetrate (lines 1-5)
2 changing (lines 1-5)
3 win, survive (lines 5-10)
4 buyers (lines 10-15)
5 understand (lines 20-25)
6 flexible (lines 25-30)
7 too big/complex to manage (lines 25-30)
8 achieve (lines 30-35)
9 go beyond (lines 35-40)
10 information about a product/service (lines 40-45)
Writing
Task 6
54
Translate Mary Evans's comments (the paragraph beginning 'In general, I
think people...') into your own language.
Listening
Task 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Listen to the following radio talk show called Computer Forecast, in which Barry
Harris, the host, is discussing the future of software technology with his two
guests. Are the following sentences true (T) or false (F)?
Liz thinks that most PC users are too tolerant of design faults.
Liz thinks that only ten per cent of software users really know what they are
doing.
Liz thinks that the increased sophistication of software will make the
problem of lack of expertise among users even worse in the future.
Sam agrees that the vast majority of users of a single PC are
inexperienced.
Sam estimates that the number of experienced users and first-time buyers
among his customers is about the same.
Liz thinks that multimedia isn't having a big impact on the software
market because of its high price and the lack of appropriate technology.
Sam disagrees with Liz about multimedia, and believes that it will replace
conventional desktop publishing.
Both Liz and Sam agree that, in future, new software products will all
have to be network-compatible.
Listen again. Change the sentences that are false to make them true.
55
Task 8
F--1, Read this extract from the tapescript of the conversation and fill in the gaps. To
help you, the first letter of each missing word is given, and each gap is followed
by a synonym for the missing word.
56
Comparing software packages
Task 10
Reading
The features below are common in commercially available word-processing
and desktop publishing packages. Match each feature with the correct
definition. The first one has been done for you.
1 auto-kerning
2 mail merge
3 style sheets
4 input tagging
5 maths functions
6 table of contents
7 auto numbering
8 outliner
9 index generation
10 multiple rulers
can automatically generate a table of contents for a
document
b can carry out simple calculations within a document
such as totalling columns, etc.
a single text file can contain several 'rulers' with
different margins and tab settings
e automatic numbering of figures, paragraphs, etc.
can adjust the space between successive characters to
f produce a 'best fit'
program can read in names and addresses from a
g database and create personalized letters for mail-shots
can automatically generate a sorted alphabetical
index for a document
text from word processors and databases can be
precoded with tags to allow the correct format to be
applied automatically
these help to ensure uniform style throughout a
document
a writing aid enabling the structure of the document
to be worked out beforehand and used as a guide
when doing the detailed writing
57
a
Task 12
a
b
d
58
The table on the following page contains information about five DTP products
(a—ea-eUsing the hints below, identify the products.
1 PageMaker 4.0 and Ventura Publisher Windows 4.0 are both the same
price.
2 PageMaker 3.01 has the fewest features.
3 Ventura Publisher Windows 4.0 has a spell check and an auto numbering
facility.
4 Legacy is cheaper than Ami Pro for Windows 2.0.
Writing
Task 13
Imagine that you are the product reviewer for a PC magazine. Decide which
word-processing product in Table 1 is the best, then write a paragraph
explaining your choice.
Speaking
Task 14
Work individually, then in pairs, using the information in the table on word
processors in Task 11.
1 Individually, list the word-processing packages in order of merit (1 = best; 7 =
worst).
2 In pairs, compare your lists. Explain the reasons for the order you chose. Try to
persuade your partner to change his/her list to match yours.
You may use the space below to write your lists.
10- Useful expressions
I agree with you about...
I'm afraid I can't agree with you
about... I think...
I don't think...
Xis too expensive.
Y has more/fewer features.
59
Word-play
Task 15
Complete the puzzle and find the key word in 11 down.
11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Across
1 A program designed to perform a specifid function. (11)
2 A general term for programs which do not form part of a computer but are
used when operating it. (8)
3 A facility which allows the user to read in a file of names and create
`personalized' letters. (4,5)
4 A sequence of instructions that is repeated until a desired condition is
reached. (4)
5 A program that manipulates rows and columns of figures, used especially for
accounting. (11)
6 The combined use on computer of text, graphics, video, animation, and
sound. (10)
7 The ____ editor is a systems program that fetches required systems routines
and links them to the object module. (7)
8 The business of preparing, printing, and distributing books or magazines, etc.
to the public. (10)
9 Someone who creates new software products. (9)
10 A program or series of programs directed at some generic application (e.g. word
processing) that can be tailored by the user to match his individual needs. (7)
Down
11 An IBM- _____ computer is one which can be used with other IBM hardware.
(10)
60
Language focus E
Making comparisons
Formation
The regular comparative and superlative forms of descriptive words (adjectives
and adverbs) are shown below:
1 Words of one syllable add the ending -er and -est,
Examples:
Absolute
Adjectives
Adverbs
new
old
big
soon
late
Comparative
newer
older
bigger
sooner
later
Superlative
newest
oldest
biggest
soonest
latest
2 Words with three or more syllables are preceded by more and most.
Examples:
Adjectives
Adverbs
Absolute
Comparative
Superlative
interesting
convenient
beautiful
easily
carefully
more interesting
more convenient
more beautiful
more easily
more carefully
most interesting
most convenient
most beautiful
most easily
most carefully
3 Adjectives with two syllables may be like 1 or 2 above in that they will add the
ending -er and -est if they end in -y or -ly, -ow, -le and -er.
Examples:
-y
-ly
-ow
-er
Absolute
Comparative
Superlative
tiny
speedy
early
friendly
shallow
narrow
clever
tinier
speedier
earlier
friendlier
shallower
narrower
cleverer
tiniest
speediest
earliest
friendliest
shallowest
narrowest
cleverest
61
4 Most of the remaining two-syllable adjectives take more and most in front of
them.
Examples:
Absolute
Comparative
careful
careless
boring
awful
complex
more careful
more careless
more boring
more awful
more complex
Superlative
most careful
most careless
most boring
most awful
most complex
5 Some common two-syllable adjectives can have either type of formation.
Examples:
Absolute
Comparative
common
commoner/
more common
gentler/
more gentle
quieter/
more quiet
gentle
quiet
Superlative
commonest/
most common
gentlest
most gentle
quietest/
most quiet
6 Two-syllable adverbs ending in -ly take more and most.
Examples:
Absolute
Comparative
Superlative
quickly
slowly
badly
more quickly
more slowly
more badly
most quickly
most slowly
most badly
7 A small number of adjectives and adverbs have an irregular comparative and
superlative form.
Examples:
Adjectives
Adverbs
62
Absolute
Comparative
Superlative
bad
far
good
many
badly
far
little
much
well
worse
further/farther
better
more
worse
further/farther
less
more
better
worst
furthest/farthest
best
most
worst
furthest/farthest
least
most
best
Use in sentences
Comparisons may show equivalence, non-equivalence, the highest degree of
something, and parallel increase.
1 Equivalence: the following words or constructions are used to show that things
or people are similar in some way.
are similar
as ... as
each
as many ... as equal to
either
as much ... as is like
all
the same ... as similar/ly
both
similar to
equal/ly
compared to/with alike
the same
Examples:
1 Here, the term 'processor' is equivalent to the central processing unit.
2 Laptops are as powerful as microcomputers.
3 Some companies have as many computers as employees.
4 Some companies use both disks and conventional filing systems for storing
data.
5 A computer virus is like a virus in the human body. It can do a lot of damage.
6 Many word-processing programs are similar in that thother,re certain
common functions.
2 Non-equivalence: the following words and constructions are used to compare
or contrast things or people that are separate from each other.
not as ... as
...-er than
more ... than
fewer ... than
less ... than
greater than
not as many ... as
not as much ... as
not equal to
unequal(ly)
unlike
not the same as
not all
Examples:
1 A mainframe is larger and more expensive than a microcomputer.
2 Learning to use a computer is not as difficult as learning to program.
3 A fax board costs less tha(superlative),e.
4 Unlike factory-sealed software, pirated versions may contain viruses.
5 Desktop publishing is the same as electronic publishing.
6 You can save money with a network because you will need fewer printers.
3 The highest degree: the following words and constructions are used to compare
one member of a group with the whole group (superlative).
the ...-est
the most ...
the least ...
Examples:
1 This is the most popular package on the market today.
2 BASIC is probably the least difficult programming language to learn.
3 The best programs are those adapted specifically to your own needs.
63
4 Parallel increase: the following words and constructions are used to show
parallel increase (two comparatives).
the ...-er, the more ...
the more ..., the ...-er the ...-er, the less ...
Examples:
1 The more memory your computer has, the more data it can store.
2 The bigger your computer system, the less time you spend waiting.
3 The more training you give to your employees, the better they will perform.
Exercise 1
The following sentences express computer capabilities and limitations. Decide
whether the sentences express equivalence, non-equivalence, or the
superlative, then underline the words expressing the comparison. The first one
has been done for you.
1 equivalence
Speeds for performing decision-making operations are
comparable to those for arithmetic operations.
2
Even the most sophisticated computer, no matter how good it is,
must be told what to do.
3
A computer can perform similar operations thousands of times,
without becoming bored, tired, or careless.
4 For example, modern computers can solve certain classes of
arithmetic problems millions of times faster than a skilled mathematician.
5 _ _ _ _ _ _ One of the most important reasons why computers are used so
widely today is that almost every big problem can be solved by solving a
number of little problems.
6
Finally, a computer, unlike a human being, has no intuition.
Exercise 2
Read the following sentences taken from previous units. Decide whether the
sentences express equivalence, non-equivalence, or the superlative, then
underline the words expressing the comparison.
Digital Research have continued to develop their operating
system, DR/DOS, and it is considered by many people to be a better product
than Microsoft's. (Unit 1)
For the last generation, Silicon Valley and Tokyo have been
working to design computers that are ever easier to use. (Unit 2)
There is one thing, however, that has prevented the machines
from becoming their user-friendliest: ... (Unit 2)
Clipboard PCs — which, as their name suggests, are not much
bigger than an actual clipboard — replace the keyboard with a liquid crystal
display (LCD) screen and an electronic stylus. (Unit 2)
When the computer finds the closest match, it encodes the
character in memory and displays it on the screen as if it had been typed.
(Unit 2)
There are a handful of clipboard computers now on the market,
including GRIDPad, which is sold in the US; Penvision, manufactured by NCR
and sold around the world; and Sony's Palmtop and Canon's Al Note, both sold
only in Japan. (Unit 2)
I'm frequently asked which online service is 'best' but, the
answer is, there is no best. (Unit 3)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
64
They tend to judge all other online services based on this first
service — often preventing themselves from seeing the advantages of a specific
service. (Unit 3)
9 Each offers one or more products or features that either do not
exist elsewhere or are superior to the same features on other services. (Unit 3)
10 Judge it based on what it offers and how it meets your needs —
not in comparison to what you're used to using. (Unit 3)
8
Exercise 3
Refer back to the table of word-processing packages (Unit 5, page 58) and write
ten sentences comparing the products advertised.
Examples:
Upword is more expensive than JustWrite.
Ami Pro 2.0 has the largest spell check dictionary.
65
`There! That should make life easier!'
Start-up
Task 1
Try to answer these questions.
1 What is a LAN?
2 What is a WAN?
3 What is a distributed system?
Reading
Task 2
Before reading
definitions.
1 protocol
2 bulletin board
3 user interface
4 make a query
5 parse
6 synchronous
66
the text opposite, match these words and phrases with their
a analyse the syntax of a string of input symbols
b a teleconferencing system allowing users to read
messages left by other users
c agreement governing the procedures used to
exchange information between co-operating
computers
d means of communication between a human user and
a computer system
e taking place at exactly the same time as something
else
f request a search
Task 3
a
Read quickly through the text below, then match each paragraph with the
appropriate summary.
Network uses, past and present
b
d
e
n
How distributed systems work
Networks and the future
What networks are and how they operate
The growth of networks, past and present
L]
Computer networks
omputer networks
link computers
by communication lines and
software protocols, allowing data
5 to be exchanged rapidly and
reliably. Traditionally, networks
have been split between wide
area networks (WANs) and local
area networks (LANs). A WAN is a
C
io network connected over longdistance telephone lines, and a
LAN is a localized network usually
in one building or a group of
buildings close together. The
15 distinction, however, is becoming
blurred. It is now possible to
connect up LANs remotely over
telephone links so that they look
as though they are a single LAN.
20 Originally, networks were used
to provide terminal access to
another computer and to transfer
files between computers. Today,
networks carry e-mail, provide
25 access to public databases and
bulletin boards, and are
beginning to be used for
distributed systems. Networks
also allow users in one locality to
30 share expensive resources, such
as printers and disk-systems.
Distributed computer systems
are built using networked
computers that co-operate to
35 perform tasks. In this
environment each part of the
networked system does what it is
best at. The high-quality bitmapped graphics screen of a
40 personal computer or workstation
provides a good user interface.
The mainframe, on the other
hand, can handle large numbers
of queries and return the results
45 to the users. In a distributed
environment, a user might use his
PC to make a query against a
central database. The PC passes
the query, written in a special
50 language (e.g. Structured Query
Language — SQL), to the
mainframe, which then parses the
query, returning to the user only
the data requested. The user
55 might then use his PC to draw
graphs based on the data. By
passing back to the user's PC only
the specific information
requested, network traffic is
so reduced. If the whole file were
transmitted, the PC would then
have to perform the query itself,
reducing the efficiency of both
network and PC.
In the 1980s, at least 100,000
LANs were set up in laboratories
and offices around the world.
During the early part of this
decade, synchronous orbit
70 satellites lowered the price of
long-distance telephone calls,
enabling computer data and
television signals to be
distributed more cheaply around
75 the world. Since then, fibre-optic
cable has been installed on a
large scale, enabling vast
amounts of data to be transmitted
65
2
3
at a very high speed using light
so signals.
The impact of fibre optics will
be considerably to reduce the
price of network access. Global
communication and computer
85 networks will become more and
more a part of professional and
personal lives as the price of
microcomputers and network
access drops. At the same time,
90 distributed computer networks
should improve our work
environments and technical
abilities.
4
5
67
Task 4
Read this summary of the text and fill in the gaps using the list of words below.
C
omputer networks link computers locally or by external communication lines
a n d
s o f t w a r e
reliably. The 2
allowing data to be exchanged rapidly and
between local area and wide area networks is,
however, becoming unclear. Networks are being used to perform increasingly
diverse tasks, such as carrying e-mail, providing access to public databases,
and for 3
. Networks also allow users in one locality to share
resources.
Distributed systems use networked computers. PCs or 4 ___
provide the user
. Mainframes process 6
and return the results to the users. A user at his PC might make a query
against a central database. The PC passes the query, written in a special
language, to the mainframe, which then'
the query,
returning to the user only the data requested. This allows both the network
and the individual PC to operate efficiently.
In the 1980s, at least 100,000 8
9
were set up world-wide. As
orbit satellites have lowered the price of long-distance
telephone calls, data can be transmitted more cheaply. In addition,
10
cable has been installed on a large scale, enabling vast
amounts of data to be transmitted at a very high speed using light signals. This
will considerably reduce the price of network access, making global networks
more and more a part of our professional and personal lives. Networks should
also improve our work!'
and technical abilities.
distinction
distributed systems
environments
Task 5
Task 6
68
fibre-optic
LANs
parses
protocols
queries
screen handling
synchronous
workstations
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words that have a
similar meaning to:
1 unclear (lines 15-20
2 place (lines 25-30)
3 carry out (lines 35-40)
4 cost (lines 70-75)
5 world-wide (lines 80-85)
Now look back in the text and find words that have an opposite meaning to:
1 disparate (lines 10-15)
2 conflict v (lines 30-35)
3 preventing (lines 70-75)
4 tiny (lines 75-80)
5 increase (lines 80-85)
Writing
Translate the third paragraph, beginning 'Distributed computer systems...' into
your own language.
Task 7
Listening
Listen to this extract from the radio programme Computerworks about LANs.
Indicate whether the following items are mentioned ( ✓ ) or not mentioned
(x).
1
LANs are equally useful to large and small companies.
2 ___ Companies can install their own LANs, provided they are not too big.
___ Whether or not a company builds a 'do-it-yourself' LAN depends on the
amount of space available for the installation.
4
It is sometimes still possible to install part of a LAN if you don't have the
computer knowledge or time to do the whole job yourself.
3
___ You need at least three years' computer maintenance experience before
you should attempt to install a LAN.
6 ___ In order to install your own LAN, you need to be used to opening up
computers, adding and removing expansion boards, and consulting
computer documentation.
7 ___ When installing your own LAN you should expect to have to repeat the
same process several times.
5
8
___ The installation process often causes computers to break down.
69
Task 9
Read this extract from the tapescript and try to fill in each gap with an
appropriate word.
When you're installing a LAN, you may be
as much as a day or so. A lot depends on how 2
proceeds, and that depends on your own
can have each of your machines 4
__ your computers for
the installation
of
. Professional installers
_ for only a few
minutes at a time. If you can't live without your computers for a while, you
might want to 6
doing it yourself.
Installing a LAN involves running cable to several'
.
This may
require you to install junction boxes in walls, do the wiring, and maybe install
electrical
as well. If you aren't 9
and if you aren't a 1°
with these skills,
_ electrician, you will need to hire someone for
this part, at least. Of course, if you're installing your LAN in one room, then
you might not need to hire 11
Now listen again to the last part of the recording. Check to see whether your
answers match those used by the speaker.
Network configurations
Reading
70
1
2
3
4
Star
In the star configuration, the central computer performs all processing and
control functions. All access devices are linked directly to the central
computer. The star configuration has two major limitations. First of all, the
remote devices are unable to communicate directly. Instead, they must
communicate via the central computer only. Secondly, the star network is
very susceptible to failure, either in the central computer or the transmission
links.
Switched
The central switch, which could be a telephone exchange, is used to connect
different devices on the network directly. Once the link is established, the two
devices communicate as though they were directly linked without
interference from any other device. At the end of the session, the connection
is closed, freeing capacity for other users and allowing access to other devices.
Multiple switches can be used to create alternative transmission routes.
Ring
Each device is attached to a network shaped as a continuous loop. Data
proceeds in only one direction and at a constant speed round the loop.
Devices may send information only when they are in control of the 'token'.
The token is a package of data which indicates which device has control. The
receiving device picks up the token, then clears it for another's use once it has
received the message. Only one device may send data at any given moment,
and each device must be working for the network to function.
Bus/Ethernet
A bus network consists of one piece of cable terminated at each end to which
all devices are connected. In a bus-based network, each device is able to
broadcast a message when it has detected silence for a fixed period of time. All
devices receive the broadcast and determine from the content of the message
whether it was intended for them. The only problem occurs when two
devices try to send at the same time. When a sending device detects another's
transmission, it aborts its own.
71
Task 11
Task 12
Task 13
These are answers to questions about the texts. Write the questions.
1 To connect different devices on the network directly.
2 No, it goes in only one direction round the loop.
3 No, only one device may send data at any given moment.
4 From the content of the message.
5 It cancels its own transmission.
Which of the network configurations on page 71 does this flowchart refer to?
The columns below describe characteristics of the bus and ring configurations.
Which column refers to which configuration? How did you decide?
a
varied time response
easy expansion
fault-tolerant
simple
calculable time response
difficult reconfiguration
fault-intolerant
more complex
Speaking
Task 14
72
Work in pairs, A and B, using the information in the advertisement opposite.
Prepare the role-play in advance and try not to refer to the advertisement
during the activity.
Student A: You
are a customer interested in the Netplan Eazy Kit. Before
deciding whether to buy it, ask questions to find out:
1 what you need in order to use the Netplan Eazy Kit.
2 the total number of PCs you can run on it.
3 the cost of adding additional PCs.
4 how difficult it is to install.
5 what software it runs.
6 the other features offered.
You represent the makers of the Netplan Eazy Kit. Make notes
about the features of the product. Answer any questions and try to encourage
the customer to buy it.
Student B:
Netplan Eazy Kit
from as little as £215
This is not the only way to share software.
If your idea of sharing software is looking over a colleague's shoulder,
then Netplan may have the ideal solution. To benefit from a network
you only need two PCs.
The Netplan Eazy Kit costs just £215 and gives you all the hardware,
software, and cabling you need to link two PCs. And for £100 per PC
you can extend the network to up to six users. With Netplan Eazy even
the smallest business can save time, money, and effort.
Extra efficiency
The Netplan Eazy Kit allows PCs to
share the same data and software
without having to copy and
transfer disks. So whether you're
dealing with customer enquiries or
updating accounts, you can do it
from the same machine. You can
even send messages from one PC
to another by e-mail.
Netplan Eazy will also save you
money on expensive resources
like printers.
It's so Eazy
If you can use a screwdriver, you
can install Netplan Eazy yourself.
That's all it takes. And once
installed, it runs on all popular
software.
We also offer our customers
unlimited access to our
Freephone Helpline as part of the
package. So why wait? Contact
your nearest Netplan dealer
today. Details are on the back
cover of this magazine.
73
Word-play
Solve the crossword puzzle using the clues below.
Task 15
Across
The means of communication between a human and a computer. (4,9)
To load software on to a computer, ready for use. (7)
To transmit a message to all nodes on a network. (9)
and 3 down Usually found in one building or a group of buildings close
together. ( 5 ,4, 7)
10 This kind of network often uses a telephone exchange to connect different
devices directly. (8)
1
5
7
9
Down
2 Taking place at exactly the same time as something else. (11)
3 See 9 across.
4 An ______ board may be inserted into a computer to give it added features. (9)
6 The opposite of 9 across and 3 down. (3)
8 The network configuration in which all devices are linked through the central
computer. (4)
74
Language focus
Time sequence
In activities such as scheduling, doing routine activities, and conducting and
describing experiments, it is important to recognize the sequence of events. As
we know, events do not simply occur in isolation, they occur either before,
during, or after other events. This time sequence may be chronological, logical,
or causal. The following tables show examples of time relaters.
1 Before given time-references:
Time relaters
Adjectives
Adverbials
earlier
former
already
prior
before
before that
before then
preceding
previous
earlier
first
formerly
originally
up to now/then
until now/then
previously
so far
yet
in the beginning
(long) ago
Examples:
1 The memory storage capacity of earlier computers was not as large as those
of today.
2 When the first digital computer was developed, the first analog computer had
already been in use for some time.
3 Up to now, voice recognition technology has not been developed for mass
marketing.
2 Simultaneous with given time-references:
Time relaters
Adjectives
Adverbials
contemporary
simultaneous
at present
at this point
now/then
today
for the time being
at the moment
at that time
meantime
meanwhile
in the meantime
when
at the same time
75
Examples:
1 At that time many new computer programs were being developed for use in
businesses.
2 Computers may soon take over many daily tasks, but in the meantime
ordinary people must continue to do them themselves.
3 Computer magazines keep us informed about contemporary issues in the
computing world.
3
After given time-references:
Time relaters
Adjectives
following
Adverbials
afterwards
after that
eventually
later
since
by the time
next
by the end
soon
next
Examples:
1 Since the development of the chip, computers have become cheaper and more
compact.
2 You should have a good idea of the various applications of computer software
by the time you finish reading this book.
3 Although initial versions of word-processing programs were not very
complex, later versions were much more sophisticated.
Sample paragraph:
Computers, as we know them today, have not been around for a long time. It
was not until the mid-1940s that the first working digital computer was
completed. But since then, computers have evolved tremendously. Vacuum
tubes were used in the first-generation computers only to be replaced by
transistors in the second-generation computers at the beginning of the
early1960s. By the end of the 1960s, transistors themselves were replaced by
tiny integrated circuit boards and, consequently, a new generation of
computers was on the market. Fourth-generation computers are now
produced with circuits that are much smaller than before and can fit on a
single chip. Even now, new technologies are being developed to make even
better machines.
Exercise 1
76
Read the following paragraph and, as you read, underline the time relaters.
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many easy ways of
calculating were devised. Logarithm tables, calculus, and the basis for the
modern slide rule were invented during this period. It was not until the early
1800s that the first calculating machine appeared and, not too long after,
Charles Babbage designed a machine which became the basis for building
today's computers. A hundred years later, the first analog computer was built,
but the first digital computer was not completed until 1944. Since then,
computers have gone through four generations: digital computers using
vacuum tubes in the 1950s, transistors in the early 1960s, integrated circuits
in the mid-60s, and a single chip in the 1970s. In the 1980s, we saw
computers become smaller, faster, and cheaper. Earlier this decade, computers
became portable, from laptops to palmtops. At the rate computer technology is
growing now, we can expect further dramatic developments before the end of
the century.
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Read the following sentences which come from previous units. Underline the
time relaters and indicate whether they refer to before, during, or after the
given time reference. The first one has been done for you.
1 after
Since then, over seventy million PCs made by IBM and other
manufacturers have been sold. (Unit 1)
2
Over this period, PCs have become commodity items. Since IBM
made the design non-proprietary, anyone can make them. (Unit 1)
3
_ Ten years later, in 1991, IBM were making PCs with 16Mb of
memory, expandable to 64Mb, running with a processor speed of 33MHz.
(Unit 1)
4 Large companies are co nsidering running major applications on
PCs, something which, ten years ago, no one would have believed possible of a
PC. (Unit 1)
5 ______________ When the computer finds the closest match, it encodes the
character in memory and displays it on the screen as if it has been typed.
(Unit 2)
6 Enter the clipboard computer, a technology that has been in
development for the last 20 years but took hold in the mass market only this
year. (Unit 2)
7
Eventually, we're all going to be interlinked, no matter which
service we use, in what DIALOG's Richard Ream calls a 'network of networks'.
(Unit 3)
8
Until then, most of us have to go to more than one service to
find everything we need. (Unit 3)
Now refer back to paragraphs 1, 2, 4, and 5 of the text entitled Computer
networks (page 67, Unit 6). Underline all the time relaters and indicate whether
they refer to before, during, or after the given time reference.
77
Start-up
Task 1
Try to answer these questions.
1 What is a computer virus?
2 How does a virus work?
Reading
Task 2
78
Before reading the text, match the words and definitions listed below.
1 a detonator
a a protective device
2 an infector
b to remove all traces of something
c a device used to set off an explosion or other destructive
3 to boot
process
4 to trigger
d to discover or recognize that something is present
5 to erase
e to set a process in motion
6 pirated
f something which transmits a disease or virus
7 a shield
g stolen, obtained without the owner's consent
8 to detect
h to load the operating system into memory
Task 3
Now read the text to check your answers to Task 1.
How computer viruses work
A
computer virus — an
unwanted program that
has entered your system
without you knowing about
5 it— has two parts, which I'll
call the infector and the
detonator. They have two
very different jobs. One of
the features of a computer
10 virus that separates it from
other kinds of computer
program is that it replicates
itself, so that it can spread
(via floppies transported
15 from computer to computer,
or networks) to other
computers.
After the infector has
copied the virus elsewhere,
20 the detonator performs the
virus's main work. Generally,
that work is either damaging
data on your disks, altering
what you see on your
25
30
computer display, or doing
something else that
interferes with the normal
use of your computer.
Here's an example of a
simple virus, the Lehigh
virus. The infector portion of
Lehigh replicates by
attaching a copy of itself to
COMMAND.COM (an
35 important
part of DOS),
enlarging it by about 1000
bytes.
So let's say you put a
floppy containing
40 COMMAND.COM into an
infected PC at your office —
that is, a PC that is running
the Lehigh program. The
infector portion of Lehigh
45 looks
over DOS's shoulder,
monitoring all floppy
accesses. The first time you
tell the infected PC to access
your floppy drive, the Lehigh
50
infector notices the copy of
COMMAND.COM on the
floppy and adds a copy of
itself to that file.
Then you take the floppy
105
55 home to your PC and boot
from the floppy. (In this case,
you've got to boot from the
floppy in order for the virus
to take effect, since you may
so have many copies of
COMMAND.COM on your
hard and floppy disks, but
DOS only uses the
COMMAND.COM on the
115
65 boot drive.)
Now the virus has silently
and instantly been installed
in your PC's memory. Every
time you access a hard disk
120
70 subdirectory or a floppy disk
containing COMMAND.COM,
the virus sees that file and
infects it, in the hope that this
particular COMMAND.COM
125
75 will be used on a boot disk on
some computer someday.
Meanwhile, Lehigh keeps a
count of infections. Once it
has infected four copies of
130
8 0 C OM MA ND .C OM , t h e
detonator is triggered. The
detonator in Lehigh is a
simple one. It erases a vital
part of your hard disk,
135
85 making the files on that part
of the disk no longer
accessible. You grumble and
set about rebuilding your
work, unaware that Lehigh is 140
90 waiting to infect other
unsuspecting computers if
you boot from one of those
four infected floppies.
Don't worry too much
95 about viruses. You may
never see one. There are just
a few ways to become
infected that you should be
aware of. The sources seem
100 to be service people, pirated
games, putting floppies in
publicly available PCs
145
150
without write-protect tabs,
commercial software (rarely),
and software distributed
over computer bulletin board
systems (also quite rarely,
despite media misinformation).
Many viruses have spread
through pirated — illegally
copied or broken — games.
This is easy to avoid. Pay for
your games, fair and square.
If you use a shared PC or a
PC that has public access,
such as one in a college PC
lab or a library, be very
careful about putting
floppies into that PC's drives
without a write-protect tab.
Carry a virus-checking
program and scan the PC
before letting it write data
onto floppies.
Despite the low incidence
of actual viruses, it can't hurt
to run a virus checking
program now and then.
There are actually two kinds
of antivirus programs: virus
shields, which detect viruses
as they are infecting your PC,
and virus scanners, which
detect viruses once they've
infected you.
Viruses are something to
worry about, but not a lot. A
little common sense and the
occasional virus scan will
keep you virus-free.
Remember these four points:
Viruses can't infect a data
or text file.
Before running an antivirus
program, be sure to coldboot from a writeprotected floppy.
Don't boot from floppies
except reliable DOS disks
or your original production
disks.
Stay away from pirated
software.
Vocabulary
fair and square (1. 113) — honestly
it can't hurt (1. 126) — it's probably a good idea
79
Task 4
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) in relation to
the information in the text. If you feel a statement is false, change it to make it
true.
1 Viruses cannot be spread through a computer network, only via floppies
transported from computer to computer.
2
The virus will spread as soon as you put the infected floppy in your PC.
3
The infector works by interfering in some way with the normal use of
your computer.
4
The detonator in Lehigh works by altering what you see on your screen.
Most viruses spread through pirated games.
You should run an antivirus program every time you use your computer.
There are not very many viruses in circulation.
Virus shields are more effective than virus scanners.
5
6
7
8I
Indicate the line reference where the following ideas are found in the text.
Task 5
line
1 1.
The Lehigh virus must infect four copies of COMMAND. COM before
damage is done to data.
2 1 _ _ Always boot your computer from dependable DOS disks or your
original disk.
3 1.
The infector part of a virus must first copy itself somewhere before the
detonator part damages the data on your disks.
4 1_
Virus scanners discover viruses after the infection and virus shields
discover viruses during the infection process.
Task 6
These are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions.
1 Two, one that infects and one that does the damage.
2 By interfering in some way with the normal use of the computer.
3 After it has infected four copies of COMMAND.COM.
4 Every time you access a hard disk subdirectory or a floppy disk containing
COMMAND.COM.
5 Yes, by using your common sense and by occasionally scanning for them.
Task 7
Using the line reference given, look back in the text and find the reference for
the words in italics.
1 They have two very (line 7)
2 is that it replicates itself (line 12)
3 enlarging it by about (line 36)
4 of itself to that file (line 53)
5 and infects it (line 73)
6 This is easy to (line 112)
7 which detect viruses (line 131)
8 once they've infected (line 134)
80
Task 8
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases
with a similar meaning to:
1 reproduces (lines 10-15)
2 infect (lines 12-17)
3 changing (lines 20-25)
4 immediately (lines 65-70)
5 complain (lines 85-90)
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases
that have an opposite meaning to:
reducing (lines 35-40)
removed from (lines 65-70)
records (lines 80-85)
ignorant (lines 9 5-100)
10 frequently (lines 100-105)
6
7
8
9
Computer security
Security breach blamed on hacker'
Hacker causes
hacks into
chaos in
bank's database
city hospital
Computer fraud on the increase
12 year-old
Task 9
Task 10
Speaking
In pairs, try to answer these questions:
1 Who or what is a 'hacker'?
2 How many ways can you think of to make the data in a computer secure?
Listening
Listen to Steve, a computer technician, and Richard, the office manager at a
language institute, talking about computer security.
As you listen to the conversation, answer the following questions.
1 What is the problem with the computer system at the language institute?
2 What would someone need to connect his/her PC to the office network?
3 What are the disadvantages of security passwords, according to Steve and
Richard?
4 How does the 'smart' card work? Is it safe?
5 How much do you think Steve and Richard know about security systems?
81
Speaking
Task 11
Steve and Richard must decide what to do. What advice would you give them?
In groups or pairs, note down the advantages and disadvantages of the possible
solutions. Think about safety, cost, and ease of use. Try to decide on the best
solution.
Reading
Task 12
The combined threat of viruses y,reakii.g havoc on y ,ir PC and
Just as scary as the viruses are those characters that attempt to
probing meddlers gaining access to sensitive dai can strike fear
invade your computer files without authorization. AllSafe's flexible
into the hearts of even the most mild-mannered PC managers.
Relax XTree Company has the ultimate in PC protection. AllSafe
teams superior vims prevention with aura 0 11701 and security
,
,
reporting.
And while most ant-virus produc_, simply scan or known virus
signatures, AitSafe actually looks for the signs of viruses
attempting to replicate. Once a virus is spotted, AllSafe isolates it,
preventing the virus from infecting your PC. If the virus is
known, AllSafe quickly removes it. Even it the virus is unknown,
AllSafe studies it and learns its signature immediately, letting you
automafically update the virus signature database Then you can
password options let you share or limit acces to as much of your
hard disk as you wish. AllSafe keeps out the evil invaders!
When you need a complete solution - protection against both
viruses xi(' unauthorized entry - choose AllSafe. And like all XTree
Company products, they're easy to install and use. For more
information or to find out where you can buy AilSafe, call one
of our distributors:
Softsel UK (081) 588-8866
XTREE
use AllSale to scan other disks or
systems right away before
an infection can spread,
without waiting for a new
P&P (0706)217-744
Ingram Micro UK (0908)260460 Frontline (0256)27890
C
O
M
P
AUSAFE
signature from the
are publisher. So, if you use a,gandalone PC, fear not Its
over for the evil virus.
■
qc 01191 LleM S i teff e, ram
FREE FACTS 091
The flowchart on the following page represents the steps in the process by
which AliSafe removes viruses from PCs. Using the information in the
advertisement, match each step with the corresponding letter in the flowchart.
82
1 Virus signature database is updated.
2 Is virus known?
a
b
3 AllSafe scans other disks or systems in order to prevent
further infection immediately.
4 AllSafe searches for indications that viruses are
attempting to copy themselves.
d
5 AllSafe identifies and isolates the virus.
6 AllSafe eliminates the known virus.
7 AllSafe analyses the virus and learns its signature
straight away.
Task 13
Find words or phrases in the text which mean:
1 wickedness, badness, danger
2 hides (while waiting to attack)
3 causing a lot of damage
4 people who interfere without authorization
5 terrify, make very afraid
6 combines
7 identified, recognized
8 frightening
9 choices
10 attackers
Task 14
Speaking
Discuss the following questions:
1 What technique does the advertisement use to persuade people to buy the
product?
2 Do you think the advertisement is successful? Give reasons for your opinion.
3 What other techniques could be used to sell this kind of software?
83
Writing
Task 15
Design an advertisement for a PC protection package. Your advertisement
should mention all the features listed below, but you may add others. Choose a
name, and decide on the best way to present your product.
Features
Password protection — system manager controls what each user is permitted to
do
File encryption — plain text messages are converted into cipher (code) so that
only authorized recipients can read them
Keyboard lock — screen is cleared and keyboard is locked after pre-set period of
inactivity
Reading
Task 16
Read this news report and discuss the questions that follow.
NSA consultant's son is
computer saboteur
`Worm' came from graduate student
court heard today how a Cornell
University
graduate
A
student,
Robert T. Morris Jr. (25), infected a
host of government and educational
computer centres with a computer
virus, known as a 'worm', which literally brought all computational activity to a halt in over 6,000 installations.
Morris, the son of a prominent
National Security Agency computer
consultant, was sentenced for his
offences yesterday. As punishment,
he was required to spend no time in
prison but, instead, serve three years'
probation, contribute 400 hours of
community service, and to pay a
$10,000 fine along with associated
court and probation costs.
1 How serious do you think Robert Morris's crime was?
2 Do you think the punishment was
a too severe?
b about right?
c not severe enough?
3 Do you know of any similar incidents of computer hacking?
84
Word-play
The words and phrases below are taken from this unit. In pairs or groups,
decide if they have a 'protective' or a 'destructive' meaning as they are used in
the unit, then put them under the correct heading.
detonator
infector
erase
pirated
infect
write-protect tab
worm
virus scanner
hacker
password
smart card
shield
cipher
keyboard
lock
access control
signature
protective
destructive
How many other ways can you think of to classify them?
85
Language focus G
Listing
It is important when reading to recognize and understand the relationship in
which sentences and groups of sentences combine to present information. This
information may be linked by means of a connective word or marker.
Making a list, for example when enumerating, and giving instructions,
indicates a cataloguing of what is being said. It is important to note that most
enumerations belong to clearly defined sets. The following table is a list of the
markers that can be used to show the order in which things are to be said.
1, 2, 3, etc.
one, two, three, etc.
first(ly), second(ly), third place
another, next, then
furthermore, afterwards, moreover
lastly/finally
to begin/start with, and to conclude
first and foremost}
mark the beginning
first and most important(ly)
of a descending order
above all
mark the end of
last but not least
an ascending order
There are many ways of showing sequential relationships. Those given in the
table above are not the only ones, they are the most common ones used in
listing or enumerating. The -ly forms are usually used when listing.
Sample paragraphs:
More and more police departments are now using sophisticated devices to
help control the increasing crime rate. Some of these devices are: firstly, a
computer terminal inside a police vehicle to answer an officer's questions,
secondly, a computer-controlled display unit for displaying fingerprints, and
thirdly, educational systems for police officers such as terminals, enabling
them to verify changes in laws, rules, and regulations.
The computer memory of many law enforcement systems contains all kinds
of information. First and foremost, it has data on stolen items such as cars,
licence plates, and property. Second, it has information on missing persons
and wanted fugitives. Last but not least, it contains information on political
extremist groups and their activities.
86
Computers have certainly revolutionized police work by providing access to
millions of items of information with the least possible delay and speeding up
the process of apprehending suspicious-looking characters.
l
Exercise 1
Complete the following paragraph about the various steps in the creation of a
database by filling in the blanks with appropriate listing markers.
When you are creating a new database, you must
decide how
2
many fields you will need in your database.
, you will have to
provide up to five items of information about each field. _________ , each
field needs to have a name. 4
, the field type has to be defined.
Character, numeric, date, and logical are some common types. s
choice to be made is the width of the field. However, some fields, such as date,
step is to set the number of
have present default values. The 6
, you will have to indicate
decimal places if the field is numeric. 7
whether the field is to be indexed or not.
Exercise 2
Complete the following paragraph by filling in the blanks with appropriate
listing markers.
Computers can do wonders, but they can waste a lot of money unless careful
consideration goes into buying them. Businessmen and women thinking of
buying a computer system should I_________________ admit they know very little
about computers. 2
___________________________________________,
they must realize that the computer sales
people don't always know how their business works.
3
, it
is essential that buyers should get outside advice, not
necessarily from consultants but from other executives who have had recent
experience in buying a computer system 4
they should try to see
systems similar to ones under consideration in operation. Because their
operations will have differences that must be accommodated, they should
5
_______ find out what would be involved in upgrading a system.
6
__________ important thing to know before buying a computer is the
financial situation of the supplier because computer companies come and go
and not all are financially stable.
'
,
the prospective buyer should
demand that every detail be covered in writing, including hardware and
software if they are supplied by different companies. There's nothing wrong
with computers themselves, it's how and why they are used that can cause
problems.
87
Computers in the office
Start-up
Task 1
What aspects of computer technology are illustrated below: Make a list of any
other examples used in the office.
a
Task 2
88
Reading
Read the text opposite. How many of the items you listed in Task 1 are
mentioned:
Visions of Tomorrow
first, safety. Radiation
screens are available,
and have been for some
years. Most of them place an
5 emissions barrier between
you and the front of your
display, while others encase
the entire monitor,
protecting you from side and
io rear emissions as well. Many
offices already have these
screens available for their
workers.
The paperless office is still
15 a dream, but the basic tools
are in place. We receive mail
in two basic forms: on paper
in an envelope, or
electronically on our
20 computers. Most of us have
access to e-mail in one form
or another. That's half the
battle won. The other half is a
bit more difficult, but it can
25 be, and is being, done. All
mail can be opened in the
mail room and scanned into
the computer using optical
character recognitnn 'OCR).
30 Then a document-imageprocessing program takes
over and lets you accomplish
electronically what you
would normally do with
35 paper. Various personal
computer products are
available for this purpose.
Pen-based computing is
coming into its own. Pena() input capabilities are
beginning to show up in
hardware, applications, and
operating systems. You can't
take notes that will go
45 directly into your computer,
and the technology wouldn't
know what to do with your
doodles, but it would know
that a doodle isn't a valid
50 word. And that's a start — a
good one.
Multimedia really needs no
explanation. There are many
packages that help you
55 create multimedia
F
presentations, and the tools
to create customized
multimedia training
programs are also plentiful.
so CD-ROM disks, such as ZiffDavis's Computer Select and
Microsoft's Bookshelf, let
you access mountains of
information with ease.
65
Com puters are already
much smaller than they used
to be, and you can't go to an
industry show these days
without finding some
70 company promoting its
'small footprint'. When you
start talking about laptops,
notebooks, and palmtops,
the question becomes, 'How
75 small is too small?' FAX
capabilities are already
available on boards that you
can plug into your computer.
When you combine the
so technologies present in
internal modems with voice
recognition, the basics for
having your computer
replace your phone-voice
85 line are in place.
Voice recognition is
another technology that may
appear limited in its present
form, but it shows great
so promise for the future.
Current voice-recognition
systems can handle speakerdependent continuous
speech or speaker95 independent discrete speech.
Speaking to your computer
will be a major factor in the
office of the future. In some
locations, it is already a
loo major factor in the office of
today. Stock is traded in
some brokerage houses by
verbal command from the
broker to the computer. So,
105 you ask your computer a
question, and it answers you
— verbally. Depending on the
rate of speech sampling used
and the resolution the A/D
110 converter uses for each
sample, we can already
create a credible
approximation of human
speech with digitized
115 sound.
Large display screens? You
can get screens of up to 35
inches now, and between
Barco and Mitsubishi
120 competing for the honor of
having the largest monitor,
it's hard to predict just how
big they will get in the future.
As for color, some
125 com panies offer upwards of
16 million. Somewhere in
that number must lie the
perfect color for reducing
eye-strain.
130
The real disaster that most
of us still have to deal with is
the traditional keyboard,
which is the cause of much
pain and suffering in the
135 form of carpal tunnel
syndrome and other
repetitive-strain injuries.
Wrist rests are available to
alleviate the problem, and
140 new designs for strangelooking keyboards, Star Trekstyle, are moving from the
drawing board to the factory.
Enterprise networks are
145 proliferating almost as fast
as LANs did just a year or
two ago. Public data
networks are ripe for the
dialling up and signing on.
150 And the Internet already
exists, with several of the
research and educational
facilities on its membership
rolls.
155
Worldwide connectivity is
already available in the
enterprise networks of some
major corporations (e.g.
DEC's DECnet and IBM's
160 Systems Network
Architecture). Admittedly,
these are proprietary
networks, but they are living
proof that the concept can
165 and does work.
• Vocabulary
doodle (1. 49) — meaningless drawing
brokerage houses (1. 102) — companies that buy and sell shares for clients
carpal tunnel syndrome (1. 135) — chronic wrist-strain caused by repetitive
movement, such as typing
Star Trek (1. 141) — futuristic American television series of the 1970s/1980s.
89
Task 3
Task 4
90
Using the table below, make a summary of the main points of the article in
note form.
Each of the following sentences from the text is followed by two paraphrases.
Decide which paraphrase (a or b) is closer in meaning to the original comment.
Remember to look at the comments in their original context.
1 Pen-based computing is coming into its own. (line 38)
a Pen-based computing is receiving the recognition it merits.
b Pen-based computing is good for tasks where a conventional pen would
normally be used.
2 ...you can't go to an industry show these days without finding some company
promoting its 'small footprint'. (line 67)
a At every exhibition these days, you will find at least one company
advertising its own miniature computer.
b It is impossible to get invited to a computer show these days unless you
have a contact in a company manufacturing miniature computers.
3 Current voice-recognition systems can handle speaker-dependent continuous
speech or speaker-independent discrete speech. (line 91)
a Some of today's voice-recognition systems are set up to recognize
continuous speech from certain people, while others can recognize specific
words from anyone.
b All of today's voice-recognition systems are set up to recognize either
continuous speech from certain people or specific words from anyone.
4 Public data networks are ripe for the dialling up and signing on. (line 147)
a There are public data networks waiting to be used.
b Public data networks are now sufficiently developed to be used.
Task 5
1 Do you think the English in the text is:
a very formal?
b quite formal?
c neutral?
d quite informal?
e
very informal?
2 Do you think this article originally appeared in:
a a computer magazine?
b a general magazine for young people?
c a general magazine for adults?
d an online bulletin board?
e
the science page of a newspaper?
3 Do you think this article is written by:
a a British person
b an Australian
c an American
d a non-native speaker of English
Give reasons for your choices.
Task 6
Using the line reference given, look back in the text and find the reference for
the words in italics.
1 while others encase (line 7)
2 The other half is a bit more difficult (line 23)
3 but it can be (line 24)
4 but it would know (line 48)
5 in its present form (line 88)
6 it is already a major factor (line 99)
7 which is the cause (line 133)
8 on its membership (line 153)
Task 7
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words with a
similar meaning to:
1 whole (lines 5-10)
2 usually (lines 30-35)
3 acceptable (lines 45-50)
4 seem (lines 85-90)
5 believable (lines 110-115)
6 decreasing (lines 125-130)
7 spreading (lines 140-145)
8 ready (lines 145-150)
91
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Task 8
Now find words or phrases that mean the opposite of:
danger (lines 1-5)
destroy (lines 55-60)
rare (lines 55-60)
separate (lines 75-80)
minor (lines 95-100)
less than (lines 120-125)
enjoyment (lines 130-135)
aggravate (lines 135-140)
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. You may have to change
some words slightly.
1 consider, considered, consideration, considerable, considerably
a We'll have to
using another company if they can't provide
the software we need.
b The company has invested a
sum of money in ergonomic
workstations.
c The CEO has submitted this proposal for your
d
This computer is
faster than the old one.
2 apply, applying, applicant, application, applicable
a We have interviewed five
for the new position.
b The last part of the form is not
c My student is thinking of
to foreign students.
for a government grant to continue
his research.
d
The new book uses business
to teach computer studies.
3 explain, explained, explaining, explanation, explanatory
a The package includes an
booklet.
b The instructions are very clear and do not require any further
c It will only take a couple of minutes to
d
how the program
works.
If you are new to this system, almost everything will have to be
4 depend, depending, dependent, dependence, dependable, dependably
a The company has supplied us
b We have to reduce our
c This is very
for over ten years.
on imported goods.
equipment. We have never had a serious
breakdown.
d
92
Today, many companies
more on FAXes than on mail.
connect, connected, connecting, connector, connectivity, connection
is an important concept in global communications.
a
b He only got that contract because he has
c Make sure the
in the government.
is not loose before you call a service
technician.
d Once the new telephone lines are
, our system should be more
efficient.
'I know they said they were going to introduce new technology, but this isn't quite
what I expected.'
Li s t eni n g
Task 9
Listen to this conversation in which Charles, the Information Services Manager
in an American insurance company, talks about the steps involved in making a
document available to users via document image-processing. Put the steps in
the right order.
Index is stored.
1
Quality of scan is checked.
Envelope is opened by a machine.
3
Temporary key number is generated and written on the document.
4
IMS index transaction and customer name is entered into the computer.
5
6
Mail arrives in the mailroom.
7
Temporary document number is entered into the computer to link it with
the previously-generated index.
8
Document is scanned.
9
Document pages are removed and arranged by a clerk.
10
Document can be accessed by users.
Computer supplies routing and indexing data.
11
Document pages are transferred to the mail analyst.
12
93
Task 10
Now listen again and answer the following questions:
1 How long does it take:
a for an index to be stored and a key number issued?
b for a recent document to be retrieved?
2 Why does it take longer to retrieve a document processed more than a year
ago?
3 Note down:
a the number of square feet of office space saved.
b the number of employees freed from file maintenance.
c the approximate net saving per year in pounds.
Speaking
We have looked at some of the benefits of replacing people with computers in
the office. What are the negative aspects of this policy?
Task 11
Writing
Write two paragraphs, one listing the benefits, the other listing the negative
aspects of replacing people with computers.
Task 12
Information systems
Task 13
Reading
Before reading the text, try to decide which of the following definitions best
describes a management information system:
a a system for supplying information to management
b a system for managing information
c a system which supplies information about management
a l la n l a a a l _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ a m a n i a . .
Task 14
Decide whether these statements are true (T) or false (F), then read the passage
to check your answers.
1 ____ All businesses are interested in more or less the same information,
regardless of the nature of their operations.
2
The managing director of a company needs a lot more detailed
information about the day-to-day operations than his executives do.
3
Functional management require up-to-the-minute information so that
they can take action to control events as they happen.
4 ____ Information systems are usually computerized.
5
Transaction processing systems are usually the first systems to be
installed.
94
Information systems
The objective of information systems is to provide information to all levels
of management at the most relevant time, at an acceptable level of
accuracy, and at an economical cost.
Individual businesses require information according to the nature of their
5 operations. A car manufacturer is particularly interested in the extent of
competition from overseas manufacturers in the home market and
competition from other home-based manufacturers. A tour operator is
concerned about purchasing power and its effect on holiday bookings and
the political situation prevailing in the various countries.
10 As
a general guide, the detail contained in reports containing information
varies according to the position of the recipient in the hierarchical
management structure. The chairman and managing director of a
company require details of operations which are broad in scope and which
concentrate on key factors pinpointing economic and financial trends.
15 Functional management require information relating to the departments
they are responsible for in sufficient detail to enable them to apply
whatever measures are required to bring situations into line with
requirements. They require information relating to events as they occur so
that appropriate action can be taken to control them.
20 Information systems are often computerized because of the need to
respond quickly and flexibly to queries. At the bottom level in the
information hierarchy are the transaction processing systems, which
capture and process internal information, such as sales, production, and
stock data. These produce the working documents of the business, such as
25 invoices and statements. Typically, these are the first systems which a
company will install. Above the transaction-level systems are the decision
support systems. These take external information — market trends and
other external financial data — and processed internal information, such as
sales trends, to produce strategic plans, forecasts, and budgets. Often such
30 systems are put together with PC spreadsheets and other unconnected
tools. Management information systems lie at the top of the hierarchy of
information needs. The MIS takes the plans and information from the
transaction-level systems to monitor the performance of the business as a
whole. This provides feedback to aid strategic planning, forecasting,
35 and/or budgeting, which in turn affects what happens at the transactional
level.
Task 15
Draw a diagram to show how information is processed by information systems,
as described in the last paragraph. Your diagram should show the hierarchy of
systems and should include examples of the kind of information involved at
each stage in the process. Use arrows (—.) to indicate the flow of information.
Writing
Task 16
Using your completed diagram from Task 15, write a paragraph explaining
how information is processed by information systems. Do not look back at the
text itself.
95
Word-play
Task 17
Complete the puzzle and find the key word in 10 down.
Across
1 The T of MIS. (11)
2 Another term for a VDU. (7)
3 See 8.
4 An A/D _____ changes analog signals into digital signals. (9)
5 The `D' of VDU. (7)
6 The decision _____ systems combine information from outside and inside an
organization to produce strategic plans and forecasts. (7)
7 Voice ______ systems permit people to talk to computers. (11)
8 and 3 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ systems capture and process information
generated
within
an organization (e.g. sales and production data). (11,10)
9 Converted from an analog to a digital signal. (9)
Down
10 The amount of deskspace (or floorspace) taken up by a computer. (9)
96
Language focus H
The passive
Passives are very common in technical writing where we are more interested
in facts, processes, and events than in people. We form the passive by using the
appropriate tenses of the verb to be followed by the past participle of the verb we
are using.
Examples:
Active
1 We sell computers. (simple present)
2 Babbage invented The Analytical Engine'. (simple past)
Passive
1 Computers are sold. (simple present)
2 'The Analytical Engine' was invented in 1830. (simple past)
Facts and processes
When we write or talk about facts or processes that occur regularly, we use the
present passive.
Examples:
1 Data is transferred from the internal memory to the arithmetic-logical unit
along channels known as buses.
2 The other users are automatically denied access to that record.
3 Distributed systems are built using networked computers.
Read the text below, which describes the insurance company's procedure for
dealing with PC-users' problems. Fill in the gaps using the correct form of the
verb in brackets.
All calls 1
_______________________ (register)
by the Help Desk staff. Each call
2
______________________ ( e v a l u a t e ) a n d t h e n 3
(allocate) to the relevant support group. If a visit 4
(require), the users __________________ (contact) by telephone, and an
a p p o i n t m e n t
6
(arrange). Most calls
_ (deal with) within one working day. In the event of a
major problem requiring the removal of a user's PC, a replacement can usually
8
(supply).
97
Exercise 2
Fill in the gaps in the following sentences using the appropriate form of the
verb in brackets.
1 The part of the processor which controls data transfers between the various
input and output devices
(call) the control unit.
2 The address bus
(use) to send address details between the
memory and the address register.
3 The pixel positions
(pass on) to the computer's pattern
recognition software.
4 An operating system
(store) on disk.
5 Instructions written in a high-level language
(transform) into machine code.
6 In the star configuration, all processing and control functions
(perform) by the central computer.
7 When a document arrives in the mail room, the envelope
8 Once the index
document.
(open) by a machine.
(store), a temporary key number
(generate) and
(write) on the
Events
When we write or talk about past events, we use the past passive. Let us look at
some examples.
Examples:
1 COBOL was first introduced in 1959.
2 Microsoft was founded on the basis of the development of MS/DOS.
3 The organization was created to promote the use of computers in education.
Exercise 3
Fill in the gaps in the following sentences using the appropriate form of the
verb in brackets.
1 Microsoft
2 C language
(found) by Bill Gates.
(develop) in the 1970s.
3 During that period, enormous advances
_ (make) in
computer technology.
4 The following year, twice as many PCs
98
_______________ (sell).
5 In the 1980s, at least 100,000 LANs
(set up) in
laboratories and offices around the world.
6 The first digital computer
(build) by the University of
Pennsylvania in1946.
7 Last year, more software companies
(launch) than ever
before.
8 IBM's decision not to continue manufacturing mainframes
(reverse) the year after it
(take).
99
Computers in education
Task 1
Start-up
Make a list of the ways computers are used in education.
Speaking
Task 2
Discuss these questions:
1 How are computers used in your school?
2 What do you think the following terms mean?
a further education
b open learning
c flexible learning
Reading
Task 3
100
Read quickly through the text opposite to find:
1 the overall purpose of NCET.
2 another expression meaning 'educational technology'.
3 whether NCET produces learning materials.
4 how many priorities NCET's Schooling Directorate has.
5 three groups of people helped by NCET's Vocational Training programme.
6 three examples of new and developing technologies that the Council gives
advice about.
National Council for Educational
Technology
The Council's purpose is to bring beneficial change to the processes of learning
in education and training through the development and application of
educational technology.
Educational technology — or learning technology, as it is sometimes known 5 embraces everything from the way computers, satellites, and interactive video
are used in schools, colleges, and industry to issues of copyright and flexible
learning. Focusing on the learner, our purpose is to support change in the
ways we learn by applying the benefits of educational technology — especially
the new information technologies — to the process of learning.
10 We design and produce learning materials in all subjects to support education
and training. We carry out research and manage projects, offer consultancy
on technical matters, support training for trainers and teachers, and offer
expertise in areas such as open and flexible learning, resource management,
and educational software. We provide a comprehensive information and
15 enquiry service.
Information Technology in schools
Through its I.T. in Schools Programme, NCET's Schooling Directorate is
pursuing four priorities:
 to identify and promote and spread good practice in the use of new
technologies
20 ■ to provide professional guidance to teacher trainers so that they can help
teachers and schools in managing I.T. and in applying it to all areas of
study
 to develop high-quality curriculum materials and encourage other
publishers to do the same
25 ■ to give particular support for those concerned with children and young
adults with special educational needs, including the handicapped.
Learning after school and at work
NCET's Training Directorate focuses on the needs of those wishing to learn
after the school-leaving age. Projects under the Vocational Training
programme include looking into the training needs of women, older workers,
30 and those who use information technology to work from home. In further
education, lecturers and senior managers are being helped to plan for I.T. and
changing client needs. For industry, our work has included language training
in the run-up to 1992, and the application of artificial intelligence systems to
training. This directorate also takes the lead in important trans-sectoral issues
35 such as open and flexible learning, copyright, and the use of computers in
careers guidance.
Technical expertise
Keeping abreast of developments in technology and maintaining a national
expertise on standards and specifications is the work of NCET's Technical
Consultancy Directorate. Through links with other organizations, it identifies
40 issues associated with the adoption of new technologies and, where
appropriate, carries out projects to assess or develop their potential in
education and training. It has a watching brief and provides consultancy on
new and developing technologies such as satellites, CD-ROM, and interactive
video. Current projects involve the examination of the use of educational
45 software in schools, the use of massive storage systems, and the use of
satellites in education and training. The Directorate also produces guidance to
users on a wide range of technology, from desk-top publishing and remote
sensing to teleconferencing and audio-visual systems.
101
Imagine that you represent NCET and that a newspaper reporter is
interviewing you. Use the information in the text to complete the dialogue in
Task 4
your own words.
Reporter What exactly does the term 'educational technology' cover?
You
Reporter I see. Apart from offering advice on technical matters, what other
services do you provide?
You
Reporter Does the I.T. in Schools Programme help teachers as well as
students?
You
Yes.
Reporter What about those with special educational needs?
You
Reporter What responsibility does the NCET's Training Directorate have?
You
Reporter Does that include helping people in industry?
You
Yes.
Reporter One last question. What kind of work is the Technical
Consultancy Directorate doing in schools at the moment?
You
Make a list of the 'new information technologies' mentioned in the text. Do you
know what all the terms mean?
Task 5
Task 6
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases
in the text which have a similar meaning to:
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
includes (lines 1-5)
advantages (lines 5-10)
covering everything (lines 10-15)
course (lines 20-25)
physically or mentally challenged (lines 25-30)
approach (lines 30-35)
up-to-date with (lines 35-40)
instructions to monitor (lines 40-45)
Writing
Task 7
102
Translate the last paragraph of the text (beginning 'Keeping abreast of...') into
your language.
Speaking
Task 8
Task 9
You represent the National Council for Educational Technology. You have
been asked to talk to a group of teachers about the work of the Council. Make
brief notes from the text, then prepare a short presentation.
In pairs or small groups, take turns to make your presentation. If you are
listening to a presentation, check that it is accurate and that it covers the main
points mentioned in the text.
Listening
Tony Longstone, an expert on educational technology, is answering questions
from teachers about Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL). Listen to
the discussion and decide whether the following sentences are true (T) or
false (F):
1 7 Most uses of computers in language education can be described as CALL.
2 H There is no point in buying a computer for CALL, if there is no
commercially available software for that computer or operating system.
3 ___ The number of computers you buy will depend on two factors: the
number of students there are, and the amount of physical space available.
4 ___ It is possible to have CALL using only one computer.
5 ___ The ideal way to organize CALL is to have one computer in each
classroom.
6 1 ___________ 1 The CALL resource should be free to students if possible.
Listen again. Change the sentences that are false to make them true.
103
Task 10
Read this extract from the tapescript and try to fill in the missing words.
Well, given sufficient' ________ , it's a good idea to have some
computers 2 ______________________for teachers in the teachers' room. Also, it's very
useful to have a self-access ___________for use by students. In both cases,
LQNGSTQNE:
they — teachers and students — can gain a lot of confidence and
4
5
by having free access to the __________ . Finally, an
excellent idea is to have one computer with a large screen functioning as an
electronic 6
for messages prepared for students and staff. This
should be located in a public part of the school or college, such as the hall or
7
Now listen to the last part of the recording again and check your answers.
Task 11
Discuss the following questions:
1 What do you think are CALL'S main advantages and disadvantages as a way of
learning foreign languages?
2 Do you think it is possible that one day language teachers will be completely
replaced by computers?
Reading
Task 12
A teacher has been looking at some publicity material for the Adam & Eve
program. Read the material and fill in the gaps in the teacher's notes opposite.
Choose your own texts v
ADAM & EVE allows you to create exercises based on any text you
want. The text could be from the course-book you are using, from a
reader, from a newspaper — whatever your students are interested in.
Analyse your texts v
ADAM & EVE will analyse the vocabulary of the text according to
the database of word frequency contained within the software. From
this analysis you get a precise idea of the level of difficulty of a text,
you can compare one text with another text, and you can see
whether it fits in with the syllabus your students are working to
Generate exercises v
ADAM & EVE will then create a wide variety of exercises based on
this analysis. These exercises, which are easily and quickly
generated, can be presented to your students either as printed
worksheets — you will be provided with the answers on a separate
sheet — or can be put on to a floppy disk so that a performance will
be automatically evaluated and the score recorded.
104
Simple to use
No previous experience with computers is necessary. If you can
type using a word processor (or know someone who can!) you will
have no difficulty in putting your texts into the software. The whole
program is 'menu driven' in any one of five languages so you will
always know where you are and it will be obvious from the screen
where you can go next. There is a full and clearly written manual
to help you get started. Once you are familiar with the basic
workings, don't forget to go back to the manual to learn about the
program's finer points.
Something for the whole school
♦
Up to twenty-five different teachers can work with ADAM & EVE . The
program will keep each teacher's texts and the exercises generated on
those texts in separate files which are only accessible using that
teacher's password. ■
105
Task 13
Choose the correct word to complete each sentence. You may have to change
some words slightly.
1
create, created, creating, creation, creativity
a The
__ of this database will give us a huge advantage over our
competitors in the long run.
b The procedure for
a new file is very simple.
c The new position we are advertising is going to require someone with
enormous
2 generate, generated, generative, generation
a Exercises can be quickly
using this program.
b Our company is working on a new
of software products.
c This development is sure to
3
great interest.
access, accessed, accessible, accessibility
a All user requests to
a database are handled by the database
management system.
b
to the computer room is restricted to authorized personnel.
c Those files are not
unless you know the password.
4 analyse, analysed, analysis, analyst
a When a text is
, all pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, and
verb forms are automatically identified.
b This
shows that most PC users are not aware of the full
potential of the software products they buy.
c The DBMS first receives the request and
Writing
Task 14
106
it for syntax errors.
Imagine you are in charge of language teaching in an institute. Write a short
report to the principal recommending the introduction of CALL.
Organize your report as follows:
Paragraph 1— explain what CALL is.
Paragraph 2 — describe the different options available (e.g. one computer per
class; a special classroom with several networked PCs). Paragraph 3
— recommend one of the options you mentioned in paragraph 2.
Word-play
Task 15
The clues below contain anagrams of words from this unit. Enter the words in
the grid, then solve the anagram in the bold boxes to find the hidden word.
1 To connect to a database. (scaces)
2 A technology which allows telephone communication between several people
at the same time. (ctoenlfeergcnien)
3 Describing a device connected over a WAN. (emtore)
4 A large store of computerized data. (aaaestdb)
5 Examine carefully. (easnaly)
6 Concerning the qualifications, etc. needed for a trade or profession. (lvaoncoait)
7 Describing a system in which the computer responds to the user's instructions.
(vercaitneit)
8 A VDU and keyboard. (lnmrteia)
9 A program that manipulates tables of figures. (steerpandse)
Hidden word clue
Device used for relaying telephone messages or radio and TV signals. (9)
107
Language focus I
Giving examples
When the main aim of a text is to inform the reader about a subject, the writer
will often use examples, either to explain a point or to illustrate an idea or
argument. When giving examples, it is important to differentiate between the
idea itself and the illustration of the idea.
Some expressions for introducing examples are shown in the table below.
for example (e.g.)
for instance
an example (of this)
as an example
such as
like
including
examples of
instances of
cases of
illustrations of
exemplified by
illustrated by
seen in
shown by
exemplifies
shows
illustrates
a second/third example,
etc.
Examples:
1 Office workers use many computer applications such as word processing,
spreadsheets, and databases.
2 Computers have made radical changes in preparing income tax returns. For
example, in some countries you can now send your income tax return on
disk.
3 Students can make good use of computer technology at school. Essay writing,
for instance, can be done using a word-processing program.
Exercise 1
Note: Sometimes the markers follow the example, separated by commas, as in 3
above.
The list below is made up of five groups of words, consisting of five main
categories and examples of each category. Find the word groups and then write
sentences to show the relationship between the groups of words. Use a different
marker for each sentence. One has been done for you.
trackball
mainframe
microcomputer
network configuration
programming language
mouse
input device
bus
output device
printer
APL
COBOL
stylus
PC
star
VDU
C
ring
computer
Example:
Ring, bus, and star are all examples of network configurations.
108
Exercise 2
Exercise 3
Read the following sentences. Circle the marker and underline the main idea
for which the example is given. The first one has been done for you.
1 Networks also allow users in one locality to share expensive resources, such as
printers and disk-systems. (Unit 6)
2 There are a handful of clipboard computers now on the market, including
GRIDPad, which is sold in the US; (Unit 2)
3 The PC passes the query, written in a special language (e.g. Structured Ouery
Language — SOL), to the mainframe, which then parses the query, returning to
the user only the data requested. (Unit 6)
4 Here's an example of a simple virus, the Lehigh virus. (Unit 7)
5 If you use a shared PC or a PC that has public access, such as one in a college
PC lab or a library, be very careful about putting floppies into that PC's drives
without a write-protect tab. (Unit 7)
Not all texts present examples explicitly. In some cases, markers are not used.
Read the paragraph below. Circle the main idea and underline the examples of
that idea.
The widespread availability of computers has in all probability changed the
world for ever. The microchip technology which made the PC possible has put
chips not only into computers, but also into washing-machines and cars. Some
books may never be published in paper form, but may only be made available
as part of public databases. Networks of computers are already being used to
make information available on a world-wide scale. (Unit 1)
109
Computers in medicine
Start-up
Make a list of all the applications of computers you can think of which are
related to medicine and patient care.
Task 1
Reading
Task 2
1
2
3
110
Before reading the text opposite, try to answer the following questions:
The cards below contain a message. What do you think it is?
Why do you think the message was given in this form?
How could a computer help to convey messages like this?
Now read the text and check your answers.
ILEEN
CARLETON
HAS A whimsical
E
talent for hand
signals. When the 65-year-old stroke
victim draws a vertical line in the air,
5 her family knows she is referring to
a very slim friend of her son.
But a lexicon of hand gestures —
no matter how inventive — and the
few dozen words left in Carleton's
10 vocabulary following her stroke are
inadequate for conveying even the
most basic wishes, observations, or
questions to her family. Through a
pilot study at the School of
s Medicine, however, Carleton has
learned to communicate using a
specially designed computer
program that has restored not only
her ability to express herself, but
20 also, family members and therapists
say, her enthusiasm for life.
The stroke that Carleton suffered
in 1985 damaged the portion of her
brain where words and speech are
25 processed, leaving her with a
condition known as aphasia, or the
inability to use language. While she
is able to comprehend much of
what people say to her, she cannot
30 formulate her thoughts into
coherent phrases or sentences.
Using the computer program, she
can select from hundreds of pictures
that represent people, objects,
35 actions, and descriptive qualities
and arrange them in sequence to
communicate thought, obviating
the need to use words.
`When Eileen first entered the
40 study, she depended on her
husband Steve to figure out what
she wanted to say from her gestures
and facial expressions. All she could
say was, "Come on! You know!",
45 with increasing frustration,' said Dr
Cheryl Goodenough Trepagnier,
associate professor of rehabilitation
medicine.
The computer program used in
50 the Tufts study was developed in
conjunction with the Palo Alto,
California, Veterans Administration
Medical Center and grew out of
research in the 1970s at the Boston
55 Veterans Administration Hospital.
`Researchers had found that
chimpanzees, whose brains lack
specialized language centers,
could engage in a kind of
60 communication using plastic
tokens that represented different
objects and actions,' Dr
Trepagnier said. 'We wondered
whether aphasics — whose
65 language processing areas are
damaged — could benefit from
the same idea.'
On small cards, researchers
drew symbols representing
70 different people, objects; and
actions and trained aphasic
patients to select and arrange the
cards to form statements or
questions. By selecting cards
75 showing a woman, a person
walking, a store, and a chicken,
for example, an aphasic patient
could ask his wife to go to the
grocery store to buy some
80 poultry.
`Some patients become quite
adept at using the cards,' Dr
Trepagnier said. 'But as the
number of cards increased, it
85 became awkward and timeconsuming to find the right cards
and then put them back in the
right order. Patients found the
cards too cumbersome and
90 didn't use them at home.'
In the mid-1980s, however, a
computer program was
developed that, like the cards,
used pictures to represent ideas,
95 but was easier to use. With the
program, aphasic patients could
select from hundreds of pictures
simply by moving a computer
mouse. Dr Trepagnier was
100 among the first researchers to
test the new software on
aphasics.
`At first, there was a great deal
of doubt over whether aphasics
105 would be able to use computer,'
Dr Trepagnier said. 'But we
found that many took to the
computer quite easily. As they
became more proficient on the
110 computer, some showed gains
10.-
111
in their overall self-confidence, as
well.'
It's hardly an exaggeration to say
that the program transformed
115 Carleton's life. In the aftermath of
her stroke, Carleton 'was so
despondent she sat on the couch all
day and did nothing,' said her
speech therapist, Evelyn Chedekel.
120 But as soon as she learned that
she's capable of communicating
with the computer, her whole world
changed. Now she can introduce
topics, rather than hoping that
125 people will guess what's on her
mind. When her husband passed
away suddenly, she was able to
carry on.'
411
Encouraged by the results
thus far, Dr Trepagnier will
study ways of expanding the
computer program's capabilities.
For unknown reasons, many
aphasics have more trouble
135 conceptualizing verbs than
nouns. Making the intellectual
connection between a picture of
a sailboat and the idea of a
sailboat is easier than
140 connecting a picture of a boy
running to the idea of
running. Trepagnier hopes to
overcome this difficulty by
designing a program that
145 enables patients to see computer
images in motion. III
130
• Vocabulary
whimsical (1. 2) — fanciful, highly imaginative
lexicon (1. 7) — vocabulary dozen (1. 9) — about twelve stroke (1. 10) —
sudden attack of illness in the brain, causing loss of speech and
movement
took to (1. 107) — developed an ability with
passed away (1. 126) — died
Task 3
Task 4
Decide which of these titles best sums up the content of the text.
1 A new way to communicate for stroke victims
2 Stroke victims: computers that care
3 New technology comes to the rescue of stroke victims
Read this summary of the text and fill in each gap with an appropriate word.
Eileen Carleton's life has been completely transformed by Dr Trepagnier's
computer program. Whereas she used to be entirely 1
on her
husband to deduce what she wanted to say, now she is able to 2
her own ideas. Before, she had to hope other people would
she was thinking. Now she is
4
what
of starting a conversation with others.
Dr Tr e pa gni e r 's pr ogr a m w a s
from research on symbolic
communication by chimpanzees, which 6
specialized language
areas in their brains. As these language-processing areas are also known to be
'
in human aphasics, the same idea of using visual symbols to
7
represent different people, objects, and actions was thought likely to be
effective.
112
Using cards to show these symbols proved 8
the introduction of computer technology has greatly 9
for most patients, but
the use of
-
the system by aphasics, whose lives have been immeasurably 10
since the invention of this program.
Task 5
Each of the following sentences from the text is followed by two paraphrases.
Decide which paraphrase (a or b) is closer in meaning to the original comment.
Remember to look at the comments in their original context.
1 But a lexicon of hand gestures — no matter how inventive — and the few dozen
words left in Carleton's vocabulary following her stroke are inadequate for
conveying even the most basic wishes, observations, or questions to her family.
(line 7)
a Eileen Carleton's hand gestures and words are not clear enough to allow
her thoughts to be understood.
b Eileen Carleton does not have enough hand signals and words to express
her thoughts.
2 While she is able to comprehend much of what people say to her, she cannot
formulate her thoughts into coherent phrases or sentences. (line 27)
a Eileen understands quite a lot of what people are saying to her and knows
what she wants to say. However, she cannot translate her thoughts into
understandable messages.
b Eileen finds it difficult to choose the right words and sentences to express
herself while she is concentrating on what people are saying to her.
3 As they became more proficient on the computer, some showed gains in their
overall self-confidence, as well. (line 108)
a Some people found that their growing confidence about using the
computer made them generally more self-confident.
b The more people used their computer, the more self-confident they became.
4 It's hardly an exaggeration to say that the program transformed Carleton's life.
(line 113)
a The program changed Carleton's life in some respects.
b The program completely changed Carleton's life.
Task 6
Match each word in the list on the left with the appropriate synonym on the
right.
1 inventive (line 8)
a deduce
2 inadequate (line 11)
b awkward
3 select (line 33)
c take part in
4 obviating (line 37)
d depressed
5 figure out (line 41)
c insufficient
6 engage in (line 59)
f completely changed
7 cumbersome (line 89)
skilled
8 proficient (line 109)
h creative
9 transformed (line 114) i choose
10 despondent (line 117)
j removing
113
Writing
Task 7
Translate paragraph 6 (beginning 'The computer program used in the Tufts
study...' ) into your own language.
Reading
Work in pairs, A and B. Student A should read text I only. Student B should
read text 2 only. Without looking at the text you have read, tell your partner
about it. Write down what your partner tells you about his/her text, then
compare it with the original. How accurate is it?
1
114
2
Robot eye for surgery
Robot surgery for eye
Laparoscopy is a procedure in which
a camera is pushed through a small
hole in the abdominal wall. It allows
a surgeon to operate by television,
5 with instruments inserted through a
second hole. The small size of the
incisions reduces the trauma for
patients and speeds up recovery.
Until recently, the procedure has
10 required the presence of a second
doctor to guide the camera for the
surgeon.
A new development now facilitates this procedure. A robot ma15 noeuvres the camera in response
to
the surgeon's head. Four tiny transmitters, worn on a headband, send
radio signals to a base unit. As the
surgeon moves his head left or right,
20 up or down, forwards or backwards,
the robot causes the camera to track
his movements, enabling him to
view the exact area he wishes to see.
Techniques derived from virtual
reality will soon allow surgeons to
feel as well as see the inside of the
eye during an operation. During the
s operation, the surgeon manipulates
a set of controls known as the master. These are connected through
high-performance computer to the
robot. The robot's 1 imbs move in
10 exactly the same way, except that
the movements can be scaled down
as much as a thousand times, thus
eliminating hand tremor and reducing damage to the eye.
15
The computer also creates a threedimensional view of the inside of the
eye, which the surgeon can see wearing a virtual reality helmet and 'feel'
via a sensory feedback system which
20 emulates the forces generated by
cutting with a surgical tool.
Data storage and management
Listening
Task 9
Listen to this extract from a programme called Science Made Simple, in which a
hospital administrator answers questions about the hospital database. As you
listen, choose the correct answer for each question.
1 How many characters of stored information are generated each year by the
database at Grovemount Hospital?
a More than 500,000.
b More than 50,000,000.
More than 500,000,000.
More than 500,000,000,000.
2
How is the database organized?
a Like all other databases.
b Like any hospital database.
c Differently from any other database.
3 How is information on patients stored?
a Each patient has a named file.
b Each patient has a record.
c Each patient has a number of records within a personal file.
4 What do fixed-format records contain?
a Types of data that cannot be changed.
b Text only.
c Different types of data stored separately.
5 What happens when two people try to access the same data at the same time?
a The database management system cancels both queries.
b One user has to wait until the other has finished.
c The Database Manager processes both queries at the same time and
updates the database accordingly.
115
Task 10
Read this extract from the tapescript and fill in each gap with an appropriate
word.
INTERVIEWER:
I see. Now, can you tell us what happens when the database is
Now listen again to the cassette and compare your answers.
Reading
Task 11
Before reading the text opposite, match the following words with their
definitions:
1 logical record
a the collection of data transferred as a unit
2 field
b the user's permitted view of the data
3 physical record
c the logical design of the database
4 internal schema
d an item of data such as a number, a name, or an
address
5 external schema
e the way that the data is physically held
6 conceptual schema
f the collection of data relating to one subject
Task 12
Before reading the text, try to answer these questions in pairs.
1 How many medical uses of a database can you think of?
2 What is a DBMS?
3 What is its function?
116
Now compare your answers with the information in the text.
Database management systems
Databases are used within a medical context for many purposes. For
example, they are used to hold patient details so they can be accessed from
anywhere within a hospital or network of hospitals. With the recent
improvements in image compression techniques, X-rays and scan output
5 can also be held in databases and accessed in the same way.
These multi-user databases are managed by a piece of software called a
database management system (DBMS). It is this which differentiates a
database from an ordinary computer file. Between the physical database
itself (i.e. the data as actually stored) and the users of the system is the
10 DBMS. All requests for access to data from users — whether people at
terminals or other programs running in batch — are handled by the DBMS.
One general function of the DBMS is the shielding of database users from
machine code (in much the same way that COBOL shields programmers
from machine code). In other words, the DBMS provides a view of the data
15 that is elevated above the hardware level, and supports user-requests such
as 'Get the PATIENT record for patient Smith', written in a higher-level
language.
The DBMS also determines the amount and type of information that each
user can access from a database. For example, a surgeon and a hospital 20
administrator will require different views of a database.
When a user wishes to access a database, he makes an access request
using a particular data-manipulation language understood by the DBMS.
The DBMS receives the request, and checks it for syntax errors. The DBMS
then inspects, in turn, the external schema, the conceptual schema, and
25 the mapping between the conceptual schema and the internal schema. It
then performs the necessary operations on the stored data.
In general, fields may be required from several logical tables of data held in
the database. Each logical record occurrence may, in turn, require data
from more than one physical record held in the actual database. The
30 DBMS must retrieve each of the required physical records and construct
the logical view of the data requested by the user. In this way, users are
protected from having to know anything about the physical layout of the
database, which may be altered, say, for performance reasons, without the
users having their logical view of the data structures altered.
Task 13
1
2
3
4
5
6
The steps below show how a DBMS deals with an access request. Find the
relevant section in the text, then put the steps in the correct order.
The DBMS:
inspects the mapping between the conceptual schema and internal
schema
checks for syntax errors
inspects the external schema
receives the request
performs operations on the stored data
inspects the conceptual schema
117
Speaking
Task 14
The diagram below represents a simplified database. In pairs, use the diagram
to explain to your partner the following:
Student A: what a DBMS is and how it works
Student B: how an access request is processed
Try not to refer to the text. Use your own words.
Word-play
Complete the puzzle and find the key word in 12 down.
Task 15
118
Across
1 and 11 The creation of an artificial environment in the memory of a
computer in which the user can apparently exist. (7,7)
2 and 3 The user's permitted view of the data in a database. (8,6)
4 The opposite of 2. (8)
5 A surgical ___ is a tool used for carrying out operations. (10)
6 and 10 A technique for reducing the amount of space that a graphics image
will use when stored in computer memory. (5,11)
7 A program must be converted into this before a computer will read and process
it. (7,4)
8 Programs that run ______ do not involve any terminal or user interaction.
(2-5)
9 Used to describe computer systems that allow access by more than one user
simultaneously. (5-4)
10 See 6.
11 See 1.
Down
12 A device for sending a radio message. (11)
119
Language focus J
Explanations and definitions
Texts containing technical terminology frequently contain definitions and
explanations. This is particularly the case if the text is aimed at non-experts or
students of technical subjects, or if the purpose of the text is to inform
specialists about new developments.
1 Common words and expressions used in definitions or explanations are listed
below.
is/are
means
is taken to be
denotes
is/can be defined as
by ... we mean
by ... is meant
in other words
that is (to say)
Examples:
1 A computer is an electronic device.
2 Printers are output devices.
3 The term computer refers to the processor plus the internal memory.
4 A microchip can be defined as a tiny piece of silicon or similar material
carrying an integrated circuit.
5 By peripherals we mean those devices attached to the computer.
2 Some definitions and explanations give further distinguishing characteristics
by means of a defining relative clause.
Examples:
1 A computer is an electronic device which/that processes information.
2 Tapes and disks are memory devices which/that can be stored away for
future use.
3 A programmer is a person who/that prepares programs to solve
problems.
4 The arithmetic-logical unit is the part of the CPU where arithmetic and
decision-making operations are done.
Note: The relative pronouns used in this type of definition or explanatidn will
be who or that for people, when for-a period of time, where for a place or location,
and that or which for things.
3 Another way of defining or explaining is to use a noun, a noun phrase, or a
clause separated from the rest of the sentence by commas or dashes.
120
Examples:
1 Computers — electronic devices for processing information — are now
used in practically every aspect of life. (noun phrase)
2 Turnkey systems, complete hardware/software products which are
ready for use, are available from many suppliers. (clause)
Exercise 1
Study the following definitions. A definition usually includes three parts: the
term to be defined, the group it belongs to, and the characteristics which
distinguish it from other members of the group.
Term
A core
Silicon
Group
Characteristics
is a ferrite ring
which is capable of
being either magnetized
or demagnetized.
is a non-metallic
element
with semiconductor
characteristics.
Now analyse the following definitions and identify the different parts:
a by circling the term
b by underlining the group once
c by underlining the characteristics twice.
Example: A computer is a machine with an intricate network of electronic circuits
that operate switches or magnetize tiny metallic cores.
1 Input is the information presented to the computer.
2 The term 'computer' includes those parts of hardware in which calculations
and other data manipulations are performed, and the high-speed interval
memory in which data and calculations are stored during actual executions of
programs.
3 A 'system' is a mixture of integrated parts working together to form a useful
whole.
4 Large computer systems, or mainframes, as they are referred to in the field of
computer science, are those computer systems found in computer installations
processing immense amounts of data.
Exercise 2
Now read the following sentences, which have all appeared in previous units,
and analyse them in the same way as you did in Exercise 1.
1 The part of the processor which controls data transfers between the various
input and output devices is called the control unit. (Unit 1)
2 A modem is a device which serves a dual purpose because it acts as a
MOdulator (digital to analog) and a DEModulator (analog to digital) ... (Unit
3)
3 The compiler is a systems program which may be written in any language, but
the compiler's operating system is a true systems program which controls the
central processing unit (CPU), the input, the output, and the secondary
memory devices. (Unit 4)
4 A variable is a quantity that is referred to by name, such as a, b, c, d, and
average in the above program. (Unit 4)
5 A WAN is a network connected over long-distance telephone lines. (Unit 6)
121
6 ...a LAN is a localized network, usually in one building or in a group of
buildings close together. (Unit 6)
7 A computer virus — an unwanted program that has entered your system
without you knowing about it — has two parts, which I'll call the infector and
the detonator. (Unit 7)
8 There are actually two kinds of antivirus programs: virus shields, which detect
viruses as they are infecting your PC, and virus scanners, which detect viruses
once they've infected you. (Unit 7)
122
11
Robotics
Start-up
Task 1
a
What function do you think each of these robots performs?
123
Listening
Task 2
You are going to hear a recorded guide to an exhibition on robotics, which
begins with a brief history of robotics. The table below summarizes the history,
but the events are in the wrong order. As you listen, match each event with the
correct year.
Year
1 1921
2 1954
a 'Shakey': mobile robot at Stanford Research Institute
b Perambulating vehicle: successful four-legged vehicle at
3 1967
4 1967-9
5 1980
6 1983
7 1984
Task 3
Event
Tokyo Institute of Technology
c Czech playwright, Karel 'Capek, brings his play, RUR
(Rossum's Universal Robots), to London
d One-legged hopping machine at Carnegie-Mellon University
e George Devol develops first programmable robot
f Quadruped personnel carrier at General Electric
g Odetics Inc. develop a six-legged robot
Listen again and decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false
(F) in relation to the information in the recording. If you think a statement is
false, change it to make it true.
1 I I The history of robotics begins only in the twentieth century.
2 I I In ‘Capek's play, RUR, the robots become the masters and the humans
become their servants.
3
I Today's industrial robots developed out of the work done by George Devol.
4 I I Shakey used bump detectors, a sonar range finder, and a video camera to
5
avoid obstacles and move freely.
Shakey had a built-in computer which controlled all its movements.
6 ___ The success of GEC's four-legged machine depended on the skill of its
driver.
7 fl The robot developed at the Tokyo Institute of Technology functioned
completely automatically, with no human control.
8 __ Odetics Inc.'s Odex I model did not need to be connected to a separate
power-source.
Reading
Task 4
Some jobs are suitable for robots, while some must be done by people. Make
two lists in the table below.
Types of jobs suitable for robots
124
Types of jobs done by humans
Now read this text to see if the author agrees with your ideas.
The robotics revolution
any of the robots
in use today do
jobs that are especially
difficult for human
workers. These are the types of jobs
5 that require great strength or pose
danger. For example, robots are
particularly useful in the automanufacturing industry where parts
of automobiles must be welded
10 together. A welding tool used by a
human worker weighs about 100
pounds or more and is difficult to
handle. As mechanical supermen,
robots may be called upon to do
15 anything from moving heavy
components between workstations
on a factory floor to carrying bags of
cement.
Spray painting is another task
20 suited to robots because robots do
not need to breathe. Unlike human
painters, they are unaffected by the
poisonous fumes. Robots are better
at this task, not because they are
25 faster or cheaper than humans, but
because they work in a place where
humans cannot.
Third in the list of useful jobs for
robots is the assembly of electronic
30 parts. Robots shine at installing
chips in printed circuit boards
because of a capability that robots
have that people don't. A robot,
once properly programmed, will not
35 put a chip in the wrong place. This
automatic accuracy is particularly
valuable in this kind of industry
because locating and fixing
mistakes is costly.
40
Earlier robots were usually blind
and deaf but newer types of robots
are fitted with video cameras and
other sensing devices that can
detect heat, texture, size, and
45 sound. These robots are used in
space projects, nuclear reactor
stations, and underwater
exploration research.
In their efforts to expand the
50 range of robotic applications,
researchers are looking beyond
traditional designs to examine a
variety of potential models from the
biological world. The industrial arm
55 is a classic example. Scientists have
M
been able to model robots to
imitate the vertebrate spine of a
snake in order to paint the
interior of automobiles. They
60 have simulated the muscle
structure and movement of an
elephant's trunk in an attempt to
create a robotic arm capable of
lifting heavy objects. Scientists
65 have also emulated the flexibility
of an octopus where the
tentacles can conform to the
fragile objects of any shape and
hold them with uniform, gentle
70 pressure. A variation of this
design can be used to handle
animals, turn hospital patients in
their beds, or lift a small child.
The challenge of equipping
75 robots with the skills to operate
independently, outside of a
factory or laboratory, has taxed
the ingenuity and creativity of
academic, military, and
so industrial scientists for years.
Simply put, robot hands — like
robot legs, or eyes, or reasoning
powers — have a long way to go
before they can approach what
85 biological evolution has
achieved over the course of
hundreds of millions of years.
Much more will have to happen
in laboratories around the world
so before robots can be compared
to nature's handiwork.
In the meantime, the robotics
revolution is already beginning
to change the kind of work that
95 people do. The boring and
dangerous jobs are now
assumed by robots. By the turn
of the century, more and more
humans will be required for tasks
loo that machines cannot do. There
are some industrialists who hope
that by the year 2000 all their
employees will be knowledge
workers, no longer standing on
105 assembly lines but rather sitting
at desks and computer terminals
to deal with information. These
changes are already under way,
and their pace accelerates every
no yea r.
Vocabulary
welded (1. 9) — (of pieces of metal) joined together by heating
shine at (1. 30) — do very well at
octopus (1. 66) — sea-animal with eight arms (tentacles)
has taxed (1. 77) — has made heavy demands on
125
moms __________
Task 5
Summarize the reasons that certain jobs and environments are suitable for
robots by completing the table below.
Job or environment
Reason
Welding
Carrying components, etc.
Spray painting
Assembling components
In nuclear reactors, underwater, etc.
Task 6
These are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions.
1 About 100 pounds.
2 Because locating and fixing mistakes is costly.
3 In space projects, for example.
4 They are examining the potential of certain biological models.
5 No, they cannot be compared yet.
6 They will be doing intellectual rather than manual work.
Fill in this table with details of the animals mentioned in the text.
Task 7
1
2
3
Animal
Aspect being emulated ____________
Reason
Task 8
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
126
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words in the text
which have a similar meaning to:
manipulate (lines 10-15)
correcting (lines 35-40)
expensive (lines 35-40)
increase (lines 45-50)
copy (lines 55-60)
reproduced artificially (lines 60-65)
easily damaged (lines 65-70)
gets faster (lines 105-110)
Writing
Task 9
Translate the sixth paragraph (beginning 'The challenge of equipping
robots...') into your own language.
Speaking
Task 10
Look carefully at the table below showing past, present, and future applications
of robotic systems, then discuss the following questions:
1 Do you agree with the predictions made?
2 What are the implications for society if these predictions become reality?
Applications of robotic systems
Domain
Pre-1990 1990s
Post-2000
Industry
Production (welding, etc)
Materials handling
Assembly
Inspection
Office
Mail handler
Clerk
Cleaning
Professional
Home
Tutor
Housekeeper
Companion
Military
Automatic pilot
Scout
Soldier
Ocean
Explorer
Constructor
Space
Stationary observer (on Mars)
Rover (on Mars)
Laborer (space station & moon)
= Laboratory prototypes
= First commercial applications
= Widespread commercial applications
127
Reading
Task 11
Read this short text, then match each robot type with the appropriate
definition.
Classification of types of robot
One way of classifying robots is in terms of their similarity to humans. An
automaton is any machine capable of operating independently, such as a
clothes dryer. A flexible machine is a special case of an automaton with
different capabilities, that can be programmed as the need arises. An
5 example is a welding robot on the factory floor that can be programmed to
participate in other production operations. A mobile robot is a flexible
machine capable of moving freely in its own environment. It can partly
select its own goals and communicates with other agents, including
humans. An android or humanoid is a mobile robot whose structure
10 approximately resembles a human structure. Finally, a cyborg is a
humanoid with organic structures. Cyborgs have some physiological
structures similar to those of humans.
Mobile robot
a
Cyborg
b
Automaton
c
Flexible machine d
Android/
Humanoid
Machine capable of independent operation following a
predetermined series of behaviours, e.g. a cuckoo
clock
Flexible machine capable of moving and
communicating with humans, e.g. a sentry robot
Humanoid having both organic and inorganic
structures, with some physiological similarity to
humans
Mobile robot of human proportions
e
Versatile, programmable automaton, e.g. an
assembly robot
Now renumber the robot types, 1-5 (1 = the most
similar to humans; 5 = the simplest).
Reading
Task 12
Using the diagram to help you, fill in the gaps in the text with the words given.
Co-ordination of control in robots
The diagram shows a'
2
which'
system for the force required to
an object. The desired level of force is fed into the control module,
it with the actual amount of force as indicated by the
feedback signal. The discrepancy enters the command generator, which
128
determines the 4
and extent of adjustment necessary. The
resulting command passes into an amplifier which produces power
to the level of the input signal. The power drives a motor
5
to some linkage such as a set of gears.The mechanical linkage in
the robotic hand ultimately'
the initial command signal into
displacement at the fingertips.
proportional
compares
grasp
direction
attached
converts
closed-loop
Speaking
Task 13
In pairs, design a simple robotic wrist and hand. Your device should have the
three degrees of rotational freedom illustrated below and should be capable of
grasping objects. Describe your invention to another pair.
Writing
Task 14
Label the parts of your robotic wrist with letters or numbers, then write a
paragraph explaining how it works.
129
Word-play
Task 15
Look at the lists and circle the word that is different from the others. Then
explain why. The first one has been done for you.
1 mouse
keyboard
printer
OCR scanner
A printer is an output device.
130
2 palmtop
notebook
clipboard
briefcase
laptop
3 accumulator
register
address
bus
monitor
4 drive
floppy
hard
compact
5 FORTRAN
COBOL
PASCAL
ASSEMBLER
6 ring
loop
bus switched
star
7 cyborg
automaton
sentry
android
8 virtual
internal
external
conceptual
Language focus K
Compound nouns
The language of computing in English contains an ever-increasing number of
compound nouns, that is, a group of two or more nouns which act as a single
noun.
Examples:
memory capacity
information systems
an address bus
a bar code scanner
an arithmetic unit
It is important to be able to recognize how such compounds are formed in order
to understand what they mean.
The exact relationship between the words depends on the particular
expression, but all these expressions have one thing in common: the last word
in the chain says what the thing is, while the preceding word or group of words
describes the thing. So when we read compound nouns, we have to start with
the last word and work backwards.
Examples:
An address bus is a bus dedicated to address information.
The memory capacity of a computer is the capacity of its memory.
A large number of possible meanings can be expressed by compound nouns.
For instance, the first noun or group of nouns can tell us what the second noun
is made of, what it is for, or what it is part of.
1 Material: the first noun tells us what the second consists of.
Examples:
a silicon chip (a chip made of silicon)
a ferrite ring (a ring made of ferrite)
2 Function: the first noun tells us what the second noun is for.
Examples:
an address bus (a bus dedicated to address information)
an input device (a device for inputting)
an arithmetic unit (a unit which performs arithmetic functions)
3 Part: the second noun refers to a part of the first noun.
Examples:
a computer keyboard (the keyboard of a computer)
a monitor screen (the screen of a monitor)
a program feature (a feature of a program)
131
4 Activity or person: the second noun refers to an activity or person related to the
first noun.
Examples:
computer programming (the programming of computers)
a computer programmer (a person who programs computers)
systems analysis (the analysis of organizational systems)
a systems analyst (a person who analyses organizational systems)
5 Multiple nouns: sometimes a compound noun will join together with one or
more other nouns to give an expression that has three or four words. In such
cases, it is important to examine the expression very carefully to break it into
its constituent parts. The secret, as always, is to read the expression from the
back towards the front.
Example:
4
3
2
1
a document-image-processing program (a program which processes images of
documents)
Note: some expressions are written separately, while others are joined by
hyphens. There are no clear rules for this. Sometimes you will see the same
expression written in different ways in different texts.
Example:
document-image-processing program
document image-processing program
document image processing program
However, it is important to be consistent within a single text.
Exercise 1
A device that scans bar codes is called a bar code scanner.
What name is given to :
1 a unit that gives a visual display of information on a screen?
2 a device that reads magnetic cards?
3 a device that plots graphs?
4 a device that prints using a laser as the light source?
5 a unit that holds magnetic disks?
6 a device that prints using a jet of ink?
7 the rate of transmission of data?
8 a package for making presentations using multimedia?
9 a program which processes data in batches?
10 the process for the conversion of disks for computers?
Exercise 2
Using the explanations in Exercise 1 as models, write short simple explanations
of the following items:
1 an input device
2 an optical character reader
3 a graphics stylus
4 a document sorter
132
5 a fibre optics transmission system
6 a sequence control register
7 a liquid crystal display
8 network configuration information
9 a desktop document manager
10 a multimedia editing software package
133
12
Virtual reality
Task 1
Start-up
Virtual reality is still seen as a toy by most people. Can you think of any
potential applications of VR other than in computer games? Make a list.
Reading
Task 2
134
Read the text opposite. Note down any applications that are not in your list.
Fancy a fantasy
spaceflight?
simulate almost anything possible in real life are still in the laboratory.
A fire-fighter in a nuclear power plant, for example, would
90 move through a computer
model wearing an exoskeleton,
Computers are about to take people to ing them out of the office.
while a robot would move
places they have never been able to The problem with guiding a
through the real thing. The
robot by looking at a picture
visit before, 45
computer program will be
from a video camera mounted on
including the surface of other
derived from the
it and twiddling the controls is
5 planets. Such a trip will be an ilthat it is not a natural system, 95 data used to design the plant in
lusion. but one that comes closer
the first place.
Mr Stone says. The operator
to real life than anything on
Mr Stone has developed a data
stage or screen. Artificial worlds 50 spends all his time controlling
glove with air pockets that are
are being built up in a computer
the robot and none solving the
inflated to give a sensation of
10 memory so that people can walk
problem. The time lag between
100 touch in collaboration with Airthrough at will, look around, and
seeing the image and sending a
muscle, the supplier of the pneueven touch objects.
corrective control signal is
matic systems that made the
The system is called virtual 55 another difficulty.
Spitting Image puppets really
reality, so called from the mathA virtual reality system con15 concept of an image
sists of a helmet with a colour 105 spit.The biggest initial market is
that has the virtues of a real
display in front of each eye, and
likely to he for a new generation
object without the substance.
wide-angle lenses to cover the
of video games. W Industries, of
Virtual reality systems are 60 entire field of view and give a
Leicester, recently launched a
being developed throughout the
stereoscopic effect. The helmet
virtual
reality system for video 0
1
20 world for a range of uses includ
contains sensors, rather like arcades. The
system, called Viring enabling people to walk
electronic compasses, to record tuality, consists of
a cockpit in which
`inside' nuclear power stations,
where it is pointing. A computer a player sits, wearing
the helmet, at a
while controlling a robot that ac- 65 calculates what the wearer
set
of
controls
that
can rn lithe a
tually goes into an area in which
should be seeing in that direcbobsleigh,
a
spaceship,
whatever
25 no human could live, and contion and displays it on the 115 the imagination of or
the games
ducting architects through a
screen.
can devise.
computer-generated building
In more advanced systems, the programmer
The
helmet
has a pair of liquidbefore it is constructed.
70 operator wears an electronic
crystal
displays
with wide-angle
British scientists have a world
glove that detects exactly what
giving a stereoscopic image,
30 lead in virtual reality, despite the
the fingers are doing and trans- 120lenses
fortunes being poured into research mits the information to the computer. Ifand a set of magnetic sensors to
tell the computer what the
by
Japanese
and
American the user tries to pick up
companies, which see it as a75 something, the computer will makehelmet is looking at as it moves.
The first game is a fighter
technology for the next century.
the object follow the hand to give the simulation.
Another is based on
35
In Britain, Robert Stone, of the illusion of carrying it. 125
a
sequence
in
the film, Return of
National Advanced Robotics
Pads in the latest type of gloves
the Jedi, in which flying motorResearch Centre at Manchester press
into the insides of the fincycles race through a forest. The
University, is developing systems80 gers and
palm when an object is 130 computer
can link and control
that could put men on Mars
encountered,
to
create
the
ilseveral helmets at once for a
40 without shooting them into lusion of feeling it. Complete
group game.
space and could plunge divers `exoskeletons' covering the user
under the North Sea without takand allowing the computer to
Make a wish and you can go anywhere. That
is the reality for a new computer invention,
Chris Partridge says,
85
Ivo- Vocabulary
time lag (1. 52) — time delay
Spitting Image (1. 103) — satirical British TV programme, using computercontrolled animated puppets
bobsleigh (1. 114) — large vehicle, moving on strips of wood, for travelling fast
over ice and snow
135
Task 3
Answer the following questions about the text:
1 Where does the term 'virtual reality' come from?
2 Which country leads the field in VR research?
3 Why are robots controlled via mounted video cameras less effective than the
VR solution?
4 How does Robert Stone's system allow the user to 'feel' objects?
5 What application of VR is expected to be the commonest to start with.
Task 4
Using the line reference given, look back in the text and find the reference for
the words in italics.
1 one that comes closer to real life (line 6)
2 which see it as a technology for the next century (line 33)
3 without taking them out of the office (line 43)
4 it is not a natural system (line 48)
5 to record where it is pointing (line 64)
6 and displays it on the screen (line 67)
7 to give the illusion of carrying it (line 77)
8 while a robot would move through the real thing (line 92)
Task 5
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words or phrases
meaning:
1 whenever and however they like (lines 10-15)
2 qualities (lines 15-20)
3 large amounts of money (lines 30-35)
4 immerse (lines 40-45)
5 twisting (lines 45-50)
6 small pockets filled with air (lines 75-80)
7 filled with air (lines 95-100)
8 released on to the market (lines 105-110)
9 imitate (lines 110-115)
10 war plane (lines 125-130)
Task 6
Choose the appropriate form of the word to fit the meaning of the sentence.
Make sure you understand the different forms of the word and their meanings.
Use your dictionary to find this information.
1 correct, correctly, correction, corrective, correctness
a If an error occurs, it is important to take
The 'spell check' facility checks the
c The data was entered
b
2
action immediately.
of your spelling
, so the result must be accurate.
detect, detection, detectable, detective
a There were
b
traces of radiation in the water sample.
The analyst could not
any errors in the system.
c She tried to escape
by disguising herself.
3 sense, sensor, sensation, sensitive
a An infra-red
detects the presence of intruders in the building.
The probe is
c The new system caused a
to heat and light.
when it was launched last month.
b
136
Writing
Task 7
These two paragraphs from the article contain similar information. Write one
paragraph combining the information from them to give a short but complete
description of the VR visual system.
A virtual reality system consists of a helmet with a colour display in front
of each eye, and wide-angle lenses to cover the entire field of view and give
a stereoscopic effect. The helmet contains sensors, rather like electronic
compasses, to record where it is pointing. A computer calculates what the
wearer should be seeing in that direction and displays it on the screen.
The helmet has a pair of liquid-crystal displays with wide-angle lenses
giving a stereoscopic image, and a set of magnetic sensors to tell the
computer what the helmet is looking at as it moves.
Speaking
Task 8
We asked a number of people to answer the following question:
Do you think the use of virtual reality in computer war games is going to affect
young people's attitude to violence?
Here are some responses. Read them and decide which point of view (if any)
most closely matches yours. Discuss your opinions.
Rita Harper
`Yes, I do. I think anything which portrays violence
as fun is going to alter young people's perception of
violence in a very dangerous way. Violent crime
amongst young people is increasing. I think
manufacturers of computer war games must take
some of the responsibility.'
Susan Clark
`No, not really. Kids — particularly boys — have been
playing with toy guns ever since guns were invented.
Surely playing with toy guns in the real world is more
dangerous than playing with imaginary guns in an
imaginary world.'
Mark Watts
`It's difficult to say. Some of my friends get very
aggressive when they play computer war games. But
I don't really know if it makes them more violent
when they're doing other things. I play a VR jet
fighter game, and I don't think it has made me more
violent.'
137
Writing
Task 9
Write a paragraph giving your answer to the question asked in Task 8.
Listening
Task 10
Listen to this interview with Michael Emsley, one of the exhibitors at an
exhibition of virtual reality at Olympia in London. As you listen, answer these
questions about the interview.
1 Why do people expect far more from VR than it can give them?
2 How does Michael Emsley think VR should be seen?
3 Give two examples of the potential applications mentioned.
4 What problems will VR developers have if the technology does not produce
results, according to Emsley?
5 How does the best VR system compare with human vision?
6 Why are there three electromagnetic coils in the headset?
7 How long does it take the computer to calculate each new position of the
headset and update the display?
8 In order to make a 'reasonable' visual system, how powerful would the
computer have to be?
Task 11
138
Read this extract from the tapescript and try to fill in the gaps. The first letter of
each missing word is given.
VR input devices
Reading
Read quickly through the text below. Does the text contradict in any way what
you already know about VR systems? If so, what is the contradiction and how
can it be explained?
Problems with hand-based input/output
The current hand input devices suffer from the same delays that plague
the head mount display systems, but the user's over-compensation is even
more noticeable. Because there is typically some interaction with the hand
and other objects, absolute position control is much more important here
5 than it would be with head positioning, where relative motion is usually
sufficient.
These devices are also extremely limited in their ability to generate any
kind of tactile force or feedback to the user. Based on our research, even to
perform gross manipulation tasks with a DataGlove is extremely difficult
to without some kind of sensory feedback. Any kind of fine manipulation is
impossible. Though tactile feedback of some kind may be possible, the
quality of this will very likely be extremely low and the cost extremely high
for the foreseeable future.
•
139
Perhaps the major failing of the glove-based system is that it requires the
15 user to keep the hand and arm unsupported. This requires the user to
employ both the agonist and antagonist muscle sets of the arm working
against each other in order to perform any kind of complex task. The user
actually is working harder at this than he would at pushing a real object
because, in the case of a real object, at least one muscle group is at rest.
20 Further, because there is no true stable surface for the arm to rest against,
any kind of control requires even more force between the muscle groups..
Our experience demonstrated that a user of such a system when faced
with any kind of gross manipulation tasks, could only be expected to use
the system for five-minute periods with a large degree of exertion. Any
25 kind of extended activity was precluded.
As a consequence of these drawbacks, it is our expectation that the
DataGlove and other similar interface devices will be replaced by more
useful devices in the future. ■
OP- Vocabulary
agonist and antagonist muscle sets (1. 16) — two muscle groups which normally
act in opposition to each other
Task 13
Read the text again and complete the table in note form.
Problem of hand input device
Consequences
1
2
3
The following pairs of words are taken from the text. In each case, say whether
their meanings are similar (S) or opposite (0).
Task 14
111 suffer from (1. 1) plague (1. 1)
absolute (1. 4) true (1. 20) tactile (1. 8) sensory (1. 10)
force (1. 8) exertion (1. 24) gross (1. 9) fine (1. 10)
2
3
4
5
6
140
7
8
impossible (1. 11) precluded (1. 25)
failing (1. 14) drawback (1. 26)
working (1. 18) at rest (1. 19)
❑
Word-play
Task 15
Solve the crossword puzzle using the clues below.
Across
1 The adjectival form of maths. (12)
6 A piece of glass with a curved surface used to make things appear clearer,
larger, or smaller. (4)
7 The opposite of gross. (4)
9 Short for 5 down. (3)
10 The study of robots. (8)
11 This is worn on the hand. (5)
12 This sort of reality is not real. (7)
Down
1 Making (goods) on a large scale using machinery. (13)
2 VR device worn on the head. (6)
3 Present VR hand input devices are capable only of gross _____ tasks. (12)
4 To work out or estimate. (9)
5 A kind of display. (6,7)
8 A device for finding direction, with a needle that points to magnetic north. (7)
141
Language focus L
Classifying
The term 'classifying' means arranging objects in classes or groups according
to shared characteristics. For example, the Class of 'animals' includes all living
things that can feel and move about, such as fish and birds. Each of these
subgroups is also a class in its own right, having shared characteristics.
Classifying, then, is a process of bringing order out of confusion by organizing
information in a logical fashion. There are often several ways of classifying the
same information.
1 From general to specific: focusing on the large or high-level category and
talking about its parts, that is from general to specific, the following expressions
can be used:
is
is made up of
can be divided into is composed of
is of
comprises
has
consists of
A general-to-specific classification will usually have singular main verbs,
unless two or more things are being analysed simultaneously.
Examples:
1 The CPU is divided into three parts: the control unit, the arithmetic-logic
unit, and memory.
2 The CPU has three parts: the control unit, the arithmetic-logic unit, and
memory.
3 The CPU is made up of three parts: the control unit, the arithmetic-logic
unit, and memory.
4 The CPU is composed of three parts: the control unit, the arithmetic-logic
unit, and memory.
5 The CPU consists of three parts: the control unit, the arithmetic-logic unit,
and memory.
2 From specific to general: what the smaller (or lower-level) components make
when they are put together. This kind of classification uses the following
expressions:
make up
form
constitute
142
may be
can be
are classified as
A specific-to-general classification will have plural verbs, because two or more
lower-level categories are the focus of classification.
Examples:
1 The control unit, the arithmetic-logic unit, and memory are the three parts
that make up the CPU.
2 The control unit, the arithmetic-logic unit, and memory are the three parts
that form the CPU.
Exercise 1
Using the diagram below, complete the paragraph on the following page.
Exercise 2
144
Refer back to the text on C language (Unit 4, page 46) and complete the
diagram.
13
Machine translation
Start-up
Task 1
Decide whether the following sentences are true (T) or false (F):
1 ___ Some machine translation (MT) systems produce good translations.
2
It is difficult to compare different MT systems.
3
The easiest way to evaluate any machine translation of a given text is to
compare it to a human translation of the same text.
Reading
Task 2
Read the text on the following page and check your answers to Task 1.
145
Lost in the machine translation
You c an go ou t righ t now an d bu y
a m a c h in e t r an s l at i o n s ystem for
an yth ing bet ween £10 0 and
£100,000. But how do you know if
it's going to be any good? The big
problem with MT systems is that
they don't actually translate: they
merely help translators to translate.
Yes, if you get something like Metal
( v er y e x pen s i v e) o r G TS (q u i t e
cheap) to work on your latest
brochure, they will churn out
something in Fr ench or whatever,
but it will be pretty laughable stuff.
It isn't just users who have trouble
with evaluation. Elliott Macklovitch,
of C an ada, descr ibed an evalu at ion
of a large commercial MT system, in
which he analysed,the error
performance of a series of software
updates only to find — as the
s ys t em ' s s u s p ic io u s d e ve lo pm en t
manager had feared — that not only
had there been no significant
improvement, but the latest release
was worse.
All machine-translated texts have to
be extensively post-edited (and
often pre-edited) by experienced
translators. To offer a useful saving,
the machine must make the time the
translator spends significantly less
than he or she would have taken by
hand.
2
Inevitably, the MT manufacturers'
glossies talk blithely of 'a 100 per
cent increase in throughput', but
scepticism remains. Potential users
want to make their own evaluation,
and that can tie up key members of
the corporate language centre for
months.
3
A few weeks ago, translators,
system developers, ac adem ics, and
others from Europe, the US,
C an a d a , C h in a , an d J a pan m e t f o r
the first time in a Swiss hotel to mull
over MT matters. A surprisingly
l ar g e n u m b er o f Eu r o p e an
go vernm ent al an d c or por ate
o r g an i z a t io n s a r e c o n d u c t i n g
expens ive and elabor at e
evaluations of MT, but they may not
produce 'buy or don't buy' results.
146
para
4
Take error analysis, a fancy name
f o r c o u n t in g t h e v ar io u s t y p es o f
errors the MT system pro duces. You
might spend five months working
out a suitable scoring scheme — is
co rr ec t gen der agr eem ent mor e
im po r t an t th an c or r ec t num ber ? —
and totting up figures for a suitably
lar ge s am ple o f t ext , bu t w h at do
those figures mean? If one system
produces vastly more errors than
another, it is obviously inferior. But
suppose they produce different
types of error in the same overall
n u m ber s : w h ic h t y p e o f er r o r is
worse? Some errors are bound to
c o s t t r an s la t o r s m o r e ef f o r t t o
co rr ec t , bu t it r equ ir es a lot m or e
work to find out which.
5
Properly designed and integrated
9
para
6
An d bu gs ar e st ill comm on. Us in g a 7
' t e s t s u it e ' o f s en t en c es de s ign e d t o
see linguistic weaknesses,
researches in Stuttgart found that
although one large system could
cope happily with various complex verb-translation problems in a
r elat ive c laus e, it f ell apart w h en
trying to do exactly th e same thing
in a main clause. Developers are
looking for bigger, better test suites
to help to keep such bugs under
control.
Good human translators produce
good translations; all MT systems
produce bad translations. But just
what is a good translation? One
t r adit io n al as s es s m en t t ec h n iqu e
involves a bunch of people scoring
translations on various scales for
intelligibility ('Does this translation
into English make sense as a piece
of English?'); accuracy ('Does this
piece of English give the same
information as the French
original?'); style, and so on.
However, such assessment is expensive,
and designing the scales is something
of a black art.
MT systems really ought to enhance
the translator's life, but few take this
on trust. Of course, they do things
differently in Japan. While
Eu r o pean s ar e dabblin g t h eir t o es
and most Americans deal only in
English, the J apan ese h ave gone in
at the deep end. The Tokyo area
already sports two or three
in depen dent M T t rain in g sc hoo ls
wh er e, as th e em in ent Profes sor
Nagao casually noted in his
presentation, activities are
functioning with the effic iency of
the Toyota production line. We're
lucky they're only doing it
in Japanese.
8
Task 3
Each of the sentences below (except one) summarizes an individual paragraph
of the text. Order the sentences so that they form a summary of the text. One of
the sentences contains information which is not in the text. Which one?
The developers of MT systems have also had problems evaluating their
systems.
Many European organizations are evaluating MT, but the results may not
be conclusive.
Assessing machine translations as good or bad is very difficult because
such judgements cannot be made scientifically.
It is time-consuming for potential users to test the MT manufacturers'
claims that their products double productivity.
Better tests are needed to monitor linguistic weaknesses in MT systems.
All machine translations need to be edited by a human translator.
A reliable MT system is unlikely to be available this century.
The price of MT systems varies greatly and none actually translates.
The Japanese have a few independent MT training schools, which are
said to be very efficient.
Analysing the errors made by MT systems is inconclusive because it may
only show that different systems produce similar numbers of different error
types.
Task 4
Match each of the following verbs from the text with the expression that has a
similar meaning:
1 churn out (para. 1)
a add up
2 tie up (para. 3)
b think carefully about
3 mull over (para. 4)
c manage successfully
4 tot up (para. 5)
d produce large amounts of
5 cope with (para. 7)
e fail
6 fall apart (para. 7)
f occupy the time of
Task 5
Using the paragraph reference given, find words or phrases in the text which
have a similar meaning to:
1 ridiculous (para. 1)
2 colour brochures (para. 3)
3 casually (para. 3)
4 sure to (para. 5)
5 group (para. 8)
6 mysterious ability (para. 8)
7 experimenting in a small way (para. 9)
8 invested heavily (para. 9)
Speaking
Task 6
Look at these sentences. Discuss why a machine might find them difficult to
translate.
I bought a set of six chairs.
He set a book on the table.
She had her hair set for the party.
The sun set at 9 p.m.
We set of ffor London in the morning.
The VCR is on the television set.
Can you think of other examples where this kind of problem occurs?
147
Al and expert systems
Task 7
Task 8
Task 9
Listening
[2] You are going to hear a conversation in which David, a graduate student doing
research in the field of artificial intelligence, explains to a friend, Kevin, what
AI and expert systems are. Before you listen, try to write short definitions to
explain:
1 artificial intelligence
2 expert systems
Now listen to the conversation and modify your definitions as necessary.
n Listen again to the recording and answer these questions:
1 Does visual perception require intelligence when done by humans?
2 What two categories of task are mentioned in relation to AI programs?
3 Which category of task is AI more successful at?
4 What is the relationship between AI and expert systems?
5 What examples of existing expert systems are mentioned?
6 In what way do expert systems imitate human experts?
7 Why does the Japanese system have two parallel inference engines?
8 What is the function of inference trees?
ij
Read this adapted extract from the tapescript and fill in the gaps with the
missing words.
KEVIN: What are e _______ 1
sused for?
2
DAVID:
They're built for commercial a _________ 3. Up to now they've been
used for a variety of tasks — medical d __________ 4, electronic fault finding,
machine translation, and so on. But the point about them is that you can
5
them about how they came to a particular c __________________ 6
KEVIN:
148
So, in that respect, they imitate human experts.
DAVID:
Yes. I read recently about a Japanese system that can be used by
1 __________________
7
to draw conclusions about new legal cases. It refers to
d _______________ 8
of statutory laws and legal precedents and is able to see
similarities in the r ____________processes used to decide each case — exactly
as a s __________
KEVIN:
10lawyer would.
How can it do that?
The system has two reasoning mechanisms, known as i ________
e _________ 12, which work in p____________13. One operates on the written
DAVID:
laws, the other operates on the legal precedents. They draw all the possible
conclusions and then output them in the form of i
14
15
Now listen again to the recording and check your answers.
Reading
Task 10
1
2
3
Read quickly through the text which follows and note down the answers to the
following questions:
What does the expert system ROI do?
How did Scott French 'clone' Jacqueline Susann?
What other applications of AI are mentioned in the text?
One tough cookie
T
he software division of Mrs.
Fields Cookies, Fields Software
Group, has sold a version of its AIbased Retail Operations Intelligence
5 system to fast-food giant Burger
King Corp. The expert system,
called ROI, assists in the
management of franchised or
multiple-location retail operations
10 by creating work schedules,
recommending marketing tactics,
and assisting in personnel hiring.
Fields has been successful with this
package and has started
15 commercializing it. Now Burger
King is developing its own expert
system in an attempt to outperform
its hamburger competitor
McDonald's. Maybe it can clone
20 Ronald McDonald's expertise.
AI waxes poetic
Cloning a well-known figure is no
joke. Just This Once is a new novel
making the rounds in the
publishing world. It was written
25 by Scott French, who claims that
10% of the novel was written by
him, 25% was created by an AI
program he created to imitate
novelist Jacqueline Susann, and
30 the remainder was a
collaborative effort between
himself and the computer.
Susann, who died in 1974,
wrote the definitive trash novel 35 and one of history's all-time
bestsellers — Valley of the Dolls.
French used Nexpert Object
and took development lessons
from Bechtel AI Institute to
40 program his system with
hundreds of formulas he had
developed regarding Susann's
essential plots and
charactertizations; it created a
45 350-page novel, which some in
the literary community are
149
calling 'computerized literary ghostwriting'. While not all the reviews
on his methodology are positive
50 (some think it is a violation of
Susann's intellectual property),
French claims, 'I don't think you
can copyright the way a person
thinks.' If French gets a book deal,
55 this would be the first computergenerated novel ever published. Just
this once, indeed.
Hundreds of other places are
employing AI; some of the
-
Task 11
II
applications may seem mundane
while others are intriguing.
From expert systems that help
you plan your garden to voice
systems that help doctors treat
65 critically injured patients in
emergency rooms to natural
language front-ends for
multimedia systems that feature
models, actors, and actresses, AI
70 is being accepted in arenas
outside those traditional realms
of science and engineering. ■
60
Answer these questions about the text.
1 What does the acronym ROI stand for?
2 Why is Burger King developing an expert system?
3 What kind of books did Susann write?
4 What percentage of his novel did French write jointly with his computer?
5 Has French's novel been well-received?
6 How does French justify his action?
7 Has French found a publisher for his book?
8 Where has AI traditionally been accepted?
Task 12
Choose the definition that best expresses the meaning of the word or phrase.
1 franchised (1. 8)
2 hiring (1. 12)
3 outperform (1. 17)
4 clone (1.19)
5 making the rounds (1. 23)
6 trash (1. 34)
150
a licensed to sell another company's products
b individual
c specially selected
managing
employing
training
do better than
remove from the top position
survive longer than
a copy
b use to one's own advantage
c make people laugh at
a circulating
b making no progress
c making a bad impression
a printed on cheap paper
b popular
c of poor quality
a
b
c
a
b
c
7 ghost-writing (1. 47)
a writing under someone else's name
b writing stories intended to frighten
c writing for someone who is dead
8 mundane (1. 60)
a ordinary
b simple
c world-wide
Writing
Task 13
Read this summary of the first paragraph of the text on page 149, then
compare it to the original.
The software division of Mrs. Field's Cookies has sold a version of its Al-based
system for assisting in the management of retail operations to Burger King,
who are now developing their own system in an attempt to outperform
McDonald's.
1 Note the information that has been omitted from the summary.
2 Look carefully at how the remaining information has been re-ordered and
condensed.
3 Now complete the summary of the text, keeping it as concise as possible.
Word-play
Task 14
The clues below contain anagrams of words from this unit. Enter the words in
the grid, then solve the anagram in the bold boxes to find the hidden word.
1 Expert systems have been used in medical ___ . (ossadiing)
2 A set of instructions for making something. (lamurof)
3 Modernize. (dapetu)
4 A rival company. (torpetimoc)
5 Used of lines which are the same distance apart at any point. (alerlapl)
6 Assessment. (tualiaveno)
7 Having formal permission to sell another company's goods in a particular
geographical area. (danrifcesh)
8 An exact copy. (ecnol)
9 Machines are still not very good at doing this. (nartgslanti)
Hidden word clue
This kind of engine is one of two reasoning mechanisms in an expert system.
151
Language focus M
Cause and effect
Understanding the different ways of expressing the relationship between the
causes and the effects of an action is very important when you are reading
English. This cause—effect relationship is commonly used in texts about
computing.
Before we look at some of the ways of expressing cause and effect, note
carefully this important distinction.
We can mention the cause before the effect.
Example:
(cause)
(effect)
Dust often causes the recording condition of disks to deteriorate.
We can mention the effect before the cause.
Example:
(effect)
(cause)
Deterioration in the recording condition of disks is often due to dust.
There are many different ways of expressing cause and effect.
1 Verbs linking cause and effect:
result
produce
allow
prevent
enable
cause
result in
result from
bring about
Examples:
1 The introduction of computer technology brought about significant changes
in office routines. (cause —> effect)
2 Computers can create artificial objects in their memories. This allows
developers to test product design without actually creating a real prototype.
(cause —> effect)
3 The extensive use of computers in schools is resulting in a new generation of
computer-literate students. (cause —> effect)
4 The problems were caused by the volume of network traffic.* (effect 4—
cause)
Note: * See Language focus H for an explanation of the passive used in
example 4.
152
2 Connectives introducing cause:
due to
as the/a result of
since
because
in response to
as
Examples:
1 Early computers developed quickly as a result of their use in military
applications. (effect -I- cause)
2 Teachers must rethink their roles as computer technology is creating a
revolution in the classroom. (effect 4- cause)
3 Because off-the-shelf programs do not always fit a company's needs, software
often has to be specially developed. (effect 4— cause)
3 Connectives introducing result:
with the result that
so that
thus
therefore
consequently
hence
for this reason
thereby
Examples:
1 Computers can remove many of the routine and boring tasks, thereby leaving
us with more time for interesting, creative work. (cause —* effect)
2 Carpel tunnel syndrome is a serious medical condition. For this reason,
computer users should be careful of their posture and take frequent breaks.
(cause effect)
3 When using an online database service, you must pay for the time you use.
Consequently, you should have a good idea of what you want before you log
on. (cause
effect)
4 Another way of showing causal relationship is by introducing the cause with
if, Both the cause clause and the effect clause verbs are in the present tense.
Exercise 1
Examples:
1 If your company has a LAN, you can share the use of a printer with your
colleagues. (cause effect)
2 It is easy to transport your data to another location if it is stored on a disk.
(effect 4— cause)
Read the following sentences and underline the part which expresses the cause.
1 Because a modem can be used for inter-computer communication, many
people can now do their office work on their computer at home and transfer the
files to a computer at the office.
153
2 Many people do not explore new software because they are comfortable with
what they already have.
3 When robots malfunction, it is usually due to mistakes in the programming or
the design.
4 Laser printers can be quite expensive and are therefore often shared through
networks.
5 Voice-recognition systems are becoming more sophisticated. Thus, keyboards
may be unnecessary in the future.
.91.114•■■••
Exercise 2
Read the following sentences and underline that part which expresses the
effect/result.
1 Computers can remove many of the routine and boring tasks from our lives,
thereby leaving us with more time for interesting and creative work.
2 Because there are many different types of printers, you must analyse your
needs before making a purchase.
3 Since anyone can consult your files on a computer, it is a good idea to protect
sensitive files with a password.
4 Fax boards are available to plug into your computer, so you do not have to buy
a fax machine.
5 Computers have been reduced in both size and cost as a result of advances in
design and technology.
Exercise 3
aMIEMEEININ, _
154
The sentences below have appeared in previous units. Read them again and
circle the marker showing a cause—effect relationship and underline the part of
the sentence that expresses the cause. The first one has been done for you.
1 By 1980, IBM decided there was a market for 250,000 PCs, !soy they set up a
special team to develop the first IBM PC. (Unit 1)
2 Because of these and so many other different judgements, there can be no
absolute. (Unit 3)
3 Global communication and computer networks will become more and more a
part of professional and personal lives as the price of microcomputers and
network access drops. (Unit 6)
4 One of the features of a computer virus that separates it from other kinds of
computer program is that it replicates itself, so that it can spread to other
computers. (Unit 7)
5 ...Lehigh is waiting to infect other unsuspecting computers if you boot from one
of those four infected floppies. (Unit 7)
6 As they became more proficient on the computer, some showed gains in their
overall self-confidence, as well. (Unit 10)
7 Robots are better at this task, not because they are faster or cheaper than
humans, but because they work in a place where humans cannot. (Unit 11)
8 This automatic accuracy is particularly valuable in this kind of industry
because locating and fixing mistakes is costly. (Unit 11)
9 Artificial worlds are being built up in a computer memory so that people can
walk through at will, look around, and even touch objects. (Unit 12)
14
Multimedia
Task 1
Start-up
Discuss these questions.
1 Can you think of any actual or potential applications of multimedia in
industry?
2 Do you think multimedia systems will ever become as popular as conventional
audio-visual systems?
Listening
Task 2
ij
You are going to hear Nathan Ward, a multimedia applications developer,
answering questions on various aspects of multimedia. Before you listen, try to
predict the answers to these questions:
1 Why is multimedia similar to graphics?
2 How does Nathan Ward define multimedia?
3 Which types of data are involved?
4 Is it easy to adapt most PCs for multimedia applications?
5 What does the term `full-motion video' refer to?
6 Are there industry standards for multimedia?
7 What is the best platform for multimedia, according to Ward?
8 What is the most popular application of multimedia?
Now listen to the recording and check your guesses.
155
Listen again to the conversation and complete the table below.
Task 3
Hardware requirements for multimedia
1
2
3
4
5
6
Task 4
Read this extract from the tapescript and try to fill in the gaps. The first letter of
each missing word is given.
Tull-motion video' refers to the impression the v _________
has that he or she is watching f __________2_
television. The
NATHAN WARD:
3
idea is to c ____________ 4 full-motion video in r
't __________________ 6
and digitize and c_____________ 7 information nformation so that the system can treat
it like any other digital data s ___________ 8. Some systems do it better than
others.
see. Getting back to h ___________9requirements, apart from
the e ___________ 10cards that you mentioned, is there anything else that is
needed?
INTERVIEWER: I
NATHAN WARD:
11
Yes. The machine must have i
for a variety of
input and output d _________ 12
Such as?
NATHAN WARD: Such as a CD-ROM d
INTERVIEWER:
15
a
INTERVIEWER:
13
,
VCR, d
14
tape...
Isn't there a problem of c_____________ 16
There is, but that situation is changing. Microsoft's b __ 17-1
_______________________________________________18 MPC specification has some support, but it's
only a start. The lack of s
19 is the main reason that multimedia is
NATHAN WARD:
not bigger than it is. Once these are in place, users will have easy p 20and-p _______ 21 compatibility, and developers will be
able to develop a __________
22
that can run on a variety of p _________
Now listen again to the cassette and check your answers.
156
23.
Reading
Task 5
Read these sentences and decide which one best summarizes the text which
follows.
1 Computers cannot yet match the technological achievements of conventional
audio-visual systems.
2 Although multimedia computer systems are improving very fast, they do not
yet reflect the multimedia world we already live in.
3 Multimedia computer technology will soon be widely used in business, in
industry, and in the home.
technician peers
A into the bowels of a
JET AIRCRAFT
malfunctioning engine searching
for the source of the problem.
5 Finally, he spots it. Buried deep
within the engine is the
troublesome part. He will have to
replace it. A complicated procedure,
to say the least.
10
The technician goes to his highpowered workstation attached to a
network and calls up the
information on the part and the
replacement procedure. An image
15 of the part seated in the engine
appears. In another window, an
instructor demonstrates the repair
procedure in full-motion video
while the technician listens through
20 the audio channel as the instructor
explains the process. Diagrams pop
up to further clarify key points. In a
text window, he reviews lists of
necessary parts and tools he will
25 need to complete the repair.
Still confused about an
irregularity in this situation, the
technician presses the help key and
a real-time image of a live
30 supervisor pops up in another
window. Using the attached
microphone, the technician
discusses the particular problem
with the supervisor, who directs
35 more information onto the
technician's screen. The technician
points a video camera at the part in
question to show the supervisor the
specific situation.
40
Welcome to the world of highend multimedia. The situation
described above is not quite here
yet, but most of the pieces already
exist to make this scenario
157
become a reality using a
networked RS/6000 or other
high-powered workstation.
Or take this example of a
scenario that is more likely
50 today. A manager creates a
detailed business presentation
involving text, graphics, digitized
photographic still images, and
tables of spreadsheet data all
55 combined in a single compound
document. Before sending the
document across the network
to a colleague, the manager
picks up the microphone and
attaches
60 an audio note to one of the
tables, reminding the colleague
about something unusual or
potentially confusing in the
accompanying figures.
65
Using a networked RS/6000
equipped with the necessary
audio boards and Bolt Baranek &
Newman's (Cambridge, Mass.)
BBN/Slate, a compound
70 document/office automation
application, this scenario is
possible today. High-end
multimedia is only in its infancy,
but it is here. And over the next
75 few years, industry observers
expect multimedia development
to accelerate as current barriers
are overcome.
Multimedia is not a new
80 phenomenon, although it is new
to business computing. We live
in a multimedia world. At home,
we experience a variety of media
through our television: full85 motion video, still images,
graphics, sound, and animation. ►
45
At school, we learn through
systematic exposure to different
media: the instructor's words, text,
90 audio tapes, graphics, and a variety
of visuals and video.
Computers, however, have
tended to be uni-medium.
Traditionally, computers were text95 based, and this continues to be the
411
primary format for business
information. A few systems have
provided sound or graphics, but
until recently, the efforts were
100 rudimentary compared to the
seamlessly integrated, highquality visuals, video and audio
we experience every evening at
home. ■
■ Vocabulary
peers into the bowels of (1. 1) — looks down into
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) in relation to
the information in the text. If you think a statement is false, change it to
make it true.
Task 6
1I
1
The jet aircraft technician first locates the faulty part and makes a mark
on it.
2 1-1 The technician calls up his supervisor from his workstation to get information
3
1-1 This kind of
Il
I
II
about the faulty part and the replacement procedure.
The technician can display a computer-generated graphical
representation of a supervisor on his screen.
4
repair procedure could well be possible before long.
5
You can already buy multimedia business presentation applications.
6
Industrial experts expect multimedia development to get faster and faster.
7 I-I Multimedia existed long before the invention of the computer.
8
I I In terms of quality, multimedia computer systems have only
recently become comparable with the media we already use.
Task 7
Using the line references given, find the words in the text which mean:
1 catches sight of (lines 1-5)
2 order of doing things (lines 5-10)
3 instruments (lines 20-25)
4 appears (lines 30-35)
5 top quality (lines 40-45)
6 made up of two or more parts (lines 55-60)
7 early stages of development (lines 70-75)
8 obstacles (lines 75-80)
9 undeveloped (lines 95-100)
10 smoothly (lines 100-104)
158
Speaking
Task 8
Work in pairs using the information in the advertisement below.
Student A: You are interested in upgrading your PC to use multimedia.
Describe your machine to the salesperson and ask about the various options
available, prices, etc.
PC specifications
386 25MHz
4 MB RAM
105MB hard disk
VGA colour monitor
3 expansion slots
Student B: You work for a company that sells hardware and software. Find
out what your customer wants and check that his/her PC can be upgraded, by
referring back to the list you made in Task 3. Explain the options that are
available and try to persuade the customer to buy one of the products
advertised.
L o w c o s t h ar d w a r e a n d s o f t w a r e i s n o w
available to transform your Personal
Computer into a MultiMedia workshop.
TEMPRA PRO is a fully functional 24 bit colour
image editor which can be used to create, import
and edit colour pictures. Images can be
s c a n n e d f r o m a v ar i e t y o f s c an n e r s o r
c a p t u r e d d i r e c t l y f r o m a v i d e o c am e r a.
TEMPRA SHOW is a MultiMedia development
system and a menu-driven storyboard editor for
presentations. This exiciting new medium has
been built to give you the power to express your
thoughts in a simple and flexible manner.
CREATIVE LABS MULTI-MEDIA UPGRADE
KIT includes the Sound Blaster Pro stereo
card, MIDI Kit, a high-perfromance CD-ROM drive,
Microsoft Windows® version 3.0 graphical
enviroment with Multimedia extensions 1.0, Sound
Blaster Pro software and additional CD-ROM titles.
MICROKEY/DIGIVIEW is an AT compatible
expansion board that captures near photo quality
images from still or motion video sources
and displays full-colour motion video in a
window on standard VGA monitors.
For more information contact us on
T E L (0923) 240272 F A X (0923) 228796
26 GREENHILL CRESC ENT,WATEORD BUSINESS PARK,
W A
T F O R D , H E R
T F O R D S H I R E , W D
I
8XG
159
Task 9
Writing
Work in pairs. You manage a company specializing in multimedia hardware
and software. Prepare a leaflet to inform companies of the potential benefits of
using multimedia. Invite them to contact you for a free consultation.
Computer-to-video conversion
Reading
Task 10
160
Read the text opposite and answer these questions.
1 What are the main differences in the way images are produced on a TV screen
and on a computer screen.
2 Why did the developers of the PAL system invent interlaced video? What are its
advantages and disadvantages?
3 Which of the two suggested ways of getting a signal from a computer to record
on a VCR do you think is preferable? Why?
How they work
(though the computer screen
has the standard
characteristics of a TV display,
images are produced in a very
5 different way. If you want to record
anything from your computer to
video for play-back on a TV monitor,
you need a print-to-tape device.
In a TV display, a tight beam of
io electr ons sc ans th e s cr een in muc h
the same way you read a page of
text—from the upper-left corner, it
moves line by line to the lower
right. Usually, one pass writes the
1 5 ent ir e im age onc e. Th e num ber o f
pass es th e beam w rit es per s econ d
is called the vertical refresh rate and
is measured in kiloHertz. Most
co mput er s ys t ems fo llow th e
2 0 American TV standard and use a
vertical refresh rate of 60kHz
whereas PAL, the European TV
standard, requires 50kHz.
Another difference is with
2 5 b an dw idt h . Wh en PA L w as def in ed,
the bandwidth available for a TV
signal was very narrow. While the
TV image had to be refreshed at
least 50 times a second for flicker to
3 0 remain unnoticeable, there was not
e n o u g h b a n dw i d t h t o t r a n s m i t a l l
6 25 lin es of on e TV im age in a
fiftieth of a second. The developers
of PAL, therefore, employed a
35 clever trick called interlaced video.
They split each frame of the image
int o two f ields of 31 2 .5 lines , th e
odd lines into field A, the even ones
into field B. The fields are
4 0 t r an s m it t e d at a r at e o f 5 0 p er
second, leaving us with an effective
A
frame rate of 25 per second while
eliminating most of the flicker.
This is fine for viewing from
4 5 s e v er al yar ds , bu t s h o u l d yo u
move as close to your TV as you
would to your computer screen,
you'd end up with a headache
after half an hour. Also, if any
5 0 parts o f th e displayed im age
occupy only one horizontal scan
line, that scan line will flicker
quite noticeably at 25kHz.
A ll video equ ipm ent w or ks
5 5 w it h PA L - s t an d ar d, 5 0 kHz
interlaced video. Computers
tend to use 60kHz (or more), noninterlaced video and look more
stable. To get a signal from your
6 0 co mput er to r ecor d on a VC R,
there are two possibilities:
1 Use a display adaptor that can
pro duc e PA L -st an dar d video .
You would not be able to
65
connect such a card to a
s tandard com pu t er mon ito r ,
however. A video monitor or a
multi-sync monitor is needed.
You wouldn't want to look at
70
such a screen for hours on end
— interlaced video is not
suitable for word processing.
2 Put up with the standard
display signal from your
75
computer (probably 60kHz)
and use a sc an convert er. It
c an t ake a video s ign al with
one refresh or scan rate, and
convert it to the other. A scan
80
converter is actually a small
digital frame-grabber with
asynchronous video output.
Vocabulary
yard (1. 45) — measure of length (1 yard = 0.914m)
Match the sentence halves to form complete sentences.
Task 11
1
2
3
4
5
If you want to play back anything from
your computer on a TV monitor,
If your computer system follows the
American TV standard,
If you use a monitor with interlaced
video for word processing,
If you use a display adaptor that can
produce PAL-standard video,
If you want to use the standard display
signal from your computer,
a
it will have a vertical refresh rate
of 60kHz.
b
you must use a scan converter.
you need a print-to-tape device.
c
d
you cannot use a standard
computer monitor, but must use
a video or multi-sync monitor
instead.
you will get a headache!
e
161
Task 12
Task 13
162
Which of the two configurations for computer-to-video conversion suggested
in the text does this diagram show?
Word-play
Find the hidden words in this square. Some appear vertically, some
horizontally, and some diagonally. They may be upside-down or back to front.
Use the clues on the opposite page to help you. The number of letters in each
word and the first letter of the word appear in brackets after the clue.
Find words which mean:
1 A strange thing or event. (10, P)
2 An instrument that changes soundwaves into electrical current. (10, M)
3 A display_____ is one device used in computer-to-video conversion. (7, A)
4 Mend. (6, R)
5 A person who monitors the way people work to check that things are done
properly. (10, S)
6 An opening on a computer into which fits an expansion board. (4, S)
7 To shine unsteadily. (7, F)
8 A ____ document is made up of two or more documents combined together.
(8, C)
9 A _____ converter is another device used in computer-to-video conversion.
(4, S)
10 The technique whereby still drawings are given the appearance of movement.
(9, A)
163
Language focus N
Making predictions
A prediction is a statement about a particular subject in which we say what we
think will happen in the future. Predictions are not always absolute, but can be
expressed with different levels of certainty, according to the context in which
they are made.
1 Certainty can be expressed by:
will (definitely, certainly)
certain, sure
without a doubt, without question
2 Probability can be expressed by:
probable, probably, likely
most/highly probable, most probably
most/highly likely
3 Possibility can be expressed by:
may (not), might (not), can, could
possible, possibly, perhaps
4 Improbability can be expressed by:
improbable, unlikely
doubtful, questionable
probably not
most/highly improbable/unlikely
most/highly doubtful/questionable
most probably not
5 Impossibility can be expressed by:
164
present or future
past
cannot, could not
not possible, impossible
could not
not possible, impossible
These expressions are used in sentences in different ways:
Examples:
1 Notebook computers will definitely be cheaper next year.
2 It is (highly) probable/likely that notebook computers will be cheaper
next year.
3 Notebook computers may/might be cheaper next year.
4 Perhaps notebook computers will be cheaper next year.
5 It is unlikely/doubtful that notebook computers will be cheaper next
year.
6 Notebook computers will most probably not be cheaper next year.
7 Notebook computers will definitely not be cheaper next year.
8 It is impossible that notebook computers will be cheaper next year.
Sometimes, predictions are made subject to certain conditions. In such cases,
sentences typically have two parts: the if-clause and the main clause.
Examples:
1 If the price of notebooks fall next year, I will buy one.
2 If the system crashes, we will lose all our latest data.
When the if-clause comes second, there is no comma between the two clauses.
Examples:
1 I will buy a notebook if the price of notebooks fall next year.
2 We will lose all our latest data if the system crashes.
As with the simple predictions listed above, it is possible to express different
levels of certainty about the likelihood of the condition (in the if-clause) by
changing the tense of the verbs from the future and present forms to the more
`remote' past and conditional forms.
Examples:
1 If the price of notebooks falls next year, I will buy one. (The speaker thinks it
is possible that the price of notebooks will fall next year and, if it does, he
will buy one.)
2 If the price of notebooks fell next year, I would buy one. (The speaker thinks
it is unlikely that the price of notebooks will fall next year but, if it does,
he will buy one.)
3 If the system crashes, we will lose all our latest data. (The speaker thinks it
is possible that the system will crash and, if it does, we will lose all our
data.)
4 If the system crashed, we would lose all our latest data. (The speaker thinks
it is unlikely that the system will crash but, if it did, we would lose all
our data.)
The first form, as in sentences 1 and 3 — [(If + present) + will] — is known as the
first conditional. The second form, as in sentences 2 and 4 — [(If + past) +
would] — is known as the second conditional.
165
Exercise 1
1
2
3
4
5
6
Exercise 2
Match the if-clauses (1 to 6) to the main clauses (a to I) to make complete
sentences.
If you never read computer
a ...you would be able to access our
magazines...
bulletin board.
If you never back up your hard
b ...it is unlikely that you will have a
disk...
problem with computer viruses.
If you had a modem...
c ...we would have a bigger range of
typefaces and fonts to choose from.
If you don't copy pirated software... d ...you will miss important new
products.
If I knew more programming
e ...I would get a better job.
languages...
If we bought a better printer...
f ...you will probably lose some
important files.
Complete the sentences with the words below. Are the sentences first (F) or
second (S) conditionals?
1 _
1-1 If you
your VDU in direct sunlight, it
damaged.
2  If you
your screen for too long, you
headache.
3 
4
If you
to link your PCs with a mainframe, you
to install a network.
1-1
511
If the market for portable computers
even more next year.
, prices
If we
a fax machine and e-mail facility, we
many letters each day.
SO
would not post
leave
growswill get
will bewould need
wantedwill be reduced
look atinstalled
Now make up three first conditional and three second conditional sentences of
your own.
166
Computer graphics
Start-up
Task 1
Work in pairs. Look at the photograph below and discuss these questions.
1 What do you think the photograph was used for?
2 How was the image achieved?
167
168
Reading
Task 3
Match each of the following words with the appropriate definition:
1 capture
2 poster
3 retouch
4 airbrush
5 emulsion
Task 4
a light-sensitive substance on the surface of film
b device that uses compressed air to spray paint
c succeed in representing on film
d alter by making minor changes
e large printed picture used for advertising purposes
Compare the two photographs below.
1 How many differences can you find?
2 Why do you think the changes were made?
169
Now read the text and compare your answers.
Tunnel vision
You're at Heathrow but your plane is at
Gatwick. This was just one of the
problems facing the agency producing
this ad.
Capturing this image was never going
to be easy, not least because Virgin
Atlantic wasn't flying out of
Heathrow when this poster and press
campaign was being put together
10 during May and June. Also, while the
road tunnel does indeed pass under
one of the Heathrow runways, a
plane would never appear this big
from the photographer's standpoint
15 (or if it did, it would be taxiing along
the A4 Bath Road, which in real life
runs just above the tunnel mouth).
Another inherent difficulty was that
you can't really see any light at the
20 end of the tunnel because the road
dips in the middle.
From the outset, therefore, Moira
Gaskin O'Malley of London ad agency
Woollams knew some kind of
25 electronic jiggery pokery would be
necessary, and for this art director
John Jessup turned to 'conventional
retouching house Acorn Studios,
which offers use of Apex Graphics'
30 electronic Dalim Litho colour design
system as part of its service.
The ad, which launches the new
Virgin Atlantic flights from
Heathrow, is made up of two shots
35 taken by photographer Max Forsythe:
one of the jumbo taken at Gatwick,
and another of the Heathrow tunnel
taken on a typical day (which must
rank as every photographer's most
40 unfavourable location).
5
► Vocabulary
Considerable retouching took place
to create just the right scene. The
vehicles coming out of the tunnel
were removed, and on the opposite
45 side the white cars and the traffic
in the tunnel were extracted, while
the taxi cab and the estate car
were added.
The Toshiba ad was replaced
50 with a Welcome to Heathrow poster,
and the ad on the right and the
neighbouring steps were
conveniently taken out. The bush
on the left, which seems out of
55 character with the rest of the
resident shrubbery, was
considered too spiky and was
therefore redrawn.
With the airliner in position, the
60 streetlights needed to be extended,
and highlights were also added to
them. Given the presence of the
light on the right, a shadow had to
be appropriately positioned on the
65 jumbo.
To create that elusive patch of
light at the end of the tunnel
(which was crucial to copywriter
Paul Quarry's words), Acorn used
70 the Dalim's electronic airbrush
facilities.
The lorry disappearing into the
patch of light was painted
conventionally onto the final
75 output transparency by retoucher
John Stammers, who is also
managing director of Acorn.
Stammers put this addition on to
the base side of the film so it could
80 be easily washed away if the art
director didn't like it (conventional
retouching is normally done on
the emulsion side). It also meant
that no time or money was wasted
85 going back to the system.
Heathrow (1. 1)/Gatwick (1. 2) — London's main airports
taxiing (1. 15) — moving slowly along the runway before take-off or after
landing
jiggery pokery (1. 25) — trickery
bush (1. 53) — thickly-growing plant
shrubbery (1. 56) — area planted with bushes
170
Use the table below to note down the steps taken to produce the final poster
and the reason for each alteration.
Task 5
Alteration
Reason
Task 6
These are answers to questions about the text. Write the questions.
1 During May and June.
2 Woollams' Moira Gaskin O'Malley.
3 Apex Graphics.
4 To launch the new Virgin Atlantic flights from Heathrow.
5 No, the shot of the tunnel was taken at Heathrow, but the shot of the jumbo
was taken at Gatwick.
6 To create just the right scene.
7 A Welcome to Heathrow poster.
8 Because it fitted in with the chosen slogan: 'Now there's light at the end of the
tunnel'.
Task 7
Using the line references given, look back in the text and find words that have a
similar meaning to:
built-in (lines 15-20)
goes down and then up again (lines 20-25)
traditional (lines 25-30)
be rated (lines 35-40)
nearby (lines 50-55)
dark patch (lines 60-65)
difficult to represent (lines 65 70)
used unnecessarily (lines 80-85)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
-
171
24-bit colour
Reading
Task 8
Before you read the text, try to answer these questions.
1 How many distinct shades of colour can the human eye see?
2 What is:
a a pixel?
b a bit?
c a byte?
d a greyscale display?
3 Roughly how many different colour shades can be generated from 24-bit
colour?
4 If your machine has 24-bit colour and a one million-pixel display, how much
memory will you need to drive the screen?
Now read the text and check your answers.
Baffled by computer-speak? Take Buzz, the instant remedy to jargon
24-bit colour
Short explanation:
If your computer has 24-bit
colour, then it can display
photographic images in colour
5 on its screen that have
natural-looking tones.
L o ng , l o ng e x pla na ti on :
In principle, there is an infinite
number of shades available
io between a solid colour and
pure white. In practice, the
human eye can detect
somewhere between 150-200
distinct shades, so as long as
15 you've got more than this, you
can produce an undetectably
smooth progression of shades
(there are exceptions, but
20
172
they're not worth going into
here).
Cheapo computer monitors
can't display shades — you get
solid black or white and
nothing else (in many cases
25 you get black or green). It is
possible to fake shades on one
of these monitors by a sort of
poor man's halftone process
called dithering, but this is
30 useless for serious image
viewing and retouching.
What you need is a
computer that can show true
shades on its screen.
35
A computer builds up a
picture from a series of
building blocks called pixels.
Each pixel is a square
(normally) of a single colour.
40 The more pixels you can divide
the picture into, the higher the
resolution of the complete
image. The computer
organizes itself by describing
45 each pixel that it wants to
display as a code in the binary
mathematical set (numbers
built up from a series of Os or
1s). Each 0 or 1 is called a bit.
50 Computers are generally
structured to work in groups of
eight bits (called a byte). These
eight numbers can be used to
count up to 256, and so can
55 describe 256 shades of grey
from black to white, which is
more than enough to satisfy
the eye.
A computer which can
60 assign eight bits to describe •
4 each pixel will produce perfect
black and white photographs
on its monitor. A monitor that
can show all these shades is
65 called a greyscale display.
Now your eye can detect
those 150-200 shades in all
three of the colours it can see:
red, green, and blue. If you use
70 eight bits to describe colour,
you only get 256 colours,
which isn't enough — you get
a mildly posterized effect,
although the dithering process
75 can simulate more colours at
the expense of quality.
To get the full colour
photographic effect on a
computer monitor, you need
80 to be able to generate 256
shades for each colour. This
takes eight bits of information
per colour, giving a total of 24
bits. This is the 24-bit colour
85 that you keep reading about in
computer magazines. If you
4
take all the possible variations
of 256 shades of three colours,
you end up with a possible
90 16.7 million colour shades.
Some computers, such as
the Macintosh, offer 32-bit
colour: the spare eight bits can
be used to control transparent
95 overlays of colour — you get
256 levels of transparency.
You only really need 24-bit
colour if you are going to do
colour photographic
100 retouching on-screen or
similar 'painting' on-screen.
For linework and picture
placing, an 8-bit colour
monitor is perfectly adequate,
105 as you can still define colours
for print even if you can't
show them on the screen.
Naturally, there's a bottom
line in all this, or everyone
110 would be using 24-bit colour.
To start with, you need special
circuit boards which plug into
your computer and drive the
monitor. An 8-bit board is
115 cheaper than a 32-bit one.
You also need plenty of
memory. A typical high
resolution colour monitor can
display about a million pixels.
120 The 24 bits that your
computer uses to describe each
pixel can also be described as
three bytes. To describe a
million pixels takes three
125 million bytes. In other words, a
hefty three megabytes of your
computer's memory is
assigned to driving the screen.
With 8-bit colour, you only
130 need one Mb.
Generally, 24-bit colour
boards include extra memory
and processors to speed up the
display performance.
Your opinion:
135 It's
cheaper to be colourblind. ■
0- Vocabulary
detect (1. 12) — recognize
dithering (1. 29) — a process which makes the transition between shades seem
smoother
retouching (1. 31) — making minor changes in a photograph
a mildly posterized effect (1. 73) — a slightly crude image
there's a bottom line (1. 108) — it is expensive
hefty (1. 126) — large
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F) in relation to
the information in the text. If you think a statement is false, change it to
make it true.
Task 9
1
❑ If a computer can generate more than 200 distinct shades of colour, the
human eye will see a perfectly smooth progression of shades.
2 Everybody should have a computer that can show true shades on its
screen.
3 ❑ A group of eight binary numbers is called a byte.
4 ❑ Under certain circumstances, 8-bit colour can provide more than 256
colours.
5 32-bit colour offers 256 times as many shades of colour as 24-bit colour.
Task 10
Use the information in the text to complete the dialogue in your own words.
A __________________________________________________
B Yes, I'd like to find out a little about 24-bit colour.
A ___________________________
B Well, first of all, I'd like to know what sort of quality it will give me on my
monitor.
A _______________________________________________________
B As many as that? What add-ons do I need?
A
B How much memory will I need to drive the screen?
A _______________________________________________
B It's a high-resolution screen.
A
B That's a lot! I use colour mainly for linework and picture-placing. Do you
think it's worth buying 24-bit colour?
A
Writing
Task 11
Write a summary of the text. You should aim to limit your summary to about
150 words. Start by underlining the important ideas in the text. Try, where
possible, to combine more than one idea in each sentence.
Word-play
Task 12
Solve the crossword puzzle using the clues below. The words are taken from all
fifteen units.
Across
2 A device for converting digital data into a sound signal that can be transmitted
by a telephone network. (8,7)
4 One kind of printer. (6)
5 and 6 An _________ is a smoothly varying electrical pulse that was the
basis for all telephone communication until recently. (6,6)
6 See 5 across.
7 Someone who is extremely knowledgeable about a particular subject. (6)
8 The lack of an industry______ for operating systems means that programs have
to be specifically written for each existing system. (8)
9 A million floating point instructions per second. (8)
11 A robot with some physiological structures similar to those of humans. (6)
12 To transmit a virus to a computer. (6)
13 To go into a computer file. (6)
14 Erase or omit. (6)
15 An operation performed by the control unit. (7,8)
174
Down
1 To jumble up a string of characters so that it can be read only after decoding.
(8)
2 This unit forms part of the CPU. (10-5)
3 A device fitted over a computer screen to stop dangerous emissions. (9,6)
10 Another way of saying 'logs off . (5,3)
S
IN
14
175
Appendix 1
Letter writing
1
2
3
4
5
Presentation and structure
Enquiries and replies
Quotations and orders
Letters of complaint and replies
Employment
p. 176
p. 178
p. 182
p. 188
p. 192
The aim of this section is to help students of computer science and those
already working in computing-related jobs to improve their letter-writing skills.
All the most common types of work-related letters are covered, and special
attention is given to presentation and structure.
1 Presentation and structure
The layout of business letters often varies slightly from company to company.
All the letters in this appendix follow a style which is acceptable for all kinds of
business letter and may safely be used as models for your future
correspondence.
Task
176
Decide whether the following statements are true (T) or false (F). Then read the
text which follows to check your answers.
1 On unheaded notepaper, you should always write your name above your
address.
2 On unheaded notepaper, the address of the sender is on the right.
3 ❑ Our ref. refers to the writer's filing system.
4 In the UK, the date 2/4/93 means February 4th, 1993.
5 ❑ You should always write the name and position of the person you are
writing to above his/her company address.
6 You use the salutation Dear Sir or Dear Madam when you know that the
person you are writing to is older or more senior than you.
7 If you begin with Dear Sir, you end with Yours faithfully.
8 The initials p.p. indicate that the person signing the letter is doing so on
behalf of someone else.
9 It is unusual for the writer to put his/her company position at the end of the
letter.
10 In business letters, dates should appear as numbers separated by full points
(.) or obliques (/).
The abbreviation Ms can refer to both married and unmarried women.
lf you are writing to Mrs Anne Swanson, you open with Dear Anne
Swanson.
Short business letters are regarded as impolite.
Americans may begin a business letter with the salutation Gentlemen,
followed by a colon.
The letters Enc. mean that something else has been sent with the letter.
Points to note
 Most company notepaper is headed. However, if you are writing on
unheaded paper, put your address (but not your name) in the top righthand corner. The address of the company you are writing to should
appear on the left so that it can be seen through an envelope with a
window. If you are writing to a specific individual in the company, his/
her name and position goes above the address.
 Dates can cause some confusion. 2/3/9_ means 'the second of March'
in English letters, but `February third' in American ones. Confusion can
be avoided by writing dates as follows: .2 March (or March 2 in the USA)
199_. The names of the months should not he abbreviated in formal
letters.
a When you receive a business letter, there is usually a reference number
at the top following the words Our ref. This is designed to help the
sender to file related correspondence, and you should quote this
reference when you reply.
a. If you do not know the name of the person you are writing to, or you
are not sure if you are writing to a man or woman, you should begin
Dear Sir or Madam (Gentlemen: in the USA) and end Yours faithfully
(Yours truly in the USA). If you know the person's surname, begin (for
example) Dear Mrs Jones and end Yours sincerely. If the person is more of
a friend, begin (for example) Dear Peter, and end Best wishes. In opening
and closing salutations and in addresses, it is common not to use full
stops and commas.
a Refer to men as Mr. Refer to women as Ms, unless in previous
correspondence from them they have indicated that they use the title
Mrs (for married women) or Miss (for unmarried women). Women will
often indicate their preferred title by writing it in brackets after their
signature, for example: Catherine Honey (Mrs). Most correspondents will
assume you are a man unless told otherwise, so if you sign a letter H
Jones, most people will reply beginning Dear Mr Jones.
■ When you sign your name, it is common practice to type it out as well
and to put your position in the company below it. If someone in a
company signs a letter on behalf of someone else, the initials p.p. (per
pro) should be used before the name to indicate this,
■ If something is being sent with a letter, Enc, or Encl.(enclosure) should
appear in the bottom left-hand corner of the page,
a State your message clearly, concisely, and politely.
177
2 Enquiries and replies
The content of a letter of enquiry will depend on how well you know the person
or company you are writing to. If you are writing to a company for the first
time — whether asking for a catalogue or requesting details about a particular
product or service — you should start your letter by giving information about
your own company. Then state your reason for writing and make your request.
Task 1
Task 1, when completed, provides a model for a letter of enquiry. Task 2, when
completed, provides a model for a reply to an enquiry.
Read the following letter. Fill in each gap with the letter corresponding to the
appropriate word.
a send
d Project g attention
j graphics
b together e Madam h pRamonièresk faithfully
c forward
f based
sell
Physiologica
17 Princes Street
London
EC1 7DQ
Telephone 071 982 7111
Telex 988153
Fax 071 982 7712
Our refAN/JS
Your ref:
1 July 19___
Discpro SA
251, rue des Ramonieres
F-86256 POITIERS CEDEX
France
For the
of the Sales Manager
1
Dear Sir or
2
We are a software company 3
in London and are
currently developing a Windows-based scientific 4
package for use in universities and research laboratories.
We are interested in 5
the programs we 6
from
unauthorized copying and duplication.
Could you please 7
us more technical information about
your RSP-11 software protection system o ath your
current brochure and price list?
gc
We look
Yours
178
10
9
to hearing from you.
Complete this reply to the letter of enquiry in Task 1 using the prepositions
given. You will have to use some prepositions more than once.
for
from
in
to
on
of
with
251, rue des Ramonières F-86256 P O I T I E R S C E D E X
Discpro SA
Tel (33) 99681031
Telecopie (33) 102163
Ref PV/KH
5 July 19___
Ms Anne Newson
Project Director
Physiologica
17 Princes Street
London EC1 7D0
UK
Dear Ms Newson
Thank you 1
your letter 2
1 July 3
which you
4
expressed an interest
the RSP 11 software protection
system. Please find enclosed our latest brochure and price
list.
the information in your letter, I can confirm that
the range of products we supply would be ideal 6
your
needs.In particular, I would like to draw your attention
7
the RSP 11W 8
page 3 which is designed for
software protection in both Windows and 0/S 2 environments.
5
As you will see, our protection systems are tailored 9
individual programs. Please let me know whether you would
like to arrange a meeting 10
our Technical Director, Mr
Michel Gerard, to prepare a more detailed report 11
your program and particular requirements. He will be in
London during the week beginning 15 July.
I look forward to hearing 12youTélécopie
Yours sincerely
179
Task 3
In each of the following sentences, choose the correct word to fill the gap.
I would be __________ if you could send me details of your PS/2 range.
a thankful
b please
c content
d grateful
2 You were _________ to us by our associates.
a advised
b suggest
c recommended d informed
3 We were given your ____________ by The Chamber of Commerce.
a identity
b company
c name
d placing
4 Thank you for your letter __________ 19 June.
a in
b on
c of
d from
5 Please ___________ enclosed our current catalogue and price list.
a find
b look
c receive
d examine
6 We would appreciate ____________ you could send us further information on
your range of non-impact printers.
a it that
b this
c when
d it if
7 I would be grateful if you could arrange for your Technical Director
__________ on me.
a will call
b is calling
c to call
d calls
8 We look forward ___________ from you.
a hear
b to hear
c hearing
d to hearing
9 We would be grateful ___________ an early reply.
a to
b of
c for
d with
10 Should you require anything further at this time, please do not
contact me.
a void
b hesitate
c delay
d prevent
1
Task 4
180
Match each section of the letter of enquiry on the following page with the
appropriate gap on the blank below.
1 We are currently using 15 Procom
211 Premier PCs in our mail-order
department. We have been pleased
with their performance, but now
require machines that will run faster.
2 M H Jansen
Publicity Manager
3 I look forward to hearing from you.
4 Could you please let me know
whether it is possible to upgrade the
PCs to 486s and what the likely cost
would be?
5 Dear Mr Barnard
6 Mr J Barnard
Corporate Sales Department
Procom Ltd
58 Edison Street
Robin's Lane Industrial Estate
Canterbury
Kent CT19 3TE
7 Yours sincerely
8 12 May 19 ___
9 The Red Box
54 Streamside Road
Cardiff CF1 1JW
10 Our ref: CUG/PL
Task 5
You are Mr Barnard. Reply to the letter of enquiry in Task 4.
Paragraph 1: Refer to the customer's letter. Say you are happy that the PCs
have given satisfaction.
Paragraph 2: Explain that the Procom 211 Premiers cannot be upgraded
because that particular model has been discontinued. Say that you are
enclosing the latest catalogue and draw attention to the Procom 400 PC,
which would be ideal for the customer's needs. Suggest that you call soon to
arrange a time and date when a representative can visit to give a
demonstration of the PC.
Paragraph 3: Conclude the letter appropriately.
Task 6
Follow the instructions on the memo below. Write out the letter of enquiry in
full, including names, addresses, etc.
Mark Walton is the Senior Programmer of Inlogic, Morley House, 18-22
Wolves Road, London SW1 7ND.
Memorandum
To Laura Hayward
From Mark Walton
Date 27 March 19
Ref
Please send a letter to ASD Computer Products who
advertised in the March 23 edition of 'Info Globe'.
Say where you saw the advertisement and ask them for
their catalogue.
181
3 Quotations and orders
Note: a glossary of
terms covering the
most common costs
included in
quotations and the
most common
methods of payment
can be found on
page 1R7
Task 1
In reply to an enquiry you may want to provide a potential customer with a
quotation. This will, of course, quote the price for the requested goods or
services, but it will also give some or all of the following information:
1 details of any applicable discounts (a trade discount may be offered to
companies in the same line of business while a quantity discount may
apply to orders over a certain amount).
2 details of what costs (if any) are included in the price, such as transport
and insurance*.
3 the preferred method and terms of payment (for example, a letter of
credit payable within 30 days*).
4 some indication of how long it will take for the goods to reach the
customer.
Task 1, when completed, provides a model for this type of letter.
The order itself is likely to be written on an official order form, but it will
normally be accompanied by a covering letter confirming the terms that have
been agreed. The letter in Task 2, when corrected, provides a model for a
covering letter to an order.
The following letter gives a quotation. Read it and choose the best word from
the options in brackets.
Dear Mr Gianelli
Thank you for your fax of 18 May in which you request a
quotation for 5 EMC18O flat-bed scanners.
We can offer a gross price of £3,425.00 — unit price:
£685.00 — c.i.f. Genoa. This includes a ( batch, quantity,
multiple) discount of 10%.
Payment may be (done, made, spent) by irrevocable letter
of credit or by banker's draft. On all ( starting,
initial, prime) orders we usually require payment ( on
by, of) delivery, and for all subsequent orders we ( make,
let, allow) a 30-day credit period. Please let us know how
you would like to arrange payment.
We have the items in stock and can ( persuade, assure,
console) you that your order will be dealt with promptly.
Please allow six weeks for delivery.
We look forward to hearing from you again soon.
Yours sincerely
182
Task 2
The following letter was written to accompany an order. There are 8 mistakes
(grammar, style, EMC18Order, vocabulary, spelling, etc.). Can you find and
correct them?
Dear Mr P J Wilson
Thank you for you fax of 19 May Please found enclosed
our 3O-dayno 88694 for five EMC180 Scanners.
We would like confirming that payment for this initial
order will make by banker's draft on delivery. We will
take advantage of the 30-day credit, period for any
subsequent orders.
We would appreciate if you could arrange for the
scanners to be shipped as soon as possible.
,
I look forward to hear from you in short.
Yours faithfully
Task 3
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Match the beginnings and ends of these sentences.
Please find enclosed our current price
a cheque or credit card.
b with you for 2,000 units.
Please fill in the order
c we can expect delivery.
The prices quoted are subject to
d discounts you can offer.
Payment can be made by
We offer free overnight delivery on
e for f395.95.
f place further orders with you.
We would like to place an order
Please could you let us know what trade g list and order form.
h form on Page 26.
If the product sells well, we will
orders of over f50.00.
i
Please find enclosed a cheque
Please let us know when
i VAT at 17.5%.
183
Task 4
Due to a malfunctioning word processor, the following two letters have been
mixed up. One is from Discpro SA providing a quotation for a further order of
software plugs. The other is from Physiologica to confirm the order. Match
each missing section with the appropriate gap on the blank letters.
1 We would like to place an initial order with you for 500 RSP 11W plugs and
enclose your official order form. We normally make payments by banker's
draft. Could you please confirm that this is acceptable to you?
2 Further to your letter of 1 July and your meeting with Mr Gerard in London on
18 July, I am pleased to be able to give you a quotation for the software
protection plugs you discussed.
3 P Varenne
Sales Manager
4 Thank you for your letter of 23 July.
5 We hope that this highly competitive price will meet with your approval, and I
look forward to receiving your order.
6 Dear Mr Varenne
7 Anne Newson
Project Director
Enc.
8 Mr P Varenne
Discpro SA
251, rue des Ramonieres
F-86256 POITIERS CEDEX
France
9 I would like to point out that delivery before the end of November, as agreed
with Mr Gerard, is a firm condition of this order as we hope to have the
program ready for sale by then.
10 Dear Ms Newson
11 Ms Anne Newson
Project Director
Physiologica
17 Princes Street
London EC1 7D0
UK
12 We would be able to supply 500 RSP 11W plugs at a unit cost of E17.86,
including transportation costs. On any additional orders, we would be able to
offer a 20% discount on the unit price.
184
185
When writing formal letters, we often precede questions which ask for
information with phrases like Could you please let us know... and Kindly inform
Task 5
us...
Look at the examples below and note how the original questions change when
they become part of a longer question or statement. Then change the questions
which follow in the same way.
1 When/Where/How will the consignment arrive?
Could you please let us know when/where/how the consignment will
arrive%
2 Do you offer discounts on large orders?
Could you tell us whether you offer discounts on large orders?
3 Are you interested in this offer?
Please let us know whether you are interested in this offer.
1
How would you like us to pay?
Could you please let us know -
2 How many items would you like to order?
Please let us know
3 Do you have the items in stock?
Could you please tell us
4 Are these terms acceptable to you?
Please let us know
5 Do you anticipate any delays with delivery?
Please let us know
6 When would you be able to ship the order?
Kindly inform us ________
7 Where would you like us to send the order?
Please let us know
8 Would you be prepared to offer us a quantity discount?
Could you please tell us
9 When would you like to receive payment?
Please let us know
10
Would you like us to arrange a maintenance contract?
Kindly inform us
Task 6
186
Follow the instructions from George Ramsden, Senior Project Engineer at
Bespoke Assemblers, 22 Clarendon Street, Cambridge CB4 8RP.
Memorandum
To Sally Parker
Date 24 July 19_
From George Ramsden
Please write a letter to Frith Components, 139
Giles Kemp Road, London N1 2RR.
1 Say we saw the advertisement for their company in
the latest issue of Electronic Engineer.
2 Ask if they are able to supply the following:
2O 486DX-33 motherboards
12 4Mb SIMM 60NS
8 Intel Ether Express 8/16-bit switchablecards.
3 Find out what discounts they give and what
their terms of payment are.
Methods of payment
Common methods of payment include:
bank transfer: payment can be made by
ordering a home bank to transfer money to
an overseas account. If telegraphed, the
transfer is known as a telegraphic transfer
(TT), and if mailed, a mail transfer (MT).
The Society for Worldwide Interbank
Financial Communications (SWIFT) offers
facilities for a 24-hour transfer of money to
a beneficiary on its computer systems.
international banker's draft: a
banker's cheque which the bank draws on
itself and sells to the customer, who then
sends it to his supplier as he would an
ordinary inland cheque. So if you have to
pay your supplier £2,000, you purchase
the cheque for that amount, plus charges.
Usually the receiver's bank should either
have an account with the sender's hank,
or an agreement.
bill of exchange: the seller prepares a bill
of exchange in the name of the buyer. The
bill states that the buyer will pay the seller
an amount within a stated time, e.g. 30
days. The bill is sent to the buyer either by
post, or through a bank, and the buyer
signs (accepts) the bill before the goods are
sent. Shipping documents usually
accompany bills when the hank acts as an
intermediary in overseas transactions.
letter of credit (L/C): letters of credit (or
documentary credits, as banks refer to them)
have to be applied for from the buyer's
bank, by filling out a form giving details of
the type of credit (i.e. revocable, which can
187
be cancelled, or irrevocable, which cannot
be cancelled), the beneficiary (the person
receiving the money), the amount, how
long the credit will be available for (i.e.
valid until...), the documents involved (bill
of lading, insurance, invoice, etc.), and a
description of the goods. The money will be
credited to the supplier's account as soon
as confirmation of shipment is made. This
is done when the documents are lodged
with the customer's bank.
Transport and insurance costs
There are a number of abbreviations that
explain the price quoted to the customer.
These include:
ex works: the buyer pays all costs once
the goods leave the factory/warehouse.
f.o.r. (free on rail): includes cost of delivery
to the nearest railway station.
f.a.s. (free alongside ship): includes cost of
taking goods to the side of the ship, but not
loading.
f.o.b. (free on hoard): as for f.a.s., but
includes cost of loading goods.
c.& f. (cost and freight): includes cost of
shipping goods to the named destination,
hut not insurance.
c.i.f. (cost, insurance, and freight): includes
all costs to the named destination.
-
a
Letters of complaint and replies
The purpose of a letter of complaint is to get a problem solved so avoid
emotional language (e.g. I am absolutely furious...). In any case, the person
reading your letter is probably not the person who caused the problem. When
replying to letters of complaint, avoid blaming a member of staff by name.
Instead use a passive structure. Compare the following examples:
1 Mrs Smith, in our accounts department, sent the wrong invoice.
2 The wrong invoice was sent due to an error in the accounts department.
A letter of complaint should be structured as follows:
1 Begin with a clear reference.
2 State clearly what the nature of the complaint is.
3 Suggest a course of action that should be followed.
4 End the letter politely.
Task 1 shows a typical letter of complaint.
A reply to a letter of complaint should be structured as follows:
1 Begin with a reference to the letter.
2 If appropriate, apologize for the error and explain what happened.
3 Say what action you will take.
4 Apologize again and end the letter politely.
Task 2, when completed, provides a model for a reply to a letter of complaint.
Task 1
Read this letter of complaint and answer the questions at the top of the
following page.
I am (complaining, writing, referring) regarding the consignment of 14
Olivetti 486 PCs, Order no. 3982/JKS which was delivered on 12 May.
It was clearly stated on the order form that these machines should be
pre-loaded with the latest version of DOS. Unfortunately, they have all
been loaded with DOS version 3.1, and we are therefore unable to run a
number of programs. In addition, you agreed to supply all the necessary
cables, but three of these are missing.
Could you please send one of your representatives to load the machines
with the correct version of DOS as soon as possible. In addition, please
send the three cables (part number CN-H97/k) as soon as possible.
188
1 Does the letter begin with a clear reference to the particular consignment?
2 What is Mr Panting's complaint?
3 What does he want the supplier to do?
4 Do you think the letter is polite enough?
Task 2
Here is the reply to Mr Panting's letter. Fill in the missing prepositions.
Reg. England 1831713
VAT 24HB 62114
Wildman
Office
Equipment
18 Station Lane
London N8 4HE
Telephone 071 996 6431/2/3
Telex 485881
Fax 071 996 6444
Your Ref
Our Ref
17 May 19_
Mr G 0 Panting
Operations Manager
Princes
Marketing
Nessonyou___se
Newell Street
Birmingham B3 3EL
Dear Mr Panting
Thank youl
your letter 2
14 May regarding problems
3
a consignment that was recently sent 4
you.
The difficulty appears to have arisen 5
a
misunderstanding 6
our ordering department, and the
matter has now been put right.
I have asked our Corporate Computing Consultant,
Mr R Marley, to call 7
you 8
Friday 21 May
9
9 a.m. to ensure that the PCs are correctly loaded and
to supply the three cables that were left 10
of the
order.
I will telephone you to check that this meeting is
convenient, and in the meantime, I would like to apologize
11
the inconvenience that has been caused.
Yours sincerely
189
Task 3
Rewrite these sentences using the passive, beginning with the words indicated.
1 You have sent us the wrong items again.
The wrong
2 You should have delivered this consignment last week.
This consignment _________________________
3 Someone broke two of the VDUs during transportation.
Two _______________________
4 Someone sent the order by sea mail instead of air mail.
The order
5 Please let me know when you think you can sort this matter out.
Please let me know when you think this matter
6 You should have sent the documents by registered post.
The documents ________________
7 A faulty connection could have caused the problems with the hard disk.
The problems with the hard disk _____________________________
8 You omitted the manuals from the order.
The manuals _____________________________
9 You delivered the printers over three weeks late.
The printers
10 We will not pay the invoice until this problem is rectified.
The invoice ____________________________
Task 4
Match the beginnings and ends of these sentences.
1 I am writing to complain about the late
a collected from the
2 I am writing with reference
3 We are returning the goods to you because
b on the invoice.
c a fault in the
4 Please arrange for the goods to be
d
5 Please send us a refund for
6 Please accept my apologies
7 The problem arose due to
8 We would like to apologize for the error
190
factory.
manufacturing process.
we are not satisfied with
them.
e delivery of items I ordered
last week.
f to order UH-879/94.
g the full amount.
h for the inconvenience.
Task 5
Look at the following letter of complaint from Physiologica to their suppliers.
1 In pairs or small groups, decide:
a how effective the letter is.
b how it could be improved.
2 Rewrite the letter in a more concise and appropriate manner (in about 80
words). Use the spaces provided.
Dear Mr Varenne
When we began this association, I had great hopes that everything
would run smoothly, and there was little reason to suppose that your
organization was in fact a TOTAL SHAMBLES; and to be quite frank with
you, it astonishes me that you have managed to stay in business for as
long as you have You've made a complete mess of our order.
We made it clear that we wanted the software protection plugs by the
end of NOVEMBER because we were going to start selling our program. Time
and time again, you said that there was no problem, and yet here we
are, two weeks from the launch of the program, and there isn't a plug in
sight. I am absolutely furious, and so is everyone else here.
Now listen: this is your very last chance. Get those plugs here within
five days or the deal is off, and we'll go to someone else. OK? And if
that means that you lose your development costs, that's your problem.
I advise you to contact me immediately because I'm finding this
situation an incredible strain, and I= can't take much more of this.
Yours sincerely
191
Task 6
You are Mr Varenne. Write a reply to the letter from Ms Newson.
I Thank her for her letter.
2 Apologize for the difficulties the late delivery is causing. Explain that a small
number of the plugs had a technical fault caused by a problem in the
manufacturing process. You have now sorted the problem out.
3 Say you have now sent the full consignment of plugs and they will arrive
within the next few days.
4 Apologize for the delay and end your letter politely.
5 Employment
Task 1
When you apply for a job, you may need to fill in a company application form
which asks for personal details, your qualifications, and your work history.
Alternatively, you may be asked to supply a curriculum vitae, which gives
similar information, but which you write yourself.
In either case, you will need to write a covering letter to go with the application
form or CV. Most jobs will have been advertised in the papers or specialist
publications, and before you write your covering letter you should study the
wording of the advertisement carefully. Find out exactly what the employer is
looking for (for example, a certain amount of experience, familiarity with
particular languages, etc.). Then, in your covering letter, try to show that you
have all the qualities, qualifications, and experience that the employer is
looking for. You should not simply repeat all the information in the CV, you
should highlight the most important parts.
Read this advertisement and answer the questions that follow.
Systems Programmers to £20,000 - London
Our client is a major UK clearing bank whose range of activities
is as impressive as the growth of its profits. A bank that is
dedicated to a long-term programme of systems development.
With IBM RS/6000, System 38, and VAX hardware driving userinterface PC networks using C, UNIX, FOXPRO, and SYBASE,
there's no doubting our client's commitment to systems
innovation and investment.
We ar e looking for S YSTEMS PROGRAMMERS with C an d
UNIX skills, who can show us 2 years' experience of delivering
advanced banking and online information systems. Above all,
we need flexible thinkers who appreciate the commercial
realities and priorities of the banking industry.
Show us these qualities, and our client can offer you a
competitive salary plus many banking benefits. If your talents
and ambitions are ready for such a move, please send your CV,
quoting Ref. 349, to:
Harriet Bradman at Compro Recruitment Services,
318 Leadhill Street, London EC1 1DR.
1 Who placed the advertisement?
2 What software does the current system use?
3 What specific characteristics or qualities are required?
4 What benefits come with the job?
192
Task 2
David Manning has applied for the job advertised in Task 1. Before reading his
letter, tick the items you think he should mention in replying to the
advertisement.
Do you think he should:
begin with a reference to where he saw the job advertised?
give details of the subjects he studied at school?
list briefly all previous jobs?
be honest and admit that he lacks exactly the required experience?
indicate his current level of responsibility?
explain why the company would benefit if they employed him?
say when he will be available for interview?
request that they reply as soon as is reasonably possible?
Now read the letter and compare your predictions. Do you think it is a good
letter? Discuss the reasons for your opinion.
22 Carlyle Crescent
London WC1H 9BH
18 June 19___
Yr Ref: 349
Ms H Bradman
Compro Recruitment Services
318 Leadhill Street
London EC1 1DR
Dear Miss Bradman
I wish to apply for the post of Systems Programmer, which was
advertised in this month's edition of IT World.
I am currently a Systems Programmer at GCG Merchant Bank where
I have two years' experience of specialized programming for
the financial sector. I am familiar with C/UNIX, LAN/WAN
technology, and relational databases.
Prior to taking over my current post, I worked for Data
International as a Trainee Systems Programmer, where I was
involved in the development of a new online information
system for a financial services company.
My experience in the fields of both banking and online
information services has given me the necessary commercial
and technical awareness to be able to make a valuable
contribution to the systems development programme of your
client.
Please let me know if there is any further information you
require.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely
193
Task 3
The advertisement mentioned three specific requirements for the job. Write
down the phrases that David Manning used when referring to those
requirements.
1
2
3
Task 4
Using the information from the letter, complete the following CV that David
Manning sent with the covering letter.
CURRICUUM VITAE
Name: David William MANNING
Age: 21
Date of Birth: 29 May 19 —
Marital StaLus: Single
Address:1
Personal details
Tel:
Position applied
Status
6925
for:
Education 19_
to 19 ________
19
19_
Work experience
19_ to present
19
19_
St Godric's School, Buckingham
General Certificate of EducatiHr.
MathematiCertifB
Physics
A
English
B
German
D
Aston Technical Co__
OND in Computing
e Birmingla:r.
Company: GCG Merchant Bert
Post
Responsibilities:
Other information
Company:5
Post: 6
Responsibilities:
assisting in the
development of a new online
information system for a financial
services company.
Clean driving licence
194
Referees
Mr Joseph Morse
Systems Manager
GCG Merchant Bank
Threadneedle Street
London EC1 7GH
Mr J H Holloway
Data Processing Manager
Data International
106 Sidmouth Street
London WC1H 4GJ
Current Salary
£16,500 p.a.
Task 5
In each of the following sentences, choose the most appropriate word from the
options in brackets.
1 I am writing to (apply, request, ask) for the post of Sales Consultant advertised in
today's edition of The Independent'.
2 I enclose my curriculum vitae for the (job, position, work) of Program Manager.
3 As you will see from the enclosed (CV, covering letter, application), I have had
several years' experience of Export Sales.
4 1 (qualified, left, graduated) from Manchester Technical College with an HND in
Electronic Engineering.
5 At present, I am (worked, employed, taken) by Unisys, where I work in the
Customer Services Department.
6 I would be grateful if you could send me an application (form, formula, card).
7 While I was at Dell, 1 was (liable, responsible, charged) for the day-to-day
running of the Technical Services Department.
8 At ICL my duties (included, added, completed) installing and testing new
computer systems.
9 I look (forward, ahead, on) to hearing from you.
195
Task 7
Compro Recruitment Services are advertising a number of jobs. Choose a job
and write a covering letter to send with your completed CV.
Begin by saying which post in particular you are applying for.
Give relevant details about yourself and your experience/qualifications.
Say why you would be useful to the company.
Close your letter politely.
Sales and support
Junior support
£12,000 to £15,000
£15,000 + benefits
A growing company requires an
experienced PC Consultant to provide
technical support for both specialist
sy stem s and gene ral packages
including word processor s,
spreadsheets, and datab ases.
Additional responsibilities will include
dealing with sales enquiries, both at
exhibitions and on the telephone. Full
training in this area will be provided.
Ref. S/167
Programmers/Analyst
programmers
To £20,000
A London-based financial organization
requires an experienced person with a
thorough knowledge of UNIX and 'C'.
You will need excellent communication
skills and be able to work effectively as
a member of a team. This company
offers excellent benefits and prospects
to its employees.
Ref. P/256
Network manager
A specific requirement has arisen in an
international bank. A vacancy exists
for a PC support professional to work
within a small team. You will be the
first point of contact for dealing with
problems relating to software,
hardware, and networks. Candidates
should have a minimum of 18 months
experience. Further training will be
given on the job. Knowledge of
mainstream PC software is essential,
i.e. Windows, Excel, Lotus,
WordPerfect. You should be well
presented with excellent interpersonal
skills. Very attractive position with
much scope for career progression.
Ref. S/168
Analyst programmers
£ negotiable
Analyst programmers with at least
two years' C' or OS/2 experience
looking to move into a truly dynamic
development environment should call
us NOW! The package is negotiable
and promotion prospects are excellent
for those prepared to work hard.
Ref. P/257
£16,000 to £20,000
Well-known manufacturers seek
ambitious candidate with one to two
years' experience of using Lotus,
Paradox, WordPerfect, and Harvard
Graphics. A knowledge of Windows
will be a definite advantage. Working
within a small team, you will be solely
responsible for the support and
management of forty to fifty PCs
running on a network.
Ref. N/80
196
If you are interested in any of the
above vacancies, contact Valerie
Stevenson at:
FASTRECRUIT
18 Wolvercote Avenue
Bolton
BCl2 6CT
Telephone
0204-112340
Appendix 2
Glossary of technical terms
and abbreviations
The definitions in this glossary refer to words only as they are used in this book.
The meanings of certain words will vary according to context. As the texts in
this book are authentic and come from a variety of sources, some inconsistency
in hyphenation and spelling is inevitable.
197
f wkises/ v [10] connect to, or
get (information) from, a system or a
database
access control / wkses kan,troul/ [7] a
feature of a computer security system
which prevents unauthorized users from
accessing a system
access request iwkses ri.kwest/ [101
a user request for data from a database
accumulator 4kju:mju,leita(r)/ [1]
a register that holds the results of
operations performed by the arithmetic
portion of the CPU
acoustic coupler /a,ku:stik 'kApla(r)/ [3]
a device that converts the digital data of
the computer into a sound signal that can
be understood and transmitted by a
telephone network. The connection is
usually made by placing the handset of a
telephone into rubber cups containing a
microphone and a loudspeaker.
adaptor board /o'dwpto ,b3:d/ [1]
a circuit board put in a spare slot in a
microcomputer to control an external
device
A/D converter /,ei 'di: kan,v3:to(r)/ [81
analog-to-digital converter: an electronic
circuit that changes analog signals to
digital signals
address /3'dres/ [11 a location within the
memory of a computer
address bus /3'dres ,bAs/ [1] a signal
route within a computer dedicated to
sending address information. This may be
a subset of the system bus.
address register /a'dres ,red3ista(r)/ [1]
a register which stores an address in
memory
Al /,ei 'al/ [13] artificial intelligence
ALGOL it✓lgul/ [4] algorithmic
language:
a language developed for mathematical
and scientific purposes
algorithm Lulgoriom/ a prescribed set of
well-defined rules or instructions for the
solution to a problem
alphanumeric /,w1fonju:'merik/ adj used
to describe data that contains numbers
and letters
analog /'analog/ adj [3] describing a
smoothly varying signal that has no
discontinuities
analogue iwnolog/ see analog
analyst annalist/ [4] someone responsible
for understanding a problem in a business
environment and designing a computer
system to solve it
android amdmicl/ [11] a mobile robot
whose structure approximately resembles
that of a human
ANSI it✓nzi/ American National Standards
Institute: an industry-supported standards
organization founded in 1918 that
access
198
establishes US industrial standards and
their correspondence to those established
by the International Standards
Organization (ISO)
anti-glare shield /,),enti 'glea ,Sidc1/ [B]
a protective screen over the front of a
computer screen to reduce the amount of
reflected light
APL /,ei pi: 'el/ [4] a programming
language: originally devised as a
mathematical notation and later turned
into a language
application(s) program /,),uplfkeiln(z)
,praugracm/ [2,4] a program written in a
high-level language, designed to perform a
specific function such as calculate a
company's payroll
application software /,a2p1I'kelf n
,softweo(r)/ applications programs (i.e.
programs that directly meet the needs of
the computer user). In contrast, systems
software (part of the operating system),
although essential, does not directly meet
any specific user needs.
arithmetic-logic unit /a,n0motik
'1Dd311( ,ju:nit/ [1] the component of the
CPU which performs the actual arithmetic
and logic functions asked for by a program
arithmetic unit /aerielmatik ,ju:mt/ [1]
see arithmetic-logic unit
artificial intelligence /,a:tififl
in'telicl3ms/ [4,13] the discipline
concerned with the building of computer
programs that perform tasks requiring
intelligence when done by humans
ASCII f Leski:/ [3] American standard code
for information interchange: a standard
character encoding scheme introduced in
1963. It is a 7-bit code allowing 128
different bit patterns or characters.
Assembler /o'sembla(r)/ [4] a program
that takes as input a program written in
assembly language and translates it into
machine code
assembly language /a'sembh
laqgwic13/ [4] a human-readable
representation of machine-code programs
assignment statement /a'sammant
,steltmant/ [4] a fundamental statement of
most programming languages that assigns
a new value to variables
asynchronous /ei'smkranas/ [14]
describing a form of computer control
timing in which a specific operation is
begun as soon as a signal is received to
indicate that the preceding operation has
been completed
AT-compatible / ei ,ti: kam'pwtabl/ [14]
describing a computer which can run the
same software as the IBM PC model AT
audio board 3:chou ,bo:d/ [14] a
computer expansion hoard that allows
sound to be recorded and played back by
the computer
,
/' 3:thou ,nout/ [14]
in multimedia, a digitized audio message
that can be attached to text or graphics
auto kerning /'::):tau,k3:nio/ [5] a wordprocessing feature that automatically
adjusts the space between the characters
of a typeface to give the best-looking lit
automate /' 3:tameit/ v [11] use automatic
equipment and machines to perform an
activity previously done by people
automaton /3Aumation/ 111] a machine
capable of operating independently, such
as a clothes drier
audio note
-
auto numbering /,D:tau 'nAmbarn3/
[5] a feature that automatically numbers
diagrams, paragraphs, etc., in a document
B /bi:/ [4] a programming language derived
from BCPL
/' kekgraund/ [2J describing
processing which does not involve
computer—user interaction. Such processes
use spare computer resources to perform
low-priority tasks.
backing storage /k✓li] ,sto:rid3/ [1] see
secondary memory
backup /' bwkAp/ It a copy of a piece of
data or a program taken in case something
happens to the data or to the disk on
which the original data is stored
back up /,bark 'Ap/ v [2] take a backup
bandwidth /' bLendwit0/ [14] the
difference between the lowest and highest
frequency in a group of frequencies
bar code ibcrkoud/ [K] a machinereadable printed code that consists of
parallel bars of varied width and spacing,
usually used to code goods
bar code scanner ibu:kaud
,sk✓n3(r)/ 1K] a scanning device that
can read bar codes as input
BASIC /' beisik/ [4] beginners' all-purpose
symbolic instruction code: a programming
language developed in the mid-1960s to
exploit the capability (new at that time) of
the interactive use of a computer from a
terminal
batch program ibwtS ,prougnem/121
a program that runs without any terminal
or user interaction. Typically such
programs perform large scale updates,
produce reports, or handle housekeeping
functions. A high priority batch job may be
run in foreground.
BCPL /,bi: si: pi: 'el/ [4] a programming
language used for systems programming
binary adder /bainari ,do(r)/ [L] the
portion of the arithmetic-logic unit which
performs binary addition and subtraction
binary arithmetic /,bamari o'nematik/
[4] arithmetic done to the base 2 using
only 0 and 1 as its basic digits
background
/minor' ,nAmba(r)/ [15]
a number (0 or 1) used in binary
arithmetic
bistable /,batsteibl/ [1] an electronic
circuit whose output can have one of two
stable states, i.e. on or off
bit /bit/ binary digit holding the value () or
1: the smallest unit of information in a
computer system
bit mapped ibitmwpt/ [6] describing the
image displayed on a computer screen
whereby each pixel corresponds to one or
more bits in memory
BIX /biks/ [3] Byte Information Exchange:
an online service
block /bluk/ a physical group of records on
a tape or disk. A number of blocks form a
file. Records are blocked together to
improve 1/0 throughput.
Boolean algebra /,bu:lian 'ald3abra/
an algebra closely related to logic in which
the symbols do not represent arithmetic
quantities
boot /bu:t/ v [2,7] reload the operating
system of a computer
broadcast ibro:dku:st/ [61 a messagerouting algorithm in which a message is
transmitted to all nodes in a network
bug /bAg/ n an error in a program
bulletin board fbulotin ,bD:d/ [31
a teleconferencing system that allows
users to read messages left by previous
users on a variety of topics. All users can
see all messages, unlike e-mail where the
message is private.
bus /bAs/ [1] a signal route within a
computer to which several items may be
connected so that signals may be passed
between them
bus network chAs ,netw3:k/ 161
a network topology which is non-cyclic,
with all nodes connected. Traffic travels in
both directions and some kind of
arbitration is needed to determine which
terminal can use the network at any one
time.
byte /bait/ [2] a character consisting of 8
binary digits or bits
binary number
-
C /si:/ [4] a highly portable programming
language originally developed for the
UNIX operating system, derived from BCPL
via a short-lived predecessor B
C++ /,si: plAs 'plAs/ 141 a programming
language combining the power of objectoriented programming with the efficiency
and notational convenience of C
cabling fkeibln3/ [6] the wiring used to
carry the signals for a network
CAL /k✓1/ Computer Assisted Learning:
one of several terms used to describe the
use of computers in training and education
199
/kwl, ko:1/ [91 Computer Assisted
Language Learning: the use of computers
in the teaching of languages
capacity /ka'pwsati/ [2] the amount of
free unused space left on a disk
CBT /,si: bi: 'ti:/ [9] computer-based
training: see CAL
CD-ROM /,si: di: 'rnm/ [8] the predominant
form of ROM optical disk. Both disk and
drive are based on the product used for
commercial music systems. The disk is
120mm in diameter, single-sided, and
holds up to 600Mb of data.
cell /sel/ [A] a location in a spreadsheet
capable of holding text, numeric data, or a
formula
central processing unit /,sentral
'pratisesn3 , ju:nit/ [1] the principal
operating part of a computer, consisting of
the arithmetic unit and the control unit
channel itf xnal/ [1] a specialized
processor that consists of an information
route and associated circuitry to control
input/output operations. More than one
I/O device may be attached to a channel
for fast accessing and updating of
information.
check point itf &point/ [2] a point in a
series of programs at which a backup is
taken, and the point at which the series of
programs will be restarted
chip /tfip/ [F ] see microchip
circuit is3:1cit/ [11 a combination of
electrical devices and conductors that form
a conducting path
circuit board is3:lot ,113:d/ [1] a board
containing integrated circuits which make
up the processor, memory, and electronic
controls for the peripheral equipment of
microcomputers
click /kik/ v [1] press the button on a
mouse to initiate some action or mark a
point on the screen
clipboard ficlipbp:d/ [2] see portable
computer
clock /klnk/ [1] an electronic device that
generates a repetitive series of pulses, used
to control and synchronize the internal
workings of a computer
cluster controller /11Asta kan,traula(r)/
[31 a device that controls a number of
similar peripheral devices such as
terminals and links them up to the main
computer
coaxial cable /1cou'wksial ,kethl/ [6]
a type of network cable consisting of two
wires, one of which is contained totally
within the other
COBOL joubol/ [4] common businessoriented language: a high-level language
designed for commercial business use
code /kaud/ n [7] the representation of
information data in symbolic language or
in a secret fashion
CALL
200
code /kaltd/ v write a computer program
cold-boot /kauld bu:t/ v [71 load the
operating system of a computer from `cold'
(i.e. when the computer has to be switched
on first)
command-based /ka'ma:nd ,bust/ [11
a computer system which interacts with
the user by commands entered at a prompt
on the screen. See command line interface.
COMMAND.COM /ka,ma:nd 'knm/ [7]
the main part of DOS
command line interface /ka,ma:nd
lain 'intafeis/ a method of interaction with
a computer whereby the user types specific
commands in order to achieve his
requirements. This is generally regarded as
not very user-friendly, although it is often
the most efficient way of communicating
with the computer.
comment /Inment/ [4] part of a program
text included for the benefit of the human
reader and ignored by the compiler
compile /kam'pail/ v [4] interpret a source
program or a list of instructions in
symbolic language
compiler /kam'paila(r)/ n [41 a program
which converts source programs into
machine code. Each high-level language
has its own compiler.
compound document /,knmpaund
'dokjitment/ [141 an electronic document
which may contain text, photographs,
spreadsheets, audio, or graphics
compress /kam'pres/ v [141 in
multimedia, to force digitized data into a
smaller space for handling by the system
CompuServe /1nmpju:s3:v/ [3]
an online service
computational psychology
/,knmpju:,teif and sailnlad31/ [131
a discipline lying across the border of
artificial intelligence and psychology
concerned with building computer models
of human cognitive processes. It is based
on an analogy between the human mind
and computer programs.
computer /kam'pju:ta(r)/ [1] put simply, a
system that is capable of carrying out a
sequence of operations in a distinctly and
explicitly defined manner
computer centre /kam'pju:ta ,senta/ [7]
a place where there is a central computer
facility usually containing mainframes
computer game /kam'pju:ta germ/ [1]
an interactive game played against a
computer
computerize /kam'pju:taraiz/ v [1]
provide a computer to do the work of/for
something
computer language /kam'pju:ta
Jwngwid3/ [5] see programming language
conceptual schema /kan,septS ual
'ski:ma/ [10] the logical design of a
database
ikonfrans/ [3] a computerbased system enabling users to participate
in a joint activity despite being separated
in space or time
configuration /kan,figu'reqn/ [6]
the particular hardware elements and how
they are interconnected in a computer
system or network
consultant /kan'sAltant/ [6] a (computer)
expert brought in to give advice
control bus /kan'traul ,bAs/ [1] a signal
route within a computer dedicated to the
sending of control signals
control flow construct /kan,traul flu
'konstrAkt/ [4] a syntactic form in a
programming language to express the flow
of control. Common structures are 'if...
then... else...', 'while... do...', 'repeat...
until...', and 'case'.
control function /kan'traul ,fADkIn/
a function performed by the control unit
of a computer co-ordinating the internal
functions and passing commands to the
processor
control signal /kan'traul ,signal/ [2,12]
an electronic signal sending a control
message to another part of the computer
or to a robot
control unit /kan'traul ,ju:nit/ [1] one of
the two main components of the CPU. It
transmits co-ordinating control signals
and commands to the computer.
counter ikaunte(r)/ [L] a component of
the control unit which selects instructions
one at a time from memory
CPU /,si: pi: 'ju:/ [1] central processing unit
crash /krwls/ n [6] a severe failure of a
computer system that causes the hardware
or software to be restarted
cursor /13:sa(r)/ a symbol on a computer
screen that indicates the active position,
e.g. the position at which the next
character to be entered will be displayed
cut and paste /.kAt and 'peist/ [B]
a word-processing or desktop publishing
software feature which allows the user to
mark a piece of text and then move it to a
different location, not necessarily in the
same document
cyborg isatbD:g/ [11] an android with
organic structures. Cyborgs have some
physiological structures similar to human
beings.
conference
data /delta/ [1] information that has been
prepared, often in a particular format, for a
specific purpose. The term is used in
computing to distinguish information from
program instructions.
databank Tdeitabwijk/ [7] see database
database ideitabeis/ [1,10] a file or group
of files structured in such a way as to
satisfy the needs of various users and
accessed using the facilities of a database
management system
database management system
/,deltabeis 'mwnid3mant ,sistam/ [9,10]
a software system designed to handle
multiple requests for data access while at
the same time maintaining the integrity of
the data
data bus /delta ,bAs/ [1] a bus dedicated to
sending data between different parts of a
computer
data frame /delta freim/ [3] one of a
number of predefined slices into which
data may be broken for transmission
data-manipulation language /,delta
ma,mpju'leifn ,lwngwid3/ [10] a
sublanguage of a database language
providing facilities for storing, retrieving,
updating, and deleting data records
data processing /delta ,prousesnj/ [4]
the handling or manipulating of
information called data which is specially
prepared to be understood by the computer
DBMS /,di: bi: em 'es/ [9,10] database
management system
debug /,di: 'bAg/ v remove bugs from a
program
DEC /dek/ [4] Digital Equipment
Corporation
decision support system /th,si3n
sa'po:t ,sIstam/ [8] (computerized) system
designed to aid managers in day-to-day
operational decisions
declaration statement /,dekla'reif n
,steitmant/ [4] in C, the element of the
program that introduces an entity, giving
it a name and establishing its properties
dedicated idedikeitid/ [1] used
exclusively for something
delete key
,ki:/ [2] the key on a
keyboard which, when the cursor is placed
over a character, deletes it
desktop publishing /,desktop
tij/
[5] the use of a computer system to
perform many of the functions of a
printing shop, including page layout and
design, choice of fonts, and the inclusion of
illustrations. The output may be sent to a
printer or to a high quality typesetter.
detonator Tdetaneita(r)/ [7] a device used
to set off another process or event
device /di'vais/ [1] a piece of hardware
that is attached to a computer and is not
part of the main central processor (CPU)
device control /dtvais kantraul/ [3]
the use of control characters to control
external devices
dialling up /,daialnj 'Ap/ [8] using a
modem to connect a terminal or PC to a
remote computer
digit fdid3it/ a number which has only
one character: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
or 9
201
the use of discrete
digits to represent arithmetic numbers
digital signal /,c1K13101'signol/ [3]
a wave form or signal whose voltage at
any particular time will be at any one of a
group of discrete values (generally a twolevel signal)
digital transmission /,clid3itol
trwnz'alif n/ [3] the sending of digital
signals along a communications link
digitize idid3itaiz/ v [14] convert analog
signals to digital representation
digitized sound /,did3itaizd 'saund/ [8]
sound waves that have been converted
into a series of bit strings for digital
representation
DIP /dip/ [8] document image-processing
directory /,dai-, ,dfrektori/ [2] see disk
directory
disk /disk/ [2] a storage device in the form
of a circular magnetic plate in which the
information is stored via magnetic
encoding
disk directory /disk
di,rektori/ [2]
an index to the contents of a disk
disk drive /disk draiv/ [2] a device which
is capable of transmitting magnetic
impulses representing data from the disk to
the computer memory and vice versa
disk error /disk ,ero(r)/ [2] a detected (or
otherwise) error in the way that data is
stored on the surface of a magnetic disk.
Such errors are usually detected when
reading from or writing to the disk.
diskette /di' sket/ see floppy disk
display /dis'plei/ [8] see VDU
digital iclid3ital/ [3]
distributed (computer) system
/th,stribjuad (kom'pju:to) 'sistom/ [6]
the organization of processing whereby
each process is free to process local data.
The processes exchange information with
each other over a network.
document Alokjumont/ v [4] produce the
material that serves to describe a program
and make it more readily understandable
document image-processing
/,dokjamont
,prousesi1J/ [8]
a system which takes scanned images of
documents and stores them on computer
for access, rather than filing the paper
copies of the document
document processing idokjumont
,prousesig/ [14] the machine-processing,
reading, sorting, etc., of documents that
are generally readable both by humans
and computers, e.g. bank cheques
DOS /dos/ [2] disk operating system: the
generic term for the operating system
developed for IBM PCs and their clones
download iclaunloud/ v [3] send
programs or data from a central computer
to a remote terminal or PC
DR/DOS /,di: a: 'dos/ [1] Digital Research
disk operating system
202
DTP /,di: ti: 'pi:/ [5] desktop publishing
dump /dump/ v [2] in a system handling
large numbers of users' files stored on
magnetic disk, to take a periodic record of
the state of the disks that are made on
magnetic tape, in order to protect against
accidental overwriting or mechanical
failure of the disks
0
EBCDIC /'
ebsidik/ [3] extended binary
coded decimal interchange code: a
proprietary IBM character encoding
scheme based on eight bits allowing 256
characters
electronic circuit /,elektronik 'sa:lut/ [1]
a combination of electrical devices and
semiconductors that form a conducting
path
electronic mail /,elektronik 'meal/ [3,8]
messages sent between users of computer
systems, where the system is used to hold
and transport messages. Sender and
receiver need not be online at the same
time.
electronic publishing /,elektronik
'pAblif iq/ [E] the publishing of text in an
electronic format
e-mail
[3,8] electronic mail
ergonomic /,3:go'nomik/ adj [8]
describing something which is designed to
take into account the human who is to use
it
execute /' eksikju:t/ v [2] run a program in
a computer
expansion /ik'spwnfn/ [6] the addition of
extra facilities or features
expansion board /ik'spwri.j.n ,ba:d/ [6]
a printed circuit board that may be
inserted into a computer to give it extra
functionality
expansion slot /ik'spwnfn ,slot/ [2]
a spare space on the system board of a
computer to which expansion boards can
be fitted
expert system /' ekspa:t ,sistom/ [13]
a system built for problem solving which
tries to emulate the skills of a human
expert. The result of study in the field of
artificial intelligence.
external schema /ik,sta:nol 'ski:mo/ [10]
a user's permitted view of data in a
database
/fwk'simoli mo,fi:n/
a machine which will provide electronic
transmission of documents over telephone
lines
fault-tolerant ifo:It ,toloront/ [6] of a
computer system, having the ability to
recover from an error without crashing
facsimile machine
fax /forks/ n 1 [8] facsimile machine 2 the
output from a facsimile machine
fax board ifEeksbo:d/ 1E] an adaptor
board which can be put into a computer
and linked to a telephone line to replicate
the functions of a facsimile machine
directly from the computer
FDD /,ef di: 'di:/ 12] floppy disk drive
feature ifi:tf o(r)/ [1] facility provided by
an application
fibre optics ifalbar ,optiks/ [6] data
transmission using cable made of optical
fibres instead of copper wire
field /fi:Id/ [10] an item of data consisting
of a number of characters or bytes to form
a number, a name, or an address
firmware /13:mwea(r)/ [1] system
software (part of the operating system)
that is held in ROM
file /falai/ [2] information held on disk or
tape in order for it to exist beyond the time
of execution of a program. Files may hold
data, programs, text, or any other
information.
file encryption Jam] en,kripfn/ [7]
a security method whereby an algorithm is
used to scramble the data before it is
written to disk to prevent unauthorized
users reading the data directly from the
disk
fixed-format record /fikst 'fb:mwt
,reko:d/ [10] a record whose data items are
fixed in nature, in contrast to records
whose layout may change according to
the data being held
flicker ifliko(r)/ [14] on a screen, the rapid
increase and decrease of brightness
floppy (disk) /,flopi ('disk)/ [2] a flexible
magnetic disk which can be removed from
the computer. The two most common sizes
are 3-inch and 5-inch.
flowchart iflautfa:t/110] a diagram or a
sequence of steps which represent the
solution to a problem. Arrows are used to
show the sequence of events.
footprint ifutprint/ [8] the amount of
desk or floor space taken up by a computer
foreground /13:graund/ [2] describing
high-priority processing involving
interaction with the user, in an
environment that allows background tasks
format ifo:mwt/ v [2] prepare a disk for
use by a computer whereby the structure
of the pattern of information to be held on
the disk is written to the disk surface
FORTRAN (77) fib:tn.:en (sevann ,sevn)/
[4] formula translation: a programming
language widely used for scientific
computation. The '77' defines the year in
which the official standard (to which the
language conforms) was issued.
frame-grabber /'freim ,grwba(r)/ [14]
a device for capturing a still video image
and converting it into a digital form that
can be viewed on a computer screen. By
capturing a sequence of still images, it can
effectively create a moving picture
free-format /' fri: ,f3:mwt/ [10] describing
data whose structure is not pre-defined
full-motion video /,ful ,maufn
[14] captured and digitized video images
displayed on a computer screen giving the
viewer the impression of watching a
television picture.
functional language ifnukSnal
Jwiggwid3/ [4] a programming language
whose programs consist typically of sets of
unordered equations that characterize
functions and values. The values that are
characterized by the equations include the
desired results, and these values are
calculated by executing the program.
function register ifAi3kfn ,red3isto(r)/
[1] a register used to control the processing
of a function
igeitwei/ [3] a device that links
two networks in a way that is usually
visible to the network users (as opposed to
a bridge which is not visible). Gateways
may deal with differences of protocol and
naming convention when converting
between the two networks.
grammar check ignema tfek/ [5]
software that attempts to correct the
grammar of a piece of text, or offer advice
on its structure
graphical (user) interface /,gnefikal
(,ju:zor) 'intafels/ [1] a style of interaction
between the user and the computer
involving a graphics screen, icons, and
some form of pointing device such as a
mouse. See command line interface and
window.
graphics igrwfiks/ [3,15] a noncharacter based method of displaying
information on a screen, usually used for
displaying pictures. The basic unit from
which the display is built up is the pixel.
grid /grid/ [2] used for touch-screen and
pen-based computers. Voltage is sent
across the glass in horizontal and vertical
lines forming a grid.
GUI/.(131:ju:
[1] graphical user
interface
gateway
ihwka(r)/ [7] a person who
attempts to breach the security of a
computer system by access from a remote
point. This may be for amusement or for a
more sinister purpose.
hard disk /,ha:d 'disk/ [2] a fixed disk
inside a computer which may not be
removed
hacker
203
iha:dwea(r)/ [1] the computer
equipment and its peripherals
hardware interrupt /,ha:dwear
Into'rApt/ [2] see interrupt
HDD Lettf di: 'di:/ [2] hard disk drive
hexadecimal Lhekso'destmal/ [B]
arithmetic to the base 16
high-level language /ha' Jevl 'hew1/.7_03/ [4] a language in which each
instruction represents several machine
code instructions, making the notation
more easily readable by the programmer
home-shopping service /houm
,s3:vis/ [3] an online service that allows
one to purchase items by placing an
order over the network, usually by credit
card
hardware
IAL /,ai ei 'el/ [4] international algebraic
language: former name for ALGOL
IBM /,ai bi: 'em/ [1] International Business
Machines
/,ai bi: ,em
kom,pwta'bilatt/ [1] describing computers
that conform to the hardware specification
of the IBM PC and will run all the
hardware that an IBM PC will run
icon adcnn/ [1] a visual symbol or picture
used in a menu to represent a program
or a file. The program is usually
initiated by using a mouse and clicking the
mouse's button when the cursor is over
the icon.
image compression /Irntd3 kom,pref n/
[10] a technique for reducing the amount
of space that a graphics image will take to
store in computer storage
index /' Indeks/ n [8] a set of links that can
be used to locate records in a data file
index generation /' mdeks d3eno,reqn/
[5] the facility to automatically generate a
sorted alphabetical index for a document
'infected /In'fekticl/ [7] of a computer,
being inhabited by a computer virus
infector /In'fekta(r)/ [7] something that
transmits a computer virus
inference engine /Informs ,end3m/
[13] within the context of expert systems,
the part of the expert system that operates
on the knowledge base and produces
inferences
information technology Linfo.meif n
tek'nulac131/ [9] any form of technology,
incorporating computing,
telecommunications, electronics, and
broadcasting, used by people to handle
information
inference tree /Informs ,tri:/ [13]
the structure of a set of inferences which
show how a conclusion was reached
information separators /,Infa'metSn
,separettaz/ [3] control characters used to
IBM-compatibility
204
delimit the boundaries of pieces of
information
Information Services Manager
/,Info,meif n ,s 3 :VISIZ mamd3o(r)/ [8]
the head of the computer department
information system /,Infa'meif n
sistann/ [8] a computer-based system with
the defining characteristic that it provides
information to users in one or more
organizations
ink jet printer /113k d3et ,printa(r)/ [1]
a printer that produces an image by
squirting a fine jet of ink onto specially
absorbent paper
input /'input/ n [1] the information which
is presented to the computer
input /Input/ v put information to a
computer for storage or processing
input device /Input duals/ [1] any
device that allows data to be passed into
the computer
input-output /,Input 'autput / [12]
the part of a computer system or the
activity that is primarily dedicated to the
passing of data into or out of the central
processing unit
input port /Input ,p3:t/ [1] the socket into
which an input device may be plugged on
a computer
input tagging /'input ,twgn3/ [5]
a feature of word-processing software that
allows text to be pre-coded with tags so
that the correct format can be applied
automatically
instruction An'strAkfn/ [2] part of a
computer program which tells the
computer what to do at that stage
integrated circuit /nntagrettid 's3:krt/
an implementation of a particular
electronic-circuit function in which all the
individual devices required to realize the
function are fabricated on a single chip of
semiconductor
interactive nnta'rwktw/ [D] describing a
system or a mode of working in which
there is a direct response to the user's
instructions as they are input
interactive video /,Intar;,ektiv 'Inc:113u/
[9] a computerized video system used for
learning or play, in which the user
interacts with the video.
interface fintafets/ [B] a common
boundary between two systems, devices,
or programs
interface cable fin -tale's
[B]
the logic cable between the computer and
a device. Signals and data are passed over
this link.
interlaced video /,Intaleist 'vichau/ [14]
in narrow-band PAL systems, a method of
transmitting all 625 lines of a single TV
image in a fiftieth of a second, whereby
each frame of the image is split into two
fields of 312.5 lines
internal memory /rn,t3:nl'memarr/ [1]
memory held within the CPU. The main
storage or primary memory of the
computer.
internal modem /rn,t3:nl'maudem/ [8]
a modem which can be fitted inside a
computer rather than a separate piece of
equipment
internal schema /m,t3:n1 'ski:ma/ [10]
the way that the data is physically held in
a database
internal storage /m,t3:nl'sto:ric13/
see internal memory
Internet /' mtanet/ [8] an informal shared
public network linking UNIX and other
computers world-wide using the Internet
protocol (IP)
interrupt fintarApt/ n [2] a signal to the
processor that a higher priority event has
occurred and must be serviced, causing
the current sequence of events to be
temporarily suspended
I/O /.ai 'au/ input/output
I/O device /,ar 'au di,vars/ any device that
allows input or output to a computer
IP /,ar 'pi:/ [8] Internet protocol
ISDN Lar es di: 'en/ [3] Integrated Services
Digital Network: a concept developed by
PTTs providing one network to transmit
all forms of signal traffic, e.g. voice and
data over the same lines
ISO /,ar es 'art/ International Standards
Organisation
IT /,ar 'ti:/ [9] information technology
an input device
used in computer games for controlling the
cursor or some other symbol in its
movement around a screen
junction box /' cl3A13kS n ,bilks/ [6] a box
attached to a network which attaches a
device to the network
joy stick fdpistik/ [1]
/ker/ [1] kilobyte: unit of measure of
memory or disk space in thousands of
bytes. 1 kilobyte is 1024 bytes.
keyboard Tki:b:d/ [1] an input device
like a typewriter for entering characters.
The depression of a key causes a signal to
be transmitted to the computer.
keyboard lock / ki:bo:d lok/ [7]
a security method whereby the screen is
cleared and the keyboard is locked after a
pre-set period of inactivity to prevent
unauthorized use
key number /' ki: ,nAmba(r)/ [8] a unique
number generated to identify a record
knowledge base /' nohd3 ,bens/ within
the context of expert systems, a collection
of knowledge that has been formalized into
K
the appropriate representation with which
to perform reasoning, usually a set of rules
about the subject
LAN /hen/ [5] local area network
laptop ilwptop/ [2] see portable computer
laser printer /lerza ,printa(r)/ [1] a non-
impact printer in which the paper is
charged electrostatically with an image of
the whole page to be printed. This attracts
dry ink powder which is then baked on to
the paper.
LaserWriter flerza,rarta(r)/ [5] a laser
printer manufactured by Apple
Corporation
LCD /,elsi: 'di:/ [2] liquid crystal display
linkage editor flmluct3 ,edrta(r)/ [4]
a systems program which fetches
required systems routines and links them
to the application program object
module
liquid crystal display /jrkwid ,krtstal
dis'pler/ [2] one type of technology that is
used to produce flat monochrome
computer screens. Such screens do not
have their own internal illumination.
LISP /lisp/ [4] list processing: a
programming language designed for the
manipulation of non-numeric data. It is
commonly used in artificial intelligence
research.
load module /laud ,modjual/ [4]
the program which is directly executable
by the computer
local area network /1aukal ,earn
'netw3:k/ [5,6] a network linking a
number of nodes in the same area, limited
usually to a building or sites up to a
kilometre apart
logical operation /Jodykal opa'rerf n/
[1] an operation on logical values
producing a Boolean result of true or
false
logical record Rodykal 'reko:d/ [10] the
collection of data in a database relating to
one subject
logical unit /Jodykal 'ju:rut/ [1] see
arithmetic logic unit
LOGO flaugau/ [4] a programming
language developed for use in teaching
young children
log on /,log 'on/ [2] identify oneself to a
computer system in order to gain access to
it
loop /lu:p/ n [4] a sequence of instructions
that is repeated until a certain condition is
reached
low-level language /Jou Jevl
'1wwwx13/ a language such as assembly
language in which each instruction has
one corresponding instruction in machine
code
205
206
Mac /mwk/ [5] Apple Macintosh computer
machine code /ma'Si:n ,kottd/ [4] the
code actually executed by the computer,
not easily readable by the programmer
machine translation /ma,fi:n
trwnileif n/ [13] the use of computers to
translate natural languages
magnetic card reader /mwg,nettk 'ku:d
,ri:da(r)/ [1] a device for reading the data
held on the magnetic strip on a card such
as a credit card
magnetic tape /mxg,nettk 'tell)/ [4]
a strip of plastic coated with magnetic
oxide used to store information
sequentially. Tapes may be hundreds of
feet long.
mail analyst /melt ,wrialist/ [8] someone
who is responsible for directing mail,
which has been scanned using a DIP
system, to the correct recipient
mail merge /melt m3:d3/ [5] a software
feature which allows the user to read in a
file of names and addresses and create
personalized' letters for mail shots
mainframe (computer) imeinfreim
(kom,pju:ta(r))/ [1] a large computer
which requires a special environment for
temperature and humidity in order to run
it. This is in contrast to minicomputer or
microcomputer.
main storage /,mein 'stoxic-13/ [1] see
internal memory
management
information
system
/,mxmd3mant ,mfo'meif n ,sistam/ [8]
a (computerized) system for providing
information to management
maths function itriOs ,fAt3kf n/ [5]
a software feature which allows simple
mathematical functions to be carried out
(such as totalling columns)
Mb /megabatt/ [1] megabyte
megabyte /' megabatt/ [1]one million
bytes: unit of measure for the amount of
memory or disk storage on a computer
megaflop imegaflnp/ [12] a million
floating point instructions per second.
Floating point notation is a representation
of real numbers that allows both very large
and small numbers to be conveniently
represented. A floating point instruction is
an arithmetic operation on two floating
point numbers.
memory /memon/ [1] a device or medium
that can retain information for later
retrieval. It is usually used to refer to the
internal storage of a computer that can be
directly addressed by operating
instructions.
memory board imemart ,b3:d/ a circuit
board which contains additional memory
for a computer
menu-driven imenju:,drivon/ [14]
describing a program that obtains input by
displaying a list of options (the menu) from
which the user indicates his choice
message-base posting imestd3 ,bets
,poustiti/ [3] another form of e-mail
MHz imegah3:ts/ [1]MegaHertz: a
measure of the speed of a computer's CPU.
In millions it measures the number of
processing cycles performed by the CPU.
micro /maikrau/ [4] see microcomputer
microchip /Thaikrautf ip/ [1]
a semiconductor device used to build the
hardware of a computer
microcomputer /,maikraukam'pju:ta(r)/
[2] a computer whose CPU is a
microprocessor semiconductor chip
microprocessor /,maikratf prousesa(r)/
[1] a semiconductor chip that forms the
central processor of a computer
Microsoft imatkrousoft/ [4] a computer
software company
minicomputer /rninikam,pju:13(r)/ [B]
originally a computer contained within a
single equipment cabinet. Compared with
mainframes they are usually smaller and
slower. The word is no longer used very
specifically since the advent of
microcomputers.
Minitel iminite1/131 a French online
system originally provided by the PTT to
provide access to French telephone
directories. The service has been expanded
since its original introduction.
modem imaudem/ [3] modulator and
demodulator: a device that converts the
digital bit stream used by the computer
into an analog signal suitable for
transmission over a telephone line
(modulation), and then converts it back to
digital (demodulation)
monitor imnnita(r)/ [8] see VDU
monochrome imnnaukraum/ FBI
describing a screen with a single-colour
display
mouse /maus/ [1] a device used to point at
a location on a computer screen. It is
moved around by hand on a flat surface.
The movements on the surface correspond
to movements on the screen. The mouse
has one or more buttons to initiate an
action on the screen.
MPC /,em pi: 'si:/ [14] multimedia personal
computer: Microsoft's minimum
specifications for hardware to be used for
multimedia purposes
MS/DOS /,em es 'dos/ [1] Microsoft disk
operating system
MT /,em 'ti:/ [13] machine translation
multimedia /,mAltfmi:dia/ [5,14]
an application of computer technology
that allows the capture, manipulation, and
presentation of different types of data, e.g.
text, graphics, video, animation, sound,
etc.
/,mAltipl 'ru:loz/ [5]
recognition: a process in which a machine
rulers to define margins and tab settings
scans, recognizes, and encodes
multiplexor imAlti,plekso(r)/ [3] a device
information printed or typed in
that merges information from several
alphanumeric characters
communications channels into one
octal /' uktol/ [B] arithmetic to the base 8
channel. It is a two-way device and is also
off line /,uflam/ describing any part of a
used to separate out the combined signal
computer system which operates
into the individual channels.
independently of the central processing
multiprogramming /,inAlti'prougrwmu3/
unit
[2] see multi-tasking
online, on line /,Dn'lain/ [3] used of
multi sync monitor /,mAltt 'sink
computer services that are accessed from a
,monfio(r)/ [14] a video monitor that can
terminal interactively
synchronize a range of video devices to a
online service Lonlatn 'S3: ViS/ [3]
common time-base
a public database or bulletin board which
multi tasking /Junin 'ta:slag/ [2] used of
can be accessed over a computer or
computers capable of running more than
telephone network
one program at the same time, although
operating environment /' uporeMD
on most only one program has control and
in,vatoronmant/ [5] the hardware and
is executing at any given moment
operating system being used
multi user imAlti,ju:za(r)/ [1,10]
operating system ropore►tio ,sistom/
describing computer systems which allow
[1,2] the set of programs that jointly
access by more than one user
control the system resources and the
simultaneously
processes using those resources on a
computer
operator / oporetto(r)/ 1 [C] someone
responsible for running a computer
NCR /,en si: 'a:/ [2] National Cash Register,
(usually a mainframe) 2 [4] see relational
now a computer company
operator
network inetw3±/ [1,6] a system which
optical character reader roptikol
connects up a number of computers and
'kEerokto(r) ,ri:do(r)/ [K] a device which
communications devices to enable
scans, recognizes, and encodes
messages and data to be passed between
information printed or typed in
those devices
alphanumeric characters
network compatible /,netw3:k
OS /,ou 'es/ [2] operating system
kom'pwtobl/ [5] describing software that
OS/2 /,au es 'tu:/ [4] an operating system
can be run on a network with shared files
for IBM PCs
rather than as a stand alone piece of PC
outliner fautlaino(r)/ [5] a writing aid to
software
enable the structure of a document to be
network traffic /'netw3:k ,trwfik/ [6]
worked out in advance and used as a guide
the data transmitted around a network
when writing the detailed document
node /noud/ either a point in a network
output /output/ J-1 [1] the result of
where communications lines are
performing arithmetic and logical
interconnected, or where a workstation or
operations on data. It can be displayed on
a mainframe computer is attached
screen or transmitted by the computer.
notation /nou'tegn/ a system of symbols
output /,aut'put/ v transmit processed data
notebook /'noutbuk/ [2] see portable
to a physical medium such as a printer or
computer
disk drive
numeric /,nju:'mertk/ adj [1] describing
output device /' autput di,vais/ [1]
data which only contains numbers
a device which transmits or displays
processed data, e.g. a printer, disk drive, or
VDU screen
output port /' autput ,po:t/ [1] the socket
object module rad3ekt ,mudjuol/ [4]
into which an output device may be plugged
see object program
object oriented /,obd3ekt '3:rientid/ [4]
describing a computer architecture in
which all processes, files, I/O operations,
package frowlod3/ [4] see software
etc., are represented as objects (i.e. data
package
structures in memory that may be
paint software ipeint ,suftweo(r)/ [5]
manipulated by hardware and software).
software that allows the user to create
The IBM System 38 is an example of an
graphics images using techniques that
object-oriented architecture system.
emulate painting and drawing
object program /' obd3ekt ,prougrwm/
[4] the result of converting source code
into machine code using a compiler
OCR /,au si: 'a:/ [8] optical character
multiple rulers
-
-
-
-
-
0
-
-
207
PAL /px1/ [1 4]
the European standard for
television and video systems requiring a
vertical refresh rate of 50kHz
palmtop /pa:mtnp/ [8] see portable
computer
parallel fpwrolel/ 1 [1] describing the
transfer of data across the interface by
having one connection per bit of a data
word, e.g. for 8 bits there would be 8
connections in parallel. The control signals
are also carried on individual connections
in parallel. See serial and bit. 2 [12]
describing computers with more than one
central processing unit which work in
parallel to solve a problem simultaneously
parameter /po'rwmffo(r)/ [4] information
which is passed to a program subroutine
parse /pa:z/ v [6] analyse the syntax of an
input string
PASCAL /pws'kw1/ [4] a programming
language designed as a tool to assist the
teaching of programming as a systematic
discipline
password /pa:sw3:d/ [7] a method of
security in which the user has to enter a
unique character string before gaining
access to a computer system
PC /,pi: 'si:/ personal computer
PDP II /,pi: di: pi: 'tu:/ a DEC minicomputer
pen-based computer /,pen beast
kom'pjuffo(r)/ [2,8] a computer which
uses a pointing device like a pen as an
input device
performance /po'fo:mons/ [10] the speed
of a computer or computer system
peripheral /po'nforol/ [1] an input or
output device attached to a computer
peripheral bus /po'nforal ,bAs/ [1]
port /po:t/ [1]
a connection point that
allows I/O devices to be connected to the
internal bus of a microprocessor
portable /po:tobl/ [4] describing programs
which can run on a variety of hardware or
under a variety of operating systems
portable (computer) /,po:tobl
kom'pjuffo(r)/ 1 [2] the generic term for
any microcomputer that is designed to be
carried around 2 [2] the largest type of
computer designed to be carried around. It
must be connected to the mains electricity
supply. Other smaller types include
laptops, notebooks, clipboards, and
palmtops (or personal organizers). These
have an internal power source.
primary memory /,praimori 'memori/ [1]
see internal memory
printer /iInnta(r)/ [1] an output device
which changes output data into printed
form
printout /'printaut/ the printed pages
which are output from a computer
print-to-tape device /,print to 'teip
di,vais/ [1 4] a device which allows
computer-generated images to be
recorded to video for play-back on a TV
monitor
processing fprousesiD/ [1] the
performing of arithmetic or logical
operations on information which has been
input to a computer
processor /prouseso(r)/ [1] see CPU
program /prougrm/ [1] a list of
instructions which are used by the
computer to perform the user's
requirements
programmer /prougrwma(r)/ [4]
someone who writers computer programs
programming /prougrwm.u3/ [4] the act
of writing a computer program
the communications link to which
peripherals are attached
physical record /fizikol 'reko:d/ [10]
the collection of data transferred as a unit
pirate /patorat/ v [7] use software that has
programming language
been copied in breach of copyright
/prougr✓m113 J✓i3gwid3/ [4] a
pixel ipilcsal/ [2] an individual dot on a
notation for the precise description of
computer screen. The computer controls
computer programs proprietary
the colour and brightness of each pixel.
/pra'praiotri/ [8] describing a protocol or
PL/I /,pi: el 'wnn/ [4] programming
standard developed and owned by a
language I. A programming language
particular manufacturer
developed by the US IBM users' group,
protocol /proutoknl/ [3] an agreement
implementing the best features of COBOL,
that covers the procedures used to
FORTRAN, and ALGOL.
exchange information between coplatform /pIxtfo:m/ [1 4] a generic term
operating entities
for different types of computer system (e.g. PTT /,pi: ti: 'ti:/ [3] Postal, Telegraph, and
PC, Mac, workstation, etc.)
Telephone Administration, the national
plotter /pluto(r)/ [K] an output device for
government communications organization
translating information from a computer
of many countries
into pictorial or graphical form on paper or public database /,pAblik 'dettobets/ [1]
a similar medium
a database which is accessible over a
plug-(and-play) compatibility /,plug
public network
and
kompueto,bilatt/ [1 4] the ability to
connect one manufacturer's hardware
directly to another manufacturer's
query /'kwiari/ [6] a request for
hardware
information from a database
208
/reidi' elf n ,skri:n/ [8]
a screen placed in front of a VDU to protect
a user from possibly harmful radiation
from the screen
RAM /rwm/ [1] random-access memory:
this is memory which can be read and
written to. The basic element is a single
cell capable of storing one bit of
information. Each cell has a unique
address in memory and so can be accessed
in random order.
raw data /,ro: 'delta/ [2] data which has
not been interpreted
real-time program /'real taim
,praugrwm/ [2] a program that interacts
with the users in such a way that the
timing of the interaction is significant. This
is usually because the input corresponds to
some movement in the physical world and
the output has to relate to the same
movement.
record /' reko:d/ [10] a collection of data
handled together in movements to and
from storage. Files held in storage are
frequently treated as sequences of
records.
refresh rate /raref ,rest/ [14] see vertical
refresh rate
register /' red3ista(r)/ [1] a group of
devices that are used to store information
within a computer for high-speed access.
Some registers may be used as counters.
relational operator /ri,leilanl
'apareita(r)/ [4] a symbol representing an
operation that compares two values and
returns a truth value. Operators include
`greater than...', 'equal to...', and 'less
than...'.
remote device /ri'maut di,vais/ [6]
a device connected over a WAN
radiation screen
repetitive-strain injury in,petitiv
'street ,Indjuri/ [8] a medical condition
apparently caused by using a keyboard in
an inappropriate position. The symptoms
are that the muscles in the lower arm and
fingers may seize up.
response /ri'spons/ [61 the elapsed time
between an action by a computer system
and the receipt of some form of response
from the system
ring network /rip ,netw3:k/ [6]
a network constructed as a loop of
unidirectional links between nodes
robot /' raubot/ [10] a programmable
device consisting of mechanical
manipulators and sensory organs. The
main goal of robotics research is to provide
the robot with an artificial eye and to use
visual perception to guide a mechanical
arm in a flexible manner.
robotics /rau'botiks/ [11] a discipline
(lying across the border between artificial
intelligence and mechanical engineering)
which is concerned with building robots
ROM /rum/ [1] read-only memory: this is
memory used for storage of data that
cannot ever be modified. The memory
contents are permanently built into the
device when it is manufactured.
RS/6000 /,a:r es siks 'Oauzand/ [14]
a model of IBM computer which is UNIX
based
RSI /,a:r es 'ai/ repetitive-strain injury
tifiCr
satellite i'swtalait/ [9] in communications
technology, a man-made device in orbit
round the Earth used to relay back
telephone messages or radio and TV
signals from another part of the Earth
scan /skwn/ n [8] a scanned image
scan /skwn/ v [8] process a document
through a scanner
scan converter /skwn kan,v3:ta(r)/ [14]
a device for converting the vertical refresh
rate of video signals (50 kHz) to the
vertical refresh rate of 60kHz or more used
by computer systems
scanner / skwna(r)/ n [8] an input device
which reads images on paper using a
photoelectric cell and produces a computer
graphic file as output. The image scanned
may be a bar code, a picture, or a piece of
text.
scan rate fskwn reit/ [14] see vertical
refresh rate
scramble / skraembl/ v jumble up a string
so that it can only be read after decoding
screen /skri:n/ [10] the part of a visual
display unit on which the program, data,
and graphics may be seen
secondary memory Lsekandri 'memaril
[L] storage space which is outside the main
memory of the computer. It can be in the
form of either sequential tapes or randomaccess disks.
security reporting /sajaarati ri,po:tig/
[7] feature of a security system which
reports, to an administrator, attempted
breaches to the security of a system
security system /si'kjuarati ,sistam/ [7]
a system which controls access to a
computer and maintains the security of
that computer
semiconductor /semikan'dAkta(r)/ [J]
a material whose electrical conductivity
increases with temperature and is
intermediate between metals and
insulators
sensor csensa(r)/ n [12] an electronic
device to detect movement
sequence control register Lsi:kwans
kan'traul ,redysta(r)/ [1] a register which
controls the sequence in which operations
are performed by the computer
209
210
/st,kwenSI devals/
a device such as a magnetic tape drive
which permits information to be written
to or read from in a fixed sequence
only
serial isfariall describing the transfer of
data one bit at a time. Control signals are
also passed in sequence with the data.
service technician /s3:vis tek,nifn/ [8]
an engineer who repairs computers
session /sefn/ [6] a period during which
two computers are linked
shared-line /lead 'lain/ [3] describing the
use of a telephone line to transmit more
than one set of data at a time
shield /JIM/ n [7] see virus shield
shield /find/ v [10] protect
signal lines /'signal janiz/ [1] cables over
which a computer control signal and data
may be passed
signature /sIgnatf o(r)/ [7] see virus
signature
sign off /,sain 'of/ log off a computer
system
sign up /,sain 'Ap/ [8] log on to a computer
system
silicon /silikan; [J] a non-metallic
element with semiconductor
characteristics
Silicon Valley /,silikan 'veeli/ [E] area of
California where there are many computer
technology companies
slot /slot/ [14] see expansion slot
Smalltalk ismo:Ito:k/ [4] an objectoriented language, an object-oriented
environment, and a library of objects first
developed at the Xerox Palo Alto Research
Centre
smart card /sma:tka:d/ [3] a card
containing a microchip which can be used
to store large amounts of information
software /snftwea(r)/ [4] a general term
for any computer programis)
software base /softwea ,beis/ [2]
the collection of applications written for a
particular hardware and software
environment
software developer isfiftwea
di,velopa(r)/ [5] someone who writes
software
sequential device
software house /spftwea ,haws/ [2]
a company that specializes in writing
application software
software package /snftwea ,pwkid3/
[5] a series of programs written for a
generic application, e.g. a payroll package,
which can be adapted by the user to meet
individual needs
source file /so:s fatal/ [4] see source
program
source program /so:s ,proogrwm/ [4]
the original high-level language program
which has to be converted to machine
code before it may be executed
spell check dictionary /spel tf ek
,dikf anri/ [5] a list of correctly spelt words
used by word-processing software to
validate the spelling in a document
spooling /spu:lni/ [C] the process of
storing output temporarily on disk or tape
until it is ready to be printed
spreadsheet /spredf i:t/ [2] a program
that manipulates tables consisting of rows
and columns of cells and displays them on
a screen. The value in a numerical cell is
either typed in or is calculated from values
in other cells. Each time the value of a cell
is changed the values of dependent cells
are recalculated.
SQL /es kju: 'el/ [6] structured query
language
standard /stwndod/ [5] a publicly
available definition of a hardware or
software component resulting from
national, international, or industry
agreement
star network /sta: ,netw3:k/ [6] a simple
network topology with all links connected
directly to a single central node
statement terminator /stearnant
,t3:minefta(r)/ [4] a special character
which indicates the end of a statement in a
programming language
string /strin/ [2] a sequence of bytes
structured programming /,strAktf ad
'prougnemin/ [4] a method of
programming development that makes
extensive use of abstraction in order to
factorize the problem and give increased
confidence that the resulting program is
correct
structured query language /,strAktf ad
,lwngwid3/ [6] a high-level
language for writing routines to query
relational databases. Originally developed
by IBM in 19 7 3 , it is now an ANSI
standard.
style sheet istatal f i:t/ [5] a wordprocessing software feature that ensures a
uniform style within a document
stylus /stafalas/ [1] an electronic I/O
device that is used to draw or write on the
screen
subprogram /sAb,prougrwm/ [4] a small
program called by another program to
perform a specific function
support group /sa'po:t ,gru:p/ [8]
a group of staff who are specialists in a
particular piece of software
switched network /,switf t 'netw3:k/ [6]
a network topology in which a central
switching device is used to connect devices
directly
synchronous istokranas/ 1 [6] taking
place at precisely the same time 2
involving a type of computer control
whereby sequential events take place at
fixed times
synchronous orbit satellite
/,siokronas 'D:bit ,sEetalait/ [6] a satellite
that orbits the Earth at a controlled speed
so that it maintains its position in relation
to the Earth
system board /' sistom bo:d/ [2] the main
circuit board of a computer containing the
microprocessor chip. Other devices will be
attached to this board.
systems analysis isistamz a,ru✓las►s/
[K] the activity performed by an analyst
systems analyst is►stomz ,Lenalist/ see
analyst
systems manager is►stomz
,rrnenid3o(r)/ [7] a person responsible for
the management and administration of a
computer system
systems program isistomz ,prougrwm/
[4] a program written for a particular type
of hardware. Examples are operating
systems and compilers. They are usually
provided by the manufacturer.
systems routine isistamz ru:,ti:n/ [4]
utility programs provided by the computer
operating system. These might be used for
converting numerical data into different
formats, or performing operations on
dates.
systems software /' sistomz ,suftwea(r)/
[J] see systems program
itelb1/ [10] used to refer to data held
in a database in a conceptual schema
which is a flat two-dimensional table
table of contents Lte►bl ov 'kuntents/
[5] a word-processing software feature
which can automatically generate a table
of contents for a document
tag /tLeg/ [5] a code used in word
processing or DTP to denote a feature of a
document, such as bold type, the start of a
paragraph, or an index word
tape drive / teip dra ►/ [L] a device on
which a magnetic tape is mounted in order
that information may be transmitted from
the tape to the memory of the computer or
vice versa
template itemple►t/ [2] a pre shaped
pattern used as a guide
terminal it3:minal/ [2] a VDU screen and
keyboard used to interact with a
computer, usually with no computing
capacity of its own
test suite /test swi:t/ [13] a set of
sentences or phrases in a given language
designed to test the effectiveness of a
machine translation system
token /' toukn/ [6] a unique sequence of
bits granting permission to a user to send
on a network
trackball itnekb3:11 [I] an upside down
mouse. It consists of a ball supported on
table
-
bearings so that it is free to rotate in any
direction. The ball is rotated by the
operator to control the cursor and, as with
a mouse, there are buttons to click to
initiate an action.
transaction /trEen'zwkfn/ [10] a logical
unit of work for a database
transaction processing system
/tnenz,ikkfn 'prousesin ,sistom/ [8]
a system which processes the operational
transactions of an organization
transistor /trEen'z►sto(r)/ [F]
a semiconductor device having three
terminals that are attached to electrode
regions within the device
transmission /tnenz'mqn/ [6]
the sending of a message
transmitter /traenz'mito(r)/ [10] a device
for sending a radio message
trigger itr►ga(r)/ v [7] set a process in
motion
turnkey /'t3:nki:/ [J] describing a system
in which hardware and software have
been delivered by the supplier so that the
whole system can be put to immediate use
type declaration statement /Amp
dekla'reiSn ,steitmont/ [4] see declaration
statement
El
UNIX /'ju:niks/ [4] an operating system
originally developed by Bell laboratories in
1971 for DEC PDP I I minicomputers.
UNIX has become very popular and is now
implemented on a wide range of hardware.
update /Ap'dert/ v [2] modify data held by
a computer system
upgrade [Apgre►d/ n [5] a later version of
software
upgrade /Ap'gre►d/ v [1] replace or
modernize software with a later version of
the same software
user fju:zo(r)/ [6] an individual or group
making use of the output of a computer
system
user friendly /ju:zo 'frendli/ [E]
describing interactive systems that are
designed to make the user's task as easy as
possible by providing feedback
user interface /ju:zar 'intofeis/ [6]
the means of communicating between a
human being and a computer
utility program nu:'tiloti ,prougrEem/ the
collection of programs that form part of
every computer system and provide a
variety of generally useful functions
-
/' veonobl/ a [4] a string of
characters used to denote a value stored
within a computer which may be changed
during execution
variable
211
VDU /,vi: di: 'ju:/ [1] visual display unit: the
screen of a computer terminal or PC
vertical refresh rate /,v3:tildn'fref reit/
[14] the number of times per second that
an image is written on a TV or computer
screen, measured in kiloHerz
VGA /,vi: d3i: 'et/ [14] video graphics
array: a standard for colour monitors
developed by IBM for their PS/2 range of
PCs
virtual reality /,v3:tjual rewlatt/ [10,12]
an attempt to create an artificial world
within a computer in which the user can
(apparently) move about. This is usually
achieved by the user wearing a helmet
which covers the eyes and ears and sends
visual and oral signals to the user. Special
gloves allow the user to manipulate
computer-generated items.
virtual storage /,v3:tjual 'sto:nd3/
when disks are connected to a computer
and used as an extension of internal
memory in order to increase the capacity
of primary storage
virus /vataras/ [7] a self-replicating
program, usually designed to damage the
system on which it lands
virus checking program ivataras
,tf ekiri ,praugrEem/ [7] a program that is
used to detect the presence of a virus in
memory or on disk
virus scanner /' vaiaras ,skwna(r)/ [7]
a program that detects viruses which have
already infected a computer
virus shield ivataras fild/ [7] a program
that detects viruses as they attempt to
infect the computer
virus signature ivataras ,signatla(r)/ [7]
the particular features of each computer
virus that enable it to be recognized
!12
/' \Tots rekag,m1n/ [8]
the technology that allows a computer to
interpret human speech. This is a part of
artificial intelligence studies.
voltmeter i'valtmi:ta(r)/ [2] a meter for
measuring voltage
VR /,vi: 'a:/ [12] virtual reality
voice recognition
WAN /waen/ [6] wide area network
war game /'wo: gem/ [12] a computer
game which emulates warfare
wide area network /,waid earta
'netw3:k/ [6] a network linking nodes over
long distances
window iwindau/ [1] a type of graphical
user interface. Separate tasks are
represented by a rectangular portion of the
screen called a window. A window may
display a menu, and an option on the
menu is selected by use of a mouse.
word processing /' w3:d prausesm/ [5]
the use of a computer to compose
documents with facilities to edit, re-format,
store, and print documents with
maximum flexibility
work scheduling /w3:k Jedjualm/ [2]
the process of allocating computer
resources between different programs
running on a multi-tasking computer
workstation / w3:ksteif n/ [14]
a powerful single-user computer, usually
attached to a network
worm /w3:m/ [7] an entirely selfreplicating virus which is not hardware
dependent
write-protect tab /,raft pra'tekt twb/ [7]
a notch on a floppy disk which may be
covered to prevent the disk being written to