- Final Report -
RAPID APPRAISAL
ON
LIVELIHOOD ANALYSIS
AND
NEED ASSESSMENT
OF
HIGHLY MARGINALIZED JANAJATIS (HMJ)
Submitted by:
Dr. Krishna B. Bhattachan
Dr. Om Gurung
Dr. Sumitra Manandhar Gurung
Narendra Lal Kayastha
Jitpal Kirant
Amrit Yonjan-Tamang
Submitted to:
Janjati Empowerment Project (JEP)
Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN)
Nayabato, Dhobighat
Lalitpur, Nepal
November 2005
ii
Research Team
Team leader:
1. Dr. Krishna B. Bhattachan (Sociologist)
Team Members:
1. Dr. Om Gurung (Anthropologist)
2. Dr. Sumitra Manandhar Gurung (Geographer)
3. Narendra Lal Kayastha (Economist)
4. Jitpal Kirant (Sociologist and Demograpghery)
5. Amrit Yonjan-Tamang (Linguist)
Senior Research Assistants
1. Madan Ale
2. Bhairab Baramu
3. Dilip Kumar Baske
4. Chhongduk Bhote
5. Dil B. Chepang
6. Narendra Gurung
7. Salma Hasda
8. Sangita Hayu
9. Phool Kumari Hemran
10. Bhim Kisan
11. Pema Dorje Lama
12. Bir B. Lapcha
13. Suna Rana Magar
14. Rashmi Thapa Magar
15. Dhan B. Majhi
16. Lokendra Meche
17. Bandhan K. Munda
18. Kumar Rai
19. Laxmi Devi Rai
20. Puspa Raj Rai
21. Thakche Sherpa (Thudam)
22. Indra Tamang
23. Mani Kumar Thami
24. Sheela Thapa (Rai)
Junior Research Assistants
1. Jamune Bankaria
2. Juppa lenduk Bhote
3. Dallu Prakash Bote
4. Durga Hasda
5. Sarita Hayu
6. Badirnath Hemran
7. Bhimeswor Karki
8. Dasrath Khadiya
9. Chandra K. Kisan
10. Jogi Kisan
11. Dhiran Kisan
12. Harihar Kusbadiya
13. Prem B. Kusunda
14. Gyani Singh Kusunda
15. Chhiring Ghurme Lama
16. Buvan Singh Lapcha
17. Bishnu Lapcha
18. Prem B. Lapcha
19. Bibek Majhi
20. Gore Majhi
21. Ram B. Majhi
22. Mukesh K. Mandal
23. Ganga Prasad Meche
24. Rosani Meche
25. Santalal Meche
26. Sunilal Meche
27. Chotka Munda
28. Gannu Munda
29. Sangalu Munda
30. Uttam Munda
31. Hariram Radh
32. Dambar Raji
33. Kalicharan Raji
34. Krishna Raji
35. Manoj Raji
36. Shaym Raji
37. Sandhya Sardar
38. Shyamlal sardar
39. Kasangla Sherpa
40. Subhas Surel
41. Prlahad Surel
42. Laxmi Thami
43. Puskar Thami
44. Sukawa Thami
45. Chandra Dev Urau
46. Rabilal Urau
iii
iv
Acknowledgements
First of all, we are grateful to all the respondents and organizations of 24 Highly
Marginalized Janjatis (HMJs) for sharing with us their valuable information about their
respective community, providing necessary help and support to carry out fieldwork
successfully.
We thank all Senior and Junior Research Assistants of HMJs for being part of the Study
Team and for successful completion of fieldwork in spite of adverse political and security
situation during the fieldwork period.
Last but not the least, we thank Janjati Empowerment Project (JEP) and Nepal Federation of
Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) for giving us an opportunity to carry out this need
assessment study of (HMJs). Our special thanks goes to Dr. Chaitannya Subba, National
Program Manager of JEP for his help, cooperation and timely inputs throughout the study
period. Other staffs of JEP, specially Sangram Singh Lama, Project Coordinator (Economic
and Social development), also deserve thanks for their cooperation.
The main reasons for some delay in completion if this study in schedule time includes
expanded fieldwork period due to fledgling security and political situation, including Bandhs
("closedowns") and its subsequent impacts on team members to use expanded time period for
data processing, analysis and report write-up due to their international visits and/or prior
commitments on other assignments. We highly appreciate JEP-NEFIN for using Team
Leader and Members' verbal and written (draft report) suggestions/recommendation for 24
HMJs in implementing some of the urgent programs in their respective areas, and also for
their patience to wait for the final report.
The research team, in close consultation with JEP-NEFIN, jointly prepared Introduction &
Methodology. Dr. Om Gurung is the principal author of reports on (1) Santhal, (2) Raji, (3)
Kisan, and (4) Raute. Dr. Sumitra Manandhar Gurung is the principal author of reports on (1)
Lapcha, (2) Munda, (3) Meche, (4) Khadiya, and (5) Jhnagad. Narendra Lal Kayastha is the
principal author of reports on (1) Thudam, (2) Lhomi, (3) Dhanuk, (4) Bankaria, and (5)
Baramu. Jitpal Kirant is the principal author of reports on (1) Siyar, (2) Kusunda, (3)
Kusbadia, (4) Chepang, and (5) Bote. Amrit Yonjan-Tamang the principal author of reports
on (1) Surel, (2) Thami, (3) Hayu, (4) Majhi, and (5) Danuwar. Dr. Krishna B. Bhattachan is
the principal author of the Final Chapter-Conclusion & Recommendations. Each author
benefited enormously from frequent discussions among the Team Leader/Members, and
acknowledges feedback from other authors in enriching the report.
v
vi
CONTENTS
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................. v
List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................... viii
Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... x
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................................... xi
PART – 1 ................................................................................................................................................ 1
INTRODUCTION & METHODLOGY ................................................................................................. 1
PART – 2 ................................................................................................................................................ 9
REPORTS ............................................................................................................................................... 9
MOUNTAIN ......................................................................................................................................... 11
2.1. LHOMI - SHINGSA ...................................................................................................................... 13
2.2. SIYAR............................................................................................................................................ 20
2.3. THUDAM ...................................................................................................................................... 27
HILL ..................................................................................................................................................... 35
2.4. BANAKARIYA ............................................................................................................................. 37
2.5. BARAMU ...................................................................................................................................... 43
2.6. CHEPANG..................................................................................................................................... 51
2.7. HAYU ............................................................................................................................................ 57
2.8. KUSUNDA .................................................................................................................................... 62
2.9. LAPCHA........................................................................................................................................ 66
2.10. RAUTE ........................................................................................................................................ 72
2.11. SUREL ......................................................................................................................................... 75
2.12. THAMI ........................................................................................................................................ 82
INNER TERAI...................................................................................................................................... 87
2.13. BOTE ........................................................................................................................................... 89
2.14. DANUAR .................................................................................................................................... 94
2.15. MAJHI ......................................................................................................................................... 99
2.16. RAJI ........................................................................................................................................... 105
TERAI (MADHESI) ........................................................................................................................... 107
2.17. DHANUK .................................................................................................................................. 109
2.18. JHANGAD/DHANGAD/URAU ............................................................................................... 115
2.19. KHADIYA ................................................................................................................................. 122
2.20. KISAN ....................................................................................................................................... 130
2.21. KUSBADIYA ............................................................................................................................ 136
2.22. MECHE...................................................................................................................................... 142
2.23. MUNDA .................................................................................................................................... 153
2.24. SATAR/SANTHAL ................................................................................................................... 163
PART 3 ............................................................................................................................................... 171
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................................................................... 171
PART – 4 ........................................................................................................................................... 183
ANNEXES .......................................................................................................................................... 183
Annex-1. Training Schedule ............................................................................................................... 185
Annex-2. Tables .................................................................................................................................. 190
vii
List of Tables
Page
Table 1.1.
Table 2.1.1.
Table 2.1.2.
Table 2.1.3.
Table 2.1.4.
Table 2.1.5.
Table 2.2.1.
Table 2.2.2.
Table 2.2.3.
Table 2.2.4.
Table 2.2.5.
Table 2.3.1.
Table 2.3.2.
Table 2.3.3.
Table 2.3.4.
Table 2.3.5.
Table 2.5.1.
Table 2.5.2.
Table 2.5.3.
Table 2.5.4.
Table 2.5.5.
Table 2.6.1.
Table 2.7.1
Table 2.7.2.
Table 2.11.1.
Table 2.11.2.
Table 2.11.3.
Table 2.11.4.
Table 2.12.1.
Table 2.12.2.
Table 2.13.1.
Table 2.13.2.
Table 2.14.1.
Table 2.14.2.
Table 2.14.3.
Table 2.15.1.
Table 2.15.2.
Table 2.15.3.
Table 2.17.1.
Table 2.17.2.
Table 2.18.1.
Study areas by HMJs
Population by districts and VDCs
Percentage of Lhomi-Shingsa population
with Nepalese citizenship
Writing System and its Development
Livelihood base of the community at
Chepuwa and Hatiya VDCs
Food sufficiency by months
Number of households and population
in Gorkha and Kathmandu
Percentage of Siyar with Nepalese citizenship
at Chekambar and Chumchet VDCs
Writing system and its development
Livelihood base of the community at
Chemkbar VDC
Food sufficiency by months
Thudam population in Sankhuwasabha,
Taplejung and Kathmandu
Percentage of Thudam at Nundhaki VDC
with Nepalese citizenship
Writing system and its development
Livelihood base of the community at Nundhaki VDC
Food sufficiency by months
Baramu population by VDCs
Percentage of Baramu population with Nepalese
Citizenship in Thumi and Takukot VDCs
Writing system and its development
Livelihood base of the community at Thumi VDC
Food sufficiency by months
Chepang population by districts and VDCs (2001 Census)
Hayu population and language retention
Immediate and long term needs and priorities
Surel population by VDCs
Number of students by class by sex
Prioritized Needs of Surel Community
Action plan for Surel development project (2005-2007)
Thami population and language retention by districts
Thami population distribution of Thami by VDCs
Bote population by districts and VDCs
Prioritised needs of Thami community
Danuwar population and language retention
Priority ranking of problem
Prioritised needs of Danuwar community
Majhi population and language retention by districts
Majhi population above 400 by districts
Prioritised needs of Majhi community
Writing system and its development in Dhanuk community
Food sufficiency by months
Jhangad population in Sunsari
5
13
14
14
15
16
20
20
21
22
23
27
28
28
29
30
43
44
45
46
47
52
57
61
75
76
79
80
82
82
89
93
94
95
98
99
99
103
110
111
116
viii
Table 2.18.2.
Differential Jhangad population in
some communities from different informants
Table 2.18.3. Communities with and without citizenship
Table 2.18.4. Kudukh language spoken of Jhangad in Sunsari district
Table 2.18.5. Jhangad/Kudukh writing system and its development
Table 2.19.1. Population of Khadiya
Table 2.19.2. Settlement size of Khadiya in Jhapa and outside
Table 2.19.3. Citizenship by Ward/Village Development Committee
Table 2.19.4. Khadiya writing system and its development
Table 2.19.5. Food sufficiency by months
Table 2.19.6. Education Level of Khadiya
Table 2.21.1. Kusbadiya population by districts and
VDCs/Municipalities
Table 2.22.1. Meche population in different settlements
Table 2.22.2. Citizenship by settlements
Table 2.22.3. Meche writing system and its development
Table 2.22.4. Food sufficiency by months
Table 2.23.1. Population of Munda in Morang, Jhapa and Sunsari
Table 2.23.2. Citizenship of Munda in Morang, Jhapa and
Sunsari districts
Table 2.23.3. Language spoken by Munda in Morang district
Table 2.23.4. Munda writing system and its development
Table 2.23.5. Percentage distribution of livelihood
subsistence duration in months in Morang district
Annex-1-Table 1. Schedule of training provided to Senior
Field Research Assistants
Annex-2-Table 1. Population, household and concentration
districts of HMJs
Annex-2-Table 2. Population of HMJs by districts and VDCs
117
118
118
119
122
123
124
124
126
127
137
143
145
146
147
154
156
156
157
158
185
190
191
ix
Abbreviations
ACAP
CBS
CDO
CFUG
CMC
CO
DDC
DFID
ESP
FGD
HH
HMG-N
HMJ
IPO
LDO
JEP
JFRA
NBEC
NCA
NEFIN
NFDIN
NGO
NIWF-Nepal
PDP
RRA
SLC
SFRA
UNDP
USA
VDC
Annapurna Conservation Area Project
Central Bureau of Statistics
Chief District Officer/Office
Community Forest User's Group
Chairman-Manager's Committee
Community Organization
District Development Committee
Department for International Development
Enabling State Program
Focus Group Discussion
Household
His Majesty's Government of Nepal
Highly Marginalized Janajati
Indigenous Peoples' Organizations
Local Development Officer
Janajati Empower Project
Junior Field Research Assistant
Nepali Bhotia Education Centre
Nepal Chepang Association
Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities
National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities
Non-governmental Organization
National Indigenous Women's Federation-Nepal
Praja Development Programme
Rapid Rural Appraisal
School Leaving certificate
Senior Field Research Assistant
United Nations development Program
United States of America
Village Development Committee
x
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Introduction
The following 24 indigenous nationalities, including Khadiya and Munda, which are yet to be
recognized by the Nepal federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) and His Majesty's
Government of Nepal (HMG-N), have been clubbed as 'Endangered Groups' and 'Highly
Marginalized Janajatis' (HMJs) in Janjati Empowerment Project's (JEP) project document.
These groups are as follows:
Mountain
:
Lhomi-Shingsa, Siyar, and Thudam
Hill
:
Banakariya, Baramu, Chepang, Hayu, Kusunda, Lapcha, Raute, Surel, and
Thami
Inner Terai :
Bote, Danuar, Majhi, and Raji
Terai
Dhanuk, Jhangad/Dhangad/Urau, Khadiya, Kisan, Kusbadiya, Satar/Santhal,
Meche, and Munda
:
The general objective of this study is to carry out livelihood analysis and need assessment of
HMJs and suggest immediately relevant and appropriate course of actions to address their
basic needs.
The Study Team had close consultations with JEP-NEFIN at every step of this study. The
Study Team hired, in close consultation with the organizations and/or leaders of the
respective 24 HMJs, 24 Senior Field Research Assistants (SFRAs) and 46 Junior Field
Research Assistants for this study. Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) was conducted during the
months of February, March, April and May of 2005. The duration of fieldwork, including
travel time, was 9 to 12 days to each of the 24 HMJs but travel and fieldwork was adapted to
the changing security situation. Focus groups discussion, key informant interviews and
observation were the main tools of data collection.
Findings of 24 HMJs
The findings of each of 24 HMJs are presented in Reports section of Part–2. The main
findings are as follows:
Identification of Janjatis
Outsiders identify HMJs differently than by the insider themselves. Among the three
mountain HMJs, identification of Thudamba is easy but in the Shingsa community,
southerners (lower land) are known as ‘Lhomi’ or ‘Jimi’ and northerners (upper land) as
‘Naba’ but Nepalese outsiders refer them as ‘Bhote’ and Tibetans as ‘Shingsa’. Similarly,
The Siyars are known as ‘Lama’ or ‘Chumba.’ Thudams are known as Thudamba.
Among the Hill HMJs, Kusunda and Raute identify themselves as “Thakuris” to outsiders.
Outsiders refer ‘Baram’ as ‘Baramu,’ ‘Chepang’ as ‘Praja,’ ‘Lapcha’ and ‘Lepcha,’
‘Thangmi’ as ‘Thami.’ Chepangs claim that Bankarias belongs to Chepangs. Some consider
‘Surel’ as part of ‘Sunuwar’ and some as ‘Jirel’. Hayu have no identity problem.
There is no identity problem with Majhi, Bote, Danuar and Raji of the Inner Terai.
xi
Among HMJs of Madhes, ‘Rajbansi Dhanuk’ is the one listed by HMG-N as one of the 59
indigenous nationalities, but other Dhanuks, including ‘Sirauha,’ ‘Dhudawa,’ ‘Maghaiya’ and
‘Sur Dhanuk’ belong to Dalit. Similarly, the National Dalit Commission has identified
‘Kusbadiya’ as ‘Pattharkatta’ belonging to the Dalits. Outsiders refer ‘Urau’ or ‘Kudukh’
meaning ‘us’ as Jhangad and ‘Santhal’ as ‘Sattar,’ ‘Jharkhandi Khadiya’ as ‘Khadiya.’
‘Khadiya’ and ‘Munda’ are not in the list of 59 indigenous nationalities identified and
recognized by HMG-N. Kisan is one of 59 indigenous nationalities identified and recognized
by HMG-N but many peoples and organizations, including the Central Bureau of Statistics
(CBS), wrongly consider “farmer” (‘Kisan’) as the indigenous nationality ‘Kisan.’
Citizenship
Citizenship is one of the major issues raised by women’s rights movement and demanded that
mothers also should get right to give citizenship to their children. Similarly, Madhesi
movement have been raising citizenship rights to Madhesis as one of the most significant
issues in the last five decades. These two issues are of equal relevance to indigenous peoples
in general and HMJs in particular. Indigenous women, Madhesi indigenous nationalities are
deprived from citizenship certificates due to gender and regional discrimination. Many
indigenous peoples have not received their citizenship certificates because they do not own
land; and they do not own land because their lands were either nationalized or registered by
"outsiders." Those indigenous peoples who have been living in or close to forest are generally
deprived from both land and citizenship certificates. There are additional problems related to
citizenship. For example, some indigenous peoples of mountain, hill and Terai, who have
been sanskritized or influenced greatly by Hindu values, have changed to family names
identical with Hindu “high castes.” Increasing awareness about the “root” among the younger
generation and their effort to revive their indigenous names has created them a problem in
getting citizenship certificates.
Mountain HMJs’ face no problem in acquiring citizenship certificates. Among the Hill HMJs,
none of the Bankaria has citizenship certificate; many from Chepangs and some from Lapcha
and Baramu are facing problems in acquiring it. Similarly, among the Madhesi HMJs, none
of the Kisan has citizenship certificate, and many from other HMJs, including Dhanuk,
Munda, Meche, Jhangad/Dhangar/Urau etc. are facing problems in acquiring such
certificates.
Language
Almost all of the mountain HMJs speak their respective languages and they can speak other
languages, namely, Tibetan and Khas-Nepali. Among the Hill HMJs, some HMJs, such as
Baramu, Hayu, Surel, Bote, Majhi, languages are gradually in a threat of extinction; peoples
of older generation speak their mother tongues but new generation are rapidly losing them.
Kusunda language is almost extinct. Bankaria speak Chepang language. Some HMJs such as
Lapcha are revitalizing their language. Among the Madhesi HMJs, they like other Madhesis
speak Maithil in the eastern Terai and Awadhi in the mid-western Terai. Some Madhesi
HMJs, such as Munda, Meche have their own languages. Those who have not yet lost their
mother tongue, young generation are losing ability to speak their mother tongue.
Religion
Siyar and Thudam are mostly Buddhists but have no organization. Younger generation is not
interested in traditional rituals. In every Shingsa village, there is at least one ‘Kyidug’ group
but many of them have converted to Christian religion. Some Hill HMJs such as Baramu
have been highly influenced by Hindu and more recently gradually influenced by Christian
xii
religion. Lepcha have maintained Shamanism and Buddhism. Among the Madhesi HMJs,
Dahnuk, Munda are fully influenced by Hindu religion whereas Khadiya and Meche
continue their own respective religion, namely, ‘Sarna’ and ‘Bathau.’ A few of them have
turned to Christian religion.
Livelihood
Socio-cultural and bio-diversity are interconnected. Indigenous nationalities, specially HMJs,
are not only dependent but have spiritual relationship with natural resources, including forest,
land, water, pasture and mine. As the state had historical deprived indigenous peoples from
ownership to their forest, pasture, land and other natural resources, their livelihood has
become more problematic.
The mountain HMJs livelihood is affected by lack of pasture, deforestation, and lack of
veterinary services. The Shingsa are facing problems of land registration, lack of irrigation,
low productivity, and land slides due to floods.
Those Hill HMJs, namely, Raute, Bankaria, Chepang and Kusunda, who are mostly
dependent on forest are increasingly facing livelihood problem due to inaccessibility to forest
as these are controlled by either the state or community/individuals.
 Bankarias have problems such as food, land for cultivation, income generating
activities, skill development training, employment, livestock, education, awareness
raising activities and citizenship certificates.
 Majority of the Chepangs suffer severe food deficit. Studies have shown that very
high percent of Chepang infants and children below two years of age, suffer from
malnutrition. Furthermore, over 80 percent Chepangs, above 16 years of age, who are
eligible for citizenship certificates, do not have them. More importantly, almost half
of the households have been denied from receiving land registration certificates of the
land they have been cultivating for centuries.
 Most of the Kusundas do not possess land or property. They live in makeshift huts
built on wastelands near forest and seek employment as agriculture labourer in the
surrounding areas.
 Economically, the settled Raute do not look that worse. They produce some, but it is
not enough to support their livelihood.
Among those HILL HMJs, such as Baramu, Lapcha, Surel and Thami, who are not dependent
on agriculture or wage labour, but not on forest, also facing livelihood problem.
 Baramu are facing problems of low productivity in dearth of high yielding variety of
seeds, modern techniques of farming, and irrigation facilities, limited access to forest,
limited access to water during winter season and some working as carpentry and
masonry but lack training.
 Bote have to go outside to wage labour. Traditional occupation boating is stopped due
to Bandre, Karambot, Manthali and Seleghat Bridge in Tamakosi River.
 For Lapchas, there are possibilities for coffee and floriculture but there is no access to
technical support or marketing facilities.
 Only two Surel households have food sufficient for year and rest of all can only food
sufficient for 3-6 months. They have to go outside to carry load and wage labour.
 Most of Thami have sufficiency for 4-9 months. They have to go outside to wage
labour. Traditional occupation is no more surviving.
HMJs of Inner Terai are also having livelihood problems.
xiii



Traditionally rivers were the sources for food and income for Botes. These days they
have no free access to forests and rivers, which were the chief sources for their
survival in the past. Botes go outside to wage labour.
The main occupation of Danuwar people is agriculture and traditional one is net
weaving, fishing, bamboo products, and cloths weaving.
Raji do not own any land. They have also no job opportunities. Half of the time they
move from place to place to catch fish, hunt wild games and collect roots and fruits
and subsidy their foods. There is no problem about access and ownership of
farmland. Some of them are facing problems of land registration in absence of
Nepalese citizenship. Some other households have problems of pasture to graze their
livestock.
HMJs of Terai also are facing livelihood problem for additional reasons, that is, regional
discrimination against the Madhesis. This means many of them do not have citizenship
certificates, which deprives them from getting any benefits from the state.
 Only about 10 percent of Jhangad have adequate land and resource to thrive the whole
year and the 90 percent have difficulties to meet their daily requirements of food and
clothing the year around.
 Khadiya squarely subsists on working in the tea garden and working as labourers in
others farms. They have no alternatives to survive.
 Kisan did not have land ownership certificates in their names. In 1964 A.D. many
fake landowners, mainly from the Hindu Bahuns and Chhetris, appeared in their areas
and by all means they took away the lands of Kisan communities. They work in tea
garden and as rickshaw pullers.
 Kusbadiyas exchange their products with grains and animals, mainly goats. They do
not own lands for cultivation.
 Most Mundas now work in other people’s farm after they have lost their land to other
people. They work in tea gardens and as daily wage earners.
 Most Meches presently thrive on alcohol production, pig raising followed by farming
and wage labour. The abundance of land they owned had been lost in the last few
decades to non-Meche and largely Bahun and Chhetri community.
 Santhals said that agriculture is their main source of livelihood even though they do
not own any lands and/or their farm production can support their family only for 2
months.
Supports from (I)NGOs and other international donors
Lhomi-Shingsa and Chepangs are exceptional in terms of receiving projects from (I)NGOs.
(I)NGOs are running literacy, drinking water, savings and credit programs in Lhomi-Shingsa
community. SNV has been implementing Chepang mainstreaming program for Chepangs. No
(I)NGO and any donor has implemented programs for other HMJs. There are many
development programs run by international donors and INGOs in districts populated by
HMJs but they are not its direct beneficiaries.
Access to Health
All HMJs have no access to health services due to several factors, including lack of
government health services nearby, lack of awareness on health among HMJs, reliance on
traditional faith healers and poverty. In the mountains and the Hills, modern health services
are located in distant places. In inner Terai and Terai regions, government and private health
services are available nearby but poor HMJs cannot afford getting such services. Drinking
xiv
unsafe water and using open toilets are prevalent among HMJs, which indicates persisting
health problems of these peoples.
Access to Education
Among HMJs, some have access to primary education but parents have no awareness to send
children to schools (such as Shingsa), some have no access to school beyond primary level
(such as Chepang, Lapcha), some face harassment in schools (such as Kusunda), problem in
Nepali language as a medium of instruction (all HMJs but more by Madhesi indigenous
nationalities such as Jhangad and Khadiya), unemployed SLC graduates (such as Baramu),
poverty (such as Hayu, Thami, Raji), high drop out (such as Surel, Bote) and irregularity in
attendance due to work (such as Danuwar, Majhi), and some lack of participation in
management of local schools (such as Bote). There is a Majhi proverb, which says, "padi
guni ke kam, halo jotyo khayo mam," meaning "There is no use of education; instead
ploughing provides food to eat."
Recommendation
Priority needs and recommendations for immediate and long-term projects for each HMJ are
discussed in respective reports. Given socio-cultural and regional diversity in Nepal, there
may be some variation in needs and priorities in communities other than visited by the Study
Team. With regards to all 24 HMJs, the Study Team recommends JEP-NEFIN to follow the
following steps:
Step-1: JEP-NEFIN should send its staffs (at least one from JEP and the other from NEFIN)
together to the core districts/VDCs/settlement areas of the respective HMJs (see
Annex-1-Table 1 and Annex-1-Table 2) and contact respective HMJ's ethnic
organization and/or local community members. In the case of those HMJs, who do not
yet have their own organizations, they should contact directly with the local peoples
of respective HMJs.
Step-2: JEP-NEFIN staffs should organise community meeting(s) at the local level.
Step-3: JEP-NEFIN, in consultation with the respective HMJ community, should identify
poorest of the poor families, with top preference to women, and women headed households.
Step-3: Identify at least one or more need(s) from Package A—Individual Family and/or
Community Needs and at least one or more need(s) from Package B— Organizational Needs
to give to a community. Package—A contains needs related to social and economic rights and
rights to development. Package—B contains needs related to political, collective and
indigenous peoples rights. Package—A needs to be treated as confidence building measures
to intensify activities from Package—B. It should be noted here that awarding
project(s)/program(s) from one package only will not yield desired effects/impacts; hence
both should go together.
Package A—Individual Family and/or Community Needs
Identify individual families and/or community needs relating to their livelihood of
each HMJ:
Possible needs in the following priority order:
xv
1. Support projects that help to increase income and food production;
2. Support projects to eliminate and/or reduce violence against women and
other forms of gender discrimination;
3. Introduce small saving and credit groups;
4. Support to increase access to education, formal and/or non-formal;
5. Support to infrastructure/services related to trails and roads, bridges,
irrigation, health (such as health post and toilet), clean drinking water,
production, and marketing;
6. Support to community's efforts in building or maintenance of trails,
bridges (wooden or suspension), community buildings/halls and school
buildings;
7. Provide technical, vocational and skill development training with focus on
promoting indigenous skills/knowledge;
8. Support to programs that encourage children to go to and/or continue
education in schools;
9. Support programs to reduce and/or eliminate caste based untouchability
and other forms of caste based discrimination in the community;
10. Support programs for overcoming disability;
11. Support programs to increase marketing of products/commodities; and
12. Support for protection and promotion of indigenous/traditional knowledge
and skills.
Package B: Identify organizational need in the following priority order:
1. Support to begin and/or intensify local organization building and/or
capacity building, including formation of groups, local or central
adhoc/main committee;
2. Support to build these groups' linkage with central committees of
respective HMJ, NEFIN, National Indigenous Women's Federation
(NIWF)-Nepal, NFDIN and indigenous peoples' movement from district to
national levels;
3. Support for protection of mother tongues, such as preparation and
publication of glossary, dictionary, grammar, textbooks, and literature,
train teachers and run classes in mother tongues;
4. Support for protection of other tangible and intangible cultural heritages
such as documentation and publication of folk literature and indigenous
knowledge;
5. Support for capacity building for ethnic, linguistic and regional autonomy,
equal language and religious rights through organization building,
leadership development and advocacy;
6. Support for protection of religions and religious activities such as training
to young men and women to become indigenous religious priests of
respective HMJ;
7. Support for capacity building for right to development through external
linkages with local bodies such as Ward Committees, VDCs, Iilaka
Committees, DDCs, local offices of line agencies, (I)NGOs, and donor's
programs/projects;
8. Support to intensify advocacy for positive discrimination or reservation in
education, employment, political bodies, and political parties;
9. Support to capacity development for proportional representation in all
fields at all levels; and
xvi
10. Any other activities that protects and/or promotes indigenous peoples'
rights.
Step 4: Give money to groups; if there are no pre-existing groups, form groups first. JEPNEFIN should link these groups with HMJ's respective organizations;
Step 5: Provide support, financial and technical, to these groups to participate in the
activities, including general body meetings, of respective HMJ's district and national level
organizations.
Step 5: Provide some support to respective HMJs and/or NEFIN's District Coordination
Committee to monitor the project(s)/program(s) and send quarterly and annual report to JEPNEFIN.
xvii
PART – 1
INTRODUCTION & METHODLOGY
1
2
Background
Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) has started to implement 'Janajati
Empowerment Project' (JEP) with support of the Enabling State Program/Department for
International Development (ESP/DFID) aiming to reduce poverty and ensure greater inclusion of
indigenous nationalities through their increased participation in socio-economic and political
processes at all levels. Apart from strengthening indigenous peoples' organizations, raising
awareness levels of indigenous nationalities and running economic empowerment programs for
highly marginalized indigenous nationalities, including those, which are yet to be legally
recognized. NEFIN has classified indigenous nationalities in five categories for immediate
practical purposes. The following 24 indigenous nationalities, including Khadiya and Munda,
which are yet to be recognized by NEFIN and His Majesty's Government of Nepal (HMG-N),
have been clubbed as 'Endangered Groups' and 'Highly Marginalized Janajatis' (HMJs) in JEP
project document. These groups are as follows:
Mountain
:
Lhomi-Shingsa, Siyar, and Thudam
Hill
:
Banakariya, Baramu, Chepang, Hayu, Kusunda, Lapcha, Raute, Surel, and
Thami
Inner Terai :
Bote, Danuwar, Majhi, and Raji
Terai
Dhanuk, Jhangad/Dhangad/Urau, Khadiya, Kisan, Kusbadiya, Satar/Santhal,
Meche, and Munda
:
As these HMJs (now onwards, following the project document of JEP-NEFIN of ESP/DFID, we
refer them as HMJs) live in utter deprivation and their access to resources is severely restricted,
there is an urgent need to implement relevant socio-economic activities to address their
immediate needs. JEP-NEFIN has given high priority to HMJs. Therefore, there is a need to
carry out a study / survey for the better understanding of the life situation of these groups before
initiating such activities.
Objectives of the Study
The general objective of this study is to carry out livelihood analysis and need assessment of
HMJs and suggest immediately relevant and appropriate course of actions to address their basic
needs.
Specific objectives of Livelihood Analysis
The specific objectives of livelihood analysis are to establish:
a) The state of knowledge on the livelihood base and the economic viability of the
traditional occupation as well as new occupations in the displaced areas;
b) The status and process of marginalization of HMJs;
c) The gender relation in the livelihood activities and in the decision-making process at the
household, community and local government levels; and
d) Identification of constraints and challenges faced by HMJs for their development and to
suggest measures to overcome effectively and make them economically viable.
Specific objectives of Need Assessment
The specific objectives of need assessment are:
3
a) Locate and identify HMJs through primary and secondary data and prepare their
demographic and socio-economic profile;
b) Identify constrains and problems these groups are facing and assess their needs and
priorities;
c) Find out their basis of livelihood and examine economic viability of their traditional and
existing occupations; and
d) Suggest support programmes including plan of action for their economic betterment and
social empowerment through establishing their social organizations, increasing access to
education, vocational and technical training to youths, social mobilization, saving and
credit schemes, income generation activities and construction of development
infrastructures.
Methodology
The study approach and method consists primarily Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA). It was used to
get an overview of situation of all 24 HMJs in a short period of time that was needed for base
line survey to carry out scientifically and for identification of small projects to be suggested to
JEP for immediate implementation. The Study Team had close consultations with JEP-NEFIN at
every step of this study.
Review of Documents on Selected HMJs
The reports/documents prepared by the Rastriya Adivasi Mahila Munch, the National Foundation
for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) on some HMJs such as Kusunda,
Bankaria, and Chepang, and census data of 2001 on caste and ethnic distribution by Village
Development Committees (VDCs) and districts were reviewed and used.
Consultation with the Stakeholders
Necessary consultation with leaders/members of organizations and other specialists on HMJs
were done for the following:
 Identification of the key issues and identification of the traditional bases or skills of the
HMJ groups;
 Possible sites and anticipated problems in doing fieldwork;
 Issues to be discussed for appraisal; and
 Hiring of Senior and Junior Field Research Assistants.
Training to Senior Field Research Assistants
Training to 24 Senior Field Research Assistants (SFRAs) was conducted in Kathmandu, instead
of Dhulikhel, during February 4-9, 2005, due to Bandh ("close down"). Anticipating a few
dropouts, 6 other individuals were also given the training. All team members of this study team
and two other team members of Baseline Survey Team participated as resource persons. The
Team provided interactive training on conceptual issues relating to empowerment, livelihood,
economic viability, need assessment and tools of data collection, including fieldwork, focus
group discussion, key informant interviewing, observation, case study, field notes, field report
writing, and field survival tips (see Annex-1-Table 1). Hands-on practical training on using these
tools of data collection was given by the team.
4
Site Selection
Although the Census data are not reliable, the research team made efforts to get a better picture
through consultation with concerned groups/organizations and/or individuals of 24 HMJs.
According to the Census data of 2001, population, household and concentration districts of
HMJs are shown in Annex-2-Table 1, and HMJs by districts and VDCs are shown in Annex-2Table 2. The study team visited the districts and VDCs as shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1. Study areas by HMJs
S.N.
4
5
6
HMJ
Mountain HMJs
Lhomi - Shingsa
Siyar
Thudam
Hill HMJs
Bankaria
Baramu
Chepang
7
Hayu
Makwanpur
Gorkha
Makwanpur
Dhading
Chitwan
Ramechhap
8
9
Kusunda
Lapcha
Dang
Ilam
10
11
12
Raute
Surel
Thamai
Dadeldhura
Dolkha
Dolkha
1
2
3
13
14
15
16
17
18
District
VDC / Municipality
Sankhuwasabha
Gorkha
Sankhuwasabha
Khandbari
Chekampar VDC and Chumchet VDC
Gufapokhari of Nundhaki VDC
Hadi Khola VDC
Thumi VDC and Takukot VDC
Penche gaun, Raksing VDC; Manohari VDC
Taulak gaun, Jogimara VDC; Gajuri VDC
Shaktipur VDC; Bharatpur Municipality
Mudajor village of Sukhajor VDC-2 and other is Wadi
village of Ramechhap VDC-8
Nayabasti, Tribhuvan Municipality, Ghorahi, Halbar VDC
Kajii, (Ramphat (now Ramphok)), Fikkal Lapcha Tol,
Lapcha Tol Matling
Jogbudha and Shirsa VDCs
Suri VDC
Kurathali (Gujarpa) village of Lapilang VDCs and
Bhimesor Municipality -1
Inner Terai's HMJs
Bote
Chtiwan
Danuwar
Udaipur
Kavre
Majhi
Ramechhap
Raji
Madhesi HMJs
Dhanuk
19
20
Jhangad/Dhangad/
Urau
Khadiya
Kisan
21
22
Kusbadiya
Munda
23
Meche
24
Sattar/ Santhal
Kailali
Dhanusha
Sarlahi
Mahottari
Sunsari
Jhapa
Jhapa
Banke
Morang
Jhapa
Jhapa
Jhapa
Morang
Bhimpur gaun, Padampur VDC; Bharatpur Municipality
Baireni of Triyuga Municipality -17
Tamaghat village of Panchkhal VDC-6
Bhatauli village of Bhautauli VDC and GadawariManthali village of Manthali
Kuchaini and Jhilko villages of Chaumala VDC
Duberkot VDC
Kalyanpur VDC
Jaleswor Municipality
Birendra Tol, Inaruwa Municipality, Raghudas Tol, Thitru
Tol, Bhokraha; Bakhla Tol Narsightappu, Kaptangunj
Khadiya Basti Mechinagar Municipality
Dhulabari - 4, Magarmodhi and Dhaijan - 3, 4 and 8
Shantinagar, and Debibasti
Phultekra settlement and Indrapur village
Jangaltol Bhoudaha VDC, Dangitol Thalaha VDC
Makardhoj Basti in Mechinagar
Mechinagar Municipality, Upper and Lower Jorsimal
villages, Ainabari, Kanchanshri, Jalthal, Dudhuwa and
Dhaijan
Gailadubba, Haldibari, Anarmani and Garamani
Bhati Gachha
5
Tools of Data Collection
The main tools of data collection used for rapid appraisal are as follows:
Fieldwork
The fieldwork was carried out during the months of February, March, April and May of 2005.
The duration of fieldwork, including travel time, was 9 to 12 days to each of the 24 HMJs but
travel and fieldwork was tuned in with changing security situation.
 Some Team Members did fieldwork for few days as needed.
 Each Senior Field Research Assistant spent 1 whole day in each of the concerned district
headquarters and remaining days in VDCs they visited.
 Each SFRAs covered 1-3 VDCs/Municipalities of respective HMJs. A couple of SFRAs
went to the field but due to security situation could not reach either to the destination or
do their fieldwork.
 Due to deteriorating political and security situation, such as close downs (bandh) in
different parts during the fieldwork period, fieldwork in some places had to be postponed
and conducted later when it became feasible. In a few places, it was not possible to visit
the field sites. SFRA could not visit Raji community of Surkhet, Kailali and Bardiya due
to fighting between the government security forces and the Maoist insurgents.
Focus Group Discussion
Focus Group Discussion (FGD), one of the main tools of PRA, was used for data collection on
identification of HMJs concentration of population in the same VDC and neighbouring VDCs,
livelihoods, problems/constraints, needs (immediate and strategic) and preferences. Each of the
following thematic group will comprise of 6 to 8 members. At the VDC / community level the
following three FGDs were conducted:
 Men's and women's mixed group
-1
 Children's (boys and girls) mixed group
-1
 Community organization
- 1 (Wherever community organization
did not exist, FGDs were conducted with groups of active community leaders)
Each FGD lasted for about 2 hours. A checklist was used to collect information.
Key Informant Interview
Key informants were used to get information about HMJs in respective districts. They could
provide valuable information about, HMJs concentration of population in VDC/settlements,
problems/constraints facing HMJs, livelihoods and needs. The key informants were identified
and selected from the following:
 Ex-VDC Chairperson/VDC Secretary/Chairman-Manager's
Committee (CMC)/Community Organizations (CO)
/School Teachers/Non-governmental Organization (NGO)
workers/Health Volunteer
-1
At the District Development Committee (DDC) level
 Local Development Officer (LDO)/DDC Leaders/

District Program Advisors
-1
Selected District level NGO workers/Donor's Project staff
Local residents belonging to HMJs/Other Janajati
-1
-1
6
Observation
Each Team Member and Senior Field Research Assistant, who visited the field, made notes of
what they saw and observed in the field at individual, group, community, and settlement/VDC
levels. It includes information such as settlement pattern, conditions of houses, living conditions,
hygiene and sanitation, and community activities.
Human Resources
SFRAs, under the supervision of the team members, carried out field research in selected areas
of all 24 HMJs.
 24 SFRAs, from among the 30 participants who attended the training program, were
hired.
 In hiring, priority was given to prospective candidates from each of the 24 HMJs; among
them also priority was given to women. In the case of those HMJs, where women were
not available, some SFRAs were hired from other HMJs.
 Also, if SFRAs were not available from any of the 24 HMJs, priority was given to other
Janajatis who have better understanding of these HMJs.
Some of the intentions to hire SFRAs were to generate trained human resource, who could be
used by respective communities and/or organizations in other research, advocacy and project
implementation works, and also give ownership of this study to respective HMJs.
Before starting fieldwork, prospective SFRAs were oriented/trained to use the various tools and
techniques of RRA to collect the relevant information from the communities. All Team Members
facilitated the workshop/training as resource persons. A 5-day orientation/training workshop will
be organized in Kathmandu (See Annex I-A).
 46 Junior Field Research Assistants (JFRAs), who are local residents, and who are
bilingual, i.e. speak their respective mother tongues and Nepali language, were hired by
SFRAs. In some cases it was not possible. Priority was given to women.
 Each of the 24 HMJs organizations' leaders were requested to suggest and/or arrange two
women and two men to accompany and help in respective fields. SFRAs were hired
locally depending on the situation in the field.
 Some of the intentions to JFRAs were to generate trained human resource at the local
level, who could be used by respective communities and/or organizations in other
research, advocacy and project implementation works, and also give ownership of this
study to respective HMJs.
SFRAs provided brief orientation to the JFRAs in the respective field. These JFRAs helped
SFRAs to organize groups for FGDs, arrange appointments with key informants, collect
information as directed, and worked as an interpreter, wherever and whenever applicable.
Data Processing, Analysis and Presentation
Team Members and SFRAs had frequent discussion about processing, analysis and presentation
of data collected. Data are mostly presented in qualitative form and some quantitative data form
as well.
7
8
PART – 2
REPORTS
9
10
MOUNTAIN
11
12
2.1. LHOMI - SHINGSA
Introduction
It should be mentioned here that it was not possible to visit the main settlements of LhomiShingsa such as Kimathanka, Chepuwa, Hatiya and Pawakhola in Sankhuwasabha district during
the fieldwork period due to several reasons, including travel days and security.
Identification
According to the key informants and the FGD participants, the ethnic group of Lhomi-Shingsa
was originated from Thikewalungbhuma of Sankhuwasabha from the Seventh Century. In the
Shingsa community some of them residing towards the southern part (lower land) are recognized
as ‘Lhomi’ or ‘Jimi’ and those residing towards northern part (upper land) as ‘Naba’. In Nepal,
they are popularly known as ‘Bhote’ while in Tibet they are known as ‘Shingsa’.
Ancestral Place
The key informants also reported that the main ancestral place of Shingsa is Kimathanka, Hatiya,
Pawakhola, and Chepuwa VDC of Sankhuwasabha district in the Eastern Region. It has been
reported that the total household is estimated to be 1,053 with a total population of 4,952 (Table
2.1.1).
Table 2.1.1. Population by districts and VDCs
Name of VDC
No. of Households
Male
Sankhuwasabha
Hatiya
Chepuwa
Kimthanka
Pawakhola
Khadbari
Dhankuta
Hile
Sinduwabazar
Sunsari
Dharan
Ilam
Pasupatinagar
Fikkal Bazaar
Manebhanjang
Panchthar
Phidim
Morang
Uralbari
Kathmandu
Kathmandu
Total
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
No. of Population
Female
Total
511
394
48
25
45
1100
918
157
70
100
1195
924
159
69
100
2295
1842
316
139
200
7
1
20
3
15
3
35
6
6
11
11
22
7
3
1
20
10
2
22
12
3
42
22
5
2
6
6
12
1
1
3
4
2
1053
6
2424
6
2528
12
4952
13
Citizenship
According to the community members residing in the district headquarter; about 99 percent of
the Lhomi-Shingsas have got Nepalese citizenship. Remaining few Lhomi-Shingsas who have no
citizenship have either not processed the necessary papers for citizenship or no need of
citizenship (Table 2.1.2).
Table 2.1.2. Percentage of Lhomi-Shingsa population with Nepalese citizenship
Area
Percent
Chepuwa VDC
Concerned VDC/Municipality
99
Residing at neighbouring VDCs
99
Residing at other places
99
Hatiya VDC
Concerned VDC/Municipality
98
Residing at neighbouring VDCs
98
Residing at other places
98
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Language
The mother tongue of Lhomi-Shingsa is Bhote language and 100 percent of them residing in the
village as well as outside the district can speak very well.
Table 2.1.3. Writing system and its development
S.N. Writing System and its Development
1
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
7
Writing System
Phoneme Identification
Selection of Standard Language
Selection of Script - Sambhora Tibetan or Devnagari
Standardization
Vocabulary/ Dictionary
Grammar
Language Development
Syllabus
Development
(Primary/Lower
Secondary/
Secondary)
8
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/
Secondary)
9
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development – In
Devnagari
10
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development – In
Devnagari
11
Folklore Publication
12
Newspapers Publication
13
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)
14
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production
15
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Yes
No
By same
language
speakers









Yes

Yes



Yes


14
The other languages generally spoken by Lhomi-Shingsa are: Tamang, Nepali, and Tibetan.
Most of them write in Sambhora Tibetan script. Key Informants from Chepuwa and Hatiya
VDCs said that there are publications of newspaper and adult literacy books in Devnagari
language. They prefer to use both Sambhora Tibetan and Devnagari scripts. Information about
the situation and development of their language is provided in Table 2.1.3.
The Lhomi-Shingsa respondents expressed their willingness to teach their children in their
mother tongues. The problems for development of the language mentioned are: no teaching in
Bhote language in schools, lack of text-books in Bhote language, no consolidated effort to
develop the language, and lack of awareness for preservation of the language. The children
participants in FGD opined that they are speaking in Bhotiya as well as in Nepali language at
home and with friends of own community, and in Nepali language with friends and people of
other communities.
Religion
FGD participants said that the religion of Lhomi-Shingsa is Buddhism; but they do animal
sacrifice at different rituals. About 99 percent of the Lhomi-Shingsas adopt this religion. There
are some problems in maintaining their religion, which includes lack of monastery, awareness
and ignorance about their religion, violation of the religious norms by the elders, and poverty.
So, some of Shingsa have adopted Christian religion due to different motivations.
Religious Organization
According to the key informants, Lhomi-Shingsas have a number of monasteries at different
places and one ‘Guthi’ ("trust") whose function is very limited. In every village, there is at least
one ‘Kyidug’ group with some contribution from each household and that is used at the time of
need to any member households.
Livelihood
Interview with the Key Informants of Chepuwa and Hatiya VDC of Sankhuwasabha district were
done at Khadbari in order to find out the bases of livelihood and economic viability.
Table 2.1.4. Livelihood base of the community at Chepuwa and Hatiya VDCs
Base
Enough to feed for Opportunity Access Problems
(In months)
Land
8 - 9 months
Cash crops
Yes
Forest
3 - 4 months
Herbs
collection
Yes
Water
All year round for
drinking purpose
only.
Some
For irrigation
and
hydropower.
More market
Yes
Pasture
Yes
Government
policy
and
programs
No
irrigation
and Limited in paper
problems of floods.
only.
No protection of herbs No policy to
and the forest
register private
forest there.
No
bridge
during No program.
monsoon and problems
of floods.
No development of pastureland.
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
15
The findings show that major basis of livelihood is agriculture, livestock, weaving, and herbs
collection and marketing (Table 2.1.4). There is no problem about access and ownership of
farmland, however, they are facing problems to retain the land ownership due to hassles created
by different power groups. So, they are facing problems of land registration, irrigation, low
productivity, and land slides due to floods. Information provided by the Key Informants about
livelihood at Chepuwa VDC is given in Table 2.1.4.
Economic Viability
Though agriculture, weaving, and herbs collection has been the major sources of livelihood to
Lhomi-Shingsa, its economic viability is more sound. About 10 percent of the farmers are getting
food products from their farm enough to feed their family for 12 months of the year. On the other
hand, about 40 percent of them get enough food for 9-11 months, 50 percent for 7-8 months and
so on as shown by the Table 2.1.5.
Table 2.1.5. Food sufficiency by months
Duration in months
12
10
Percent
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
9 – 11
40
7–8
50
5-6
-
3-4
-
0–2
-
The livelihood base is, thus, economically viable to support their households in most of the
months, however, they may have problems in lack of land registration. In the months of
shortages they are supporting by working as labourer, collection and consumption of forest
products such as mushrooms, bamboo shoots, different bulbs, and ‘Sisnoo’ ("nettle"). During the
lean period also, most of the Lhomi-Shingsa are supporting their household income by working
in daily wages in construction and other economic activities outside the village, more weaving
works at the household level and depending more on forest products. They are generally grazing
their livestock in China's Tibet Autonomous Region; so, they are facing problems from time-totime.
Supports from NGO/INGOs
As per the concerned authority of DDC with regard to the support or help from any NGO or
INGOs to Shingsa, there is a drinking water project done at two villages by the Rural
Reconstruction Nepal. Vijaya Bikash Shroat Kendra has activated for savings and credit groups.
Rural Access Program of United Nations Development Program (UNDP) has constructed trailroad from Num to Kimthanka. The East Foundation, local NGO, supported by The Mountain
Institute, USA has organized informal education program in general and particularly to the
Shingsa community. Nepali Bhotia Education Centre (NBEC), local NGO, is conducting child
and adult literacy classes, school building, training to school management community, residential
schooling to girls particularly to the Lhomi-Shingsa, Thudam and Topkegola community.
Other Problems
The other problems of Lhomi-Shingsa include lack of access to drinking water and
communication facilities, kerosene for lighting, fertilizers for crops, health care and medicines,
and marketing of the surplus farm products.
16
Access to Education
According to the key informants and the FGD participants, there is a primary school only and the
other schools are far, that is in the far Northeast of the country and bordering to Tibet in the north
and Sikkim of India in the East. They find it very difficulty to send their children in the schools
for further education. Even in the village primary school, parents are not aware to send their
children in the school due to their ignorance about the importance of education. In addition, the
poor economic condition of the households and urgency to help in the household activities has
lowered their enrolment and attendance in the school. Parents have tendency not to send them in
schools. The current literacy rate of Lhomi-Shingsas shows that about 38 percent of male and 18
percent of females can read and write. Among them, 2.3 percent of male and 0.3 percent of
females have formal education School leaving certificate (SLC) and above degrees. However,
only about one-third of them have got some job as teacher in the schools. Most of others have
got problem to get a job leading to the problems of educated unemployment in general.
The children present in FGD revealed that some of them have to work at home and their poverty,
so, could not join the school despite their willingness. About the difficulty in the school, they
have pointed out about poverty due to which they could not buy school dress, could not pay
school fee in time, and could not stay is a hostel despite the location of the school is far from
their village. They have expressed more problems for education to girls due to more urgency to
help in the household activities than to a boy of the same house.
Access to Health
FGD participants reported that the health posts are located far from Lhomi-Shingsas’ villages the
access to health is difficult. Therefore, they have problem to get basic treatment within the
village. In their villages there are no doctors or medical assistant as well as medicines available.
The far-off health posts too are not in operable condition and there is always dearth of medicines.
So, the women have to bear frequent problems at the time of delivery. On the other hand, they
have their own traditional healers like: Lama and Loben and one have to depend upon them
when needed. The observation by the Researcher pointed out that there is lack of sanitation and
cleanliness as compared to other communities.
Traditional Skills
According to the key informants Lhomi-Shingsa are popular in making traditional water mills,
clothes making from Yak and sheep wools, mats and boxes from bamboos, collection techniques
of ‘Silajeet’ (a kind of herb), suspension bridges by using bamboo, dry food-products from forest
resources, and ‘Somar’ food from Yak cheese. There is no problem to continuing and
maintaining such skills.
Access to Employment
Most of the Lhomi-Shingsas have no access to government jobs since a majority of them have no
education and skill as per need for employment. About 30 persons have got job as teachers in the
schools and about 5 persons are working in NGOs. A very few Lhomi-Shingsas has gone to
India and got employment in the Indian Army. No one has taken a job in the private enterprises.
The foreign labour migration too has been hindered due to limited access in lack of education,
information and process of going abroad, and skill or initial capital investment needed to go
abroad. Many of Lhomi-Shingsas do not prefer to go out of the village for job due to household
17
activities of farming as well as no certainly of getting a job in the open market and compete with
satisfaction. So, there are problems of educated unemployment. Since many Lhomi-Shingsa have
passed School Leaving Certificate (SLC) by taking educational loan, but had to remain idle in
lack of job opportunities, they are not satisfied with the educational system and have been
pessimistic about the education system itself.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
According to the concerned authority of the DDC, there is no special program for the LhomiShingsa in the development budget. In the VDCs of Kimathanka, Chepuwa and Hatiya, there are
regular budgets and on-going programs for Lhomi-Shingsas' benefit.
Recommendations
The study team made several interviews as well as the focus group discussions with the members
of Shingsa community in order to find out their immediate and other needs, in priority basis, so
that could be addressed by different parties including the government, donors, JEP and by
themselves. Their response including those of the key informants in different issues are
categorized as follows:
Recommendations concerning identity and language development
 Awareness creation for promotion of a school teaching in Bhote language and more
study/research about the language.
 Preparation of necessary manpower needed for the school textbook writing teaching
through government scholarships as well as publication of textbooks needed in the school
at Bhote language.
 Erecting a monastery in order to create awareness about the traditional customs and
religion in a more disciplined way.
 Religious teachings in the school curriculum will be very helpful.
Recommendations concerning economic and livelihood strategies
 Problems to retain the land ownership as well as land registration due to hassles created
by different power groups can be minimized by solving the community problems in a
group of Lhomi-Shingsa.
 Increase in farm productivity is possible by giving proper training for intensive farming
as well as providing irrigation facilities.
 Motivate Lhomi-Shingsa for terrace-cultivation and tree plantation to minimize problems
of landslides.
 Development of pastureland for livestock in Nepal side itself (not towards Tibet).
 More market facilities by developing more road connections.
Recommendations on health and education
 Access to health is difficult since it is located far from the Lhomi-Shingsa’ villages and
problems to get necessary medicines, so, it has been suggested to make the health post in
operable condition with availability of necessary medicines.
 Provision of hostel facilities to children from other villages in order to increase access to
education in general.
18


Urgency to open up a vocational school to minimize the problems of educated
unemployment.
Skill-oriented training will be very useful to make them self-employed.
Recommendation for Immediate Projects
There are about 18 primary, lower secondary, and secondary level schools in the community of
Lhomi-Shingsa; however, none has toilet facility. There is no tendency of making public toilets
as well as private toilets in the houses. So, the system of open toilet has eroded the public and
child health as well as environment.
The immediate need of Lhomi-Shingsa is construction of a toilet at Shanti Primary School
located at Chepuwa VDC, which is fully resided by Lhomi-Shingsa community. The number of
students in this school is about 250 including about 100 girls. The building of this school was
recently constructed by the initiation and support of NGO and INGO called Room-to- Read. The
objective of separate toilet will benefit the school children and staffs to use and practice toilet
facilities for the first time in the village. This will create a habit as well as play a role model in
the Lhomi-Shingsa community.
The strategy to make a toilet in the school is through partnership program from DDC, Nepali
Bhotia Education Centre, JEP and the concerned parents. The concerned authority of a NGO had
already talked with the members of DDC about the proposed toilet construction. The estimated
budget is about Rs. 300,000.0. Out of which, the contribution expected from JEP at present is Rs.
30,000.0.
The duration of toilet construction will be about 6 months probably starting from coming
Baisakh 2062 B.S. The implementing agency will be NBEC since the building was constructed
by the initiation of NBEC. The school authorities will do the monitoring of the construction.
The expected benefits from the toilet are as follows:
 Create a habit of using toilet facilities in the school, which will check to go out in the
public places.
 Play as a model in the Shingsa community and create a consciousness and importance of
toilets in private and public places.
 Motivate other schools for such facilities.
Other needs in the community in priority are:
1. Maintenance of drinking water schemes in order to make it sustainable.
2. Repair and maintenance of brides linking to Ridak and Chhumsur villages
benefiting the Shingsa communities.
3. Supply of agricultural inputs especially fertilizers and high yielding variety seeds
in order to increase productivities.
4. Trail-roads to the district headquarter and linking to Tibet border with road
access.
19
2.2. SIYAR
Introduction
The study team visited Chekambar and Chumchet VDCs in Gorkha district. To go to this VDC,
it was about 2.5 hours travel by bus from Dhading of Prithivi Highway to Arughat and from
there 3 days walk to Chekambar VDC. From Chekambar, it takes about 3 hours walk to reach to
Chumchet VDC. They have more trade toward Jhonkhabazaar of Tibet, which is 2 days walk or
1 day by horse, than within Nepal.
Identification
According to the concerned authorities of the DDC and the key informants, the highly
marginalized janjatis in the district is ‘Siyar’ in the mountain region and ‘Baramu’ and
‘Chepang’ in the hilly region. The ethnic group of Siyar is known as ‘Lama’ and is recognized as
‘Chumba’. They are residing at Gorkha district only.
Ancestral Place
According to the key informants and the participants of FGD, the total household of Siyar is
about 250 at Chekambar VDC and about 275 at Chumchet VDC of Gorkha district as shown in
Table 2.2.1. In addition about 20 households with a total population of about 250 are residing at
Kathmandu. The main ancestral place too is Chekambar and Chumchet of Gorkha district.
Table 2.2.1. Number of households and population in Gorkha and Kathmandu
Name of VDC
No. of Households
No. of Population
Male
Female
Total
Gorkha
Chekambar
250
1100
900
2000
Chumchet
275
1300
1200
2500
Kathmandu
Kathmandu
20
130
120
250
Total
545
2530
2220
4750
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Citizenship
According to the key informants as well as the local community leaders present at FGD at
Chekambar VDC all except children have got Nepalese citizenship while at Chumchet VDC
about 90 percent have got Nepalese citizenship and the remaining 10 percent have not taken
citizenship due to illiteracy as well as not urgency. Information about Siyar with Nepalese
citizenship of Siyar community at the surveyed two VDCs is in Table 2.2.2.
Table 2.2.2. Percentage of Siyar with Nepalese citizenship at Chekambar and Chumchet VDCs
Area
Percent
Reasons of not getting citizenship
Chekambar
Concerned VDC/Municipality
100
Chumchet
Concerned VDC/Municipality
90
Due to illiteracy as well as not urgency.
Residing at other places
90
Due to illiteracy as well as not urgency.
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
20
Language
As per the local community leaders as well as women present at FGDs, the mother tongue of
Siyar is Lama and about 90 percent of the Siyar can speak the language very well. The remaining
10 percent can speak fairly residing in and out of the concerned district. The other language
spoken by Siyar is: Nepali. They do not have their own dialects and there is nothing about
language. The written script is Tibetan script. As per the Key Informant of language, there is no
development of the language and there is nothing done about the writing system, so, all options
has been marked as ‘No’ in Table 2.2.3.
Table 2.2.3. Writing system and its development
S.N.
Writing System and its Development
1
Writing System
1.1
Phoneme Identification
Yes
No

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script

1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Religion
The religion of Siyar is Buddhism and about 80 percent of the people are adopting this religion.
According to the key informants, local community leaders, and women group present at FGDs
viewed that the other Siyars are not that religious and are not performing Buddhism strictly due
to modernization and less emphasis on religion.
Religious Organization
According to the key informants as well as the local community leaders present at FGD, Siyars
have no religious organizations.
21
Livelihood
Interview with the key informants were done at Nile, Chemkbar VDC of Gorkha district in order
to find out the bases of livelihood and economic viability and the information is given in Table
2.2.4.
Table 2.2.4. Livelihood base of the community at Chemkbar VDC.
Base
Enough
to Opportunity
Access
Problems
feed for (In
months)
Government
policy
and
programs
Chemkbar VDC
Land
9 to 10
-
Yes
Forest
Water
12
All year round
-
Yes
Yes
Pasture
6
-
Yes
Only one crop and
lower productivity.
Deforestation.
Water freezing during
winter.
Lack of pasture land
No
extension
services.
Don’t know.
No policy.
No policy.
Chumchet VDC
Land
7 to 8
Forest
Some months
Water
Enough
Pasture
Some months
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Alcohol
making.
Making wood
products.
-
Yes
Yes
Low productivity due No
extension
to sloppy land.
services.
Marketing.
No policy.
Yes
Yes
Lack of pasture land
No policy.
No policy.
The findings show that the major base of livelihood is agriculture and its income is enough to
feed for 9-10 months at Chekambar VDC while for 7-8 months at Chumchet VDC. The major
economic activities are farming followed by livestock and forestry. From the last 4-5 years, a
new source of income had been collection of ‘Yarsagumba’ from the forest during season. At
present, collection of this precious herb had been one of the important sources of income. About
access and ownership of farm land there is no problem and land had been registered in their
name. However, they are facing problems of deforestation as well as pasture to their livestock
being too cold and snowy places as compared to the number of livestock increasing.
Economic Viability
According to the key informants as well as male and female participants at FGDs, agriculture
and livestock had been the major sources of livelihood to the Siyars however their economic
viability needs to be further extended by proper marketing for their livestock products such as
ghee and cheese. Besides this, the herbs like: ‘Yarsagumba’ collected from the forest should be
properly marketed by eliminating the middlemen who generally reap more benefits. The Siyar
also need skill-oriented training to weave ‘Radi and Pakhi’ ("woollen blanket") as well as carpet
so that they can weave better quality products as per the demand of the market. Besides this, they
need training on carpentry and masonry works in order to increase their efficiencies. At present
some of Siyars have been displaced in absence of basis of livelihood in the village, so, they have
either migrated and started retail trade or had gone abroad for job. As a result, remittance income
has been one of new source of household income.
22
From the present sources of livelihood, about 25 percent of Siyars are getting enough food
products to feed their family for 12 months of the year. On the other hand, about 45 percent of
them are getting enough food for 9-11 months, 20 percent for 7-8 months and so on as shown in
Table 2.2.5.
Table 2.2.5. Food sufficiency by months
Duration in months
12
25
Percent
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
9 - 11
45
7–8
20
5-6
7
3-4
3
0–2
-
The livelihood base is, thus, economically viable to support their households in most months of a
year. However, in the months of shortages they are supporting by collecting ‘Yarsagumba’ (a
kind of high value herb) and other herbs, working in others’ farm in daily wages and/or working
as porters from the district headquarter. It has been suggested that giving training related to
intensive farming techniques as well as some skill-oriented training can further increase their
economic viability.
Supports from NGO/INGOs
With regard to the support or help from any NGO or INGOs to Siyars, the Key Informants
opined that there is no support from any of them and there is no development activities being
done in order to increase their economic viability.
Other Problems
The Siyar ethnic groups can be empowered by giving formal education in Nepali as well as their
own language. For this too, the parents need motivation to send their children in the school for
formal education since they are illiterate and ignorant about the importance of education. The
parents give more importance to work in the household activities by their children so that they
can earn a little than going to the school. The other reason of not sending children in the school is
lower affordability and no job opportunities after formal education too in the village where there
is no economic activities going. The other problem of Siyars is farmland mostly sloppy at
Chumchet VDC, so, the land productivity is less and there is scope for further increase by crop
diversification suitable for sloppy land.
Access to Education
Most of Siyars have access to education up to primary level education only with instruction in
Nepali language. For further study one has to go far from the village, so, the tendency to go out
for further study is comparatively low. However, there is lesser tendency to send children in the
formal school being parents illiterate and ignorant about importance of education. Therefore the
men, women and children participants in FGDs preferred school teaching in their mother
language too. About access to education for women, there is lower tendency to send girls in the
school as compared to the boys since they have to devote more time in their household activities
as well as no prospects of job in the village even after certain level of formal education. Among
the Siyar community, there are about 30 persons with SLC and above education and some of
them have gone out for job. The children present at FGD revealed that they are going in the
school and some other Siyar children are not going to the school due to the following reasons:
 Ignorance of the parents about importance of education;
23


Poor economic household conditions, so, urgency to work for a little income generation
activities; and
Difficulty to understand the teaching in Nepali language.
Access to Health
Most of the Siyars have access to health post of the concerned villages however there is no
qualified medical assistance as well as medicines available being in the remote mountain areas.
Therefore, they have their own traditional healers and they have easy access with them.
According to the women participants at FGD, they pointed out that there are more problems to
women at the time of sickness and complicated delivery cases in the villages due to absence of
lady doctors. As per the observation report, there is more problems related to cold seasons and
there is no other major medical problem.
Traditional Skills
The traditional skill and knowledge of Siyar is ‘Radi and Pakhi’ weaving, carpet weaving, and
bamboo baskets weaving. There is some problem in adopting this skill and occupation in lack of
skill training to them as well as market problem to sell their products, which prefers quality
products.
Access to Employment
Most of Siyars have no access to employment due to their settlement far from the district
headquarter as well as place of economic activities. However, some of Siyars are working as
local teachers, in Health Posts, and one in the police service. Those residing at Kathmandu have
access to employment as per their education and skill but are doing business. No one Siyar have
taken a job in the military service. According to the key informants, some 70 to 80 people from
the Siyar community have gone abroad for job and about 50 have gone to USA through different
sources. On the other hand among the women, there is hardly anyone with formal education, so,
there is no tendency to go in the job market also and get employment as compared to males.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
From the DDC, there is no special budget and program for Siyar community. From VDC, there
are some programs not particular to the Siyar community but in general to all. At present, DDC
is working for micro-hydro electricity generation from Changpo Khola for Chekambar VDC and
might be completed in one year.
Recommendations
During group discussions and interviews, the study team of Siyar community asked about their
immediate and other needs, in priority, on different issues so that could be addressed by different
parties including the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their response including those
of the key informants in different issues are categorized as follows:
Recommendations concerning identity and language development
 The study of the Siyar community shows that this community is willing to teach their
children in the Lama language too. Therefore, they have suggested for schools teaching
in the Lama language in the village, more conducive environment, and publication and
availability of the textbooks and more of other reference materials in the Lama language.
24
Recommendations concerning economic and livelihood strategies
 Since most of the farmland owned by the Siyars is sloppy at Chumchet VDC the land
productivity is less, so, their income can be further increased by crop diversification
suitable for sloppy land.
 Since the settlements of the Siyar community is at cold and snowy places the community
is facing problems of deforestation, so, the pastureland to their livestock decreasing as
compared to the number of livestock increasing. Motivating the local for importance of
forest can minimize such problem and forestation programs from time-to-time in the
near-by forests.
 Collection of this precious herb like: ‘Yarsagumba’ has been one of the important sources
of income from the last 4-5 years however; the exploitation and reaping more benefits by
the middlemen should be minimized.
 Livestock had been one of the major sources of livelihood, so, proper marketing of
livestock products, such as ghee and cheese, can extend the economic viability.
 Community people need skill-oriented training to weave Radi, Pakhi, and carpet to weave
better quality products as per the demand of the market and on carpentry and masonry
works to increase efficiencies.
Recommendations on health and education
 Though most of the Siyars have access to health post in the villages there is problems of
qualified medical assistance and availability of medicines, so, the supply of skilled health
workers and necessary medicines should be done in time.
 Most of the Siyars are illiterate and ignorant about the importance of education, so, they
need motivation to send their children in the school for formal education.
 Most of the parents give more importance to work in the household activities by their
children so that they can earn a little than going to the school, so, increasing their
affordability should change their attitude.
 Since the children of the Siyar community had difficulty to understand teaching in Nepali
language at the school they should be given special lessons about it. Lack of speaking
power in Nepali languages also hindered them to easy access to government offices and
their procedures.
Recommendations on indigenous knowledge and skills
 Need more skill-oriented training for weaving of Radi and Pakhi, carpet, and bamboo
baskets so that the quality products could be increased and the problems of market could
be resolved.
Recommendation for Immediate Projects
According to the key informants as well as representative of NGO of Chekampar VDC also
stated that the immediate project needed for Siyar is improvements in wooden bridges linking
Lamagau to Rachen Gumba (Monastery). At present, there is temporary wooden plank as bride
only and at the time of rainy season no on can travel checking complete mobility of the villagers.
In the proposed project, the local community is ready for free labour as local participation. The
Siyar Samaj Kalyan Kendra ("Siya Society Welfare Centre") located at Kathmandu will
25
implement the project. This Samaj itself will monitor it. It can be implemented immediately or
in the month of Baisakh (April-May), that is, before the monsoon season starts.
The other needs in priority are:
1. Second wooden bridge from Largau to Phurpegau to get connected with Siyars of other
villages. At present, there is temporary wooden plank as bridge and there is problem at
the time of rainy season, as mobility of the villagers will be hampered.
2. According to focus group discussion with the women, priority should be given for high
value crops in their farmland with only one crop due to snow.
26
2.3. THUDAM
Introduction
The study team visited at Gufapokhari of Nundhaki VDC at Sankhuwasabha district only due to
limited time for field study. To go to this VDC, it was little more than one-day walk from
Tumlingtar airport. Most of the Thudam communities are settled at Thudam village of Chepuwa
VDC, which is about 6 day walks from Gufapokhari.
Identification
According to the community members present in FGD, the ethnic group of Thudam is known as
‘Thudamaba’ and they are residing at Sankhuwasabha and Taplejung districts. Originally, they
were migrated from Tibet.
Ancestral Place
The FGD participants as well as community members at Kathmandu reported that the total
households of Thudam is 32 at Sankhuwasabha district with a total population of 217 while at
Taplejung district there are 3 households with a total population of 30 (Table 2.3.1).
Table 2.3.1. Thudam population in Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung and Kathmandu
No. of Population
Name of VDC
No. of Households
Male
Female
Sankhuwasabha
Chepuwa
21
65
55
Nundhaki
6
30
21
Bakhol
3
15
13
Ridak
2
9
9
Taplejung
2
8
10
Olanchungola
Topkegola
1
3
9
Kathmandu
Kathmandu
8
19
25
Total
43
149
142
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Total
120
51
28
18
18
12
44
291
Thus, there are 43 households with a total population of 291. Out of them, 8 households with a
total population of 44 are temporarily residing at Kathmandu. The main ancestral place is
Dhoomu and Feruk in Tibet, China.
Citizenship
According to the FGD participants as well as other key informants of Nundhaki VDC, almost all
adult members of the Thudam community have got Nepalese citizenship and there is no problem
for others to take the citizenship.
27
Table 2.3.2. Percentage of Thudam at Nundhaki VDC with Nepalese citizenship
Area
Percent
Concerned VDC/Municipality
Almost all
Residing at neighbouring VDCs
Almost all
Residing at other places
Almost all
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Language
The participants present in the male and female FGD groups said that the mother tongue of
Thudam is ‘Thudamba’ and all of Thudams residing at the village can speak the language very
well. This language has no dialects; so, they use Tibetan dialects whenever needed. The spoken
language of Thudam too is almost similar to Tibetan, Shingsa/Lhomi, Topkegola, and Walung.
On the other hand, people of the neighbouring VDCs can speak Thudamba fairly well. Those
Thudams residing at Kathmandu have little difficulty to speak since they speak more in Tibetan
and Nepali languages than in their own language. The other languages spoken are: Nepali,
Tibetan, Shingsa, Topkegola, and Walung. According to the Key Informant of the Thudam
language, there is no writing system and language development; so, all the options have been
marked in ‘No’. The details about the language are in Table 2.3.3.
Table 2.3.3. Writing System and its Development
Writing System and its Development
S.N.
Yes
No
1
1.1
Writing System
Phoneme Identification

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script

1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/
Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
28
With regard to the issue of willingness to teach their children in their mother tongues, the
respondents did not express their willingness to do so as their population is very few and
scattered at different places. On the contrary for the development of their language, the
respondents expressed that there is no problem or they are not that particular. On the contrary,
the children present in FGD opined that they are facing more problems of communicating with
others in the near-by villages too as they can hardly speak in Nepali language.
Religion
The religion of Thudam is Buddhism and all of them are adopting this religion. The Thudam
residing out of the village is not particular in religion and may not performing Buddhism strictly
due to modernization. In the village, they are facing problems of priests – Lama and Thudam of
new generation do not know about the rituals. So, urgency has been felt to teach the traditional
rituals to the newer generations. Therefore, they have suggested erecting a monastery in the
village as well as the people of older generations will have to teach the religious rituals to their
children.
Religious Organization
The FGD participants revealed that there is no religious organization, so, Thudams residing at
Kathmandu are planning to open one for consolidation of all Thudams.
Bases of Livelihood
Interviews with the key informants as well as focus group discussions were done at Gufapokhari,
Nundhaki VDC of Sankhuwasabha district in order to find out the basis of livelihood and
economic viability. The findings show that the major base of livelihood is livestock, which can
feed them for about 6 months in a year. The other sources of livelihood are digging of ‘Jatamasi’,
herbs collection, wood works, cotton weaving, and traditional incense making. They have a very
little agriculture land for farming. However, there is no problem about access to forest and
pasture lands but they are facing problems of veterinary services, deforestation as well as
difficulty to collect herbs due to too much digging. The details about livelihood at Nundhaki
VDC are shown in Table 2.3.4.
Table 2.3.4. Livelihood base of the community at Nundhaki VDC
Base
Enough to feed
for (In months)
Opportunity
Land
For few days
-
Yes
Lower productivity.
Forest
For few days
Yes
Deforestation.
Water
All year round
for drinking.
6 months
Herbs
collection
-
Yes
More market
Yes
Travel far during
winter season.
Lack of veterinary
services.
Pasture
Access
Problems
Government
policy
and
programs
Limited in paper
only.
Don’t know.
No firm policy.
Despite policy,
no services.
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Economic Viability
Livestock and herbs have been the major sources of livelihood to Thudams however their
economic viability needs to be increased. Since the farmland is very little their economic base is
29
not sustainable and no crops can be grown during the winter season due to snow. They are also
facing problems of diseases in livestock and they are not getting timely services when needed.
So, the veterinary services should be extended in their villages too. At present, some of
Thudams have been displaced in absence of basis of livelihood in the village; so, they have
started new business of transporting goods on Yak.
From the present sources of livelihood, about 95 percent of Thudams are not getting enough food
products even for 8 months in a year. On the other hand, only 5 percent are getting enough food
for 9-11 months and so on as shown in Table 2.3.5.
Table 2.3.5. Food sufficiency by months
Duration in months
12
Percent
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
9 - 11
5
7–8
35
5-6
20
3-4
30
0–2
10
The livelihood base is, thus, not economically viable to support their households in most months
of a year. However, in the months of shortages they are supporting by working in daily wages as
good carriers in their Yak from different part of the district.
Supports from NGO/INGOs
With regard to the support or help from any NGO or INGOs to Thudams, the Key Informants
opined that there is no support from any of them and there is no development activities being
done in order to increase their economic viability.
Other Problems
The most important need of Thudams is formal education to the young generation. For this too,
the parents need motivation to send their children in the school for formal education since they
are illiterate and ignorant about the importance of education. The other reason of not sending
children in the school is economic hardship and less affordability to support for school education
in the village. Besides this, there is problem of grazing to their livestock and they have faced
frequent problems from the Community Forest Users Group. At present, most of the surplus
products of the community are exported to Tibet and food-items are imported from there.
Access to Education
According to the FGD participants said that there is no access to education to the Thudams since
there is no school in the village. In the near-by village, there is primary level education only with
instruction in Nepali language, so, the children had some problem to understand and
communicate with the teachers. In the school too, the teachers are not available during winter
season due to snow. There is no school teaching in Thudam languages and there is no provision
of adult education too. The women present in FGD revealed that there is lower tendency to send
girls in the school as compared to the boys since they have to send them in near-by village. On
the other hand, girls have to work more time in their household activities.
The children present in FGD also revealed that in the absence of school in the village they could
not go to school despite their willingness. They have difficulty to communicate in Nepali
language with others in the near-by villages too, so, when they go outside the village they feel
inferiority complex.
30
Access to Health
According to the FGD participants, there is no access to government health post in their villages
being in the remote mountain areas. So, most of the Thudams have to rely on their traditional
healers. Despite this, the traditional healers too are going to be disappeared due to less
motivation to the younger generation to learn the practices. The women FGD participants also
revealed that in the absence of a health post in their village access to health for women is more
problematic particularly at the time of complicated delivery cases. The observation by the
Researcher pointed out that they are comparatively healthier than other communities but habit
about cleanliness is comparatively lesser.
Traditional Skills
The traditional skill and knowledge of Thudams is weaving of ‘Radi and Pakhi’ ("woollen
blanket"), woodcutting, digging of herbs, and traditional incense making. There is some problem
in adopting this skill and occupation due to problems of marketing, too much digging of
‘Jatamasi’ and displacement of the Thudams from the villages.
Access to Employment
According to the male and female FGD participants, most of the Thudams have no access to
employment due to their settlement far from the district headquarter on the one hand and lack of
appropriate education on the other. So, no one Thudams either male or female has got a job in
the government service or in the Indian Army or in the international labour market. Only a
handful of Thudams are working in private job or doing business.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
According to the concerned authorities of DDC and VDC, in the development programs of DDC
and VDCs, there is no special program for the ethnic group of Thudam. It has been reported that
they have no approach in the VDC and DDC in order to design some program for their
community.
Recommendations
The study team made several interviews as well as the focus group discussions with the Thudam
community members in order to find out their immediate and other needs, on basis of priority, so
that could be addressed by different parties including the government, donors, JEP and by
themselves. Their response including those of the key informants in different issues are
categorized as follows:
Recommendations concerning identity and language development
 Respondents of the Thudam community expressed their un-willingness to teach
children’s in ‘Thudamba’ language, as their population is negligible. On the contrary,
they have expressed importance for more knowledge in Nepali language in order to
communicate with others in their day-to-day life.
 Since the Thudam of new generation do not know about the traditional rituals, there is
urgency to teach the rituals to them. Therefore, they have suggested erecting a monastery
in the village as well as a system to teach the religious rituals to their children by the
older ones.
31
Recommendations concerning economic and livelihood strategies
 Since most of the Thudam are facing problems of pastureland and veterinary services to
their livestock, some of the VDC should be allocated as pasture land and veterinary
services should be made available in the village.
 Since Thudams are facing problems of deforestation, it is necessary to create awareness
about the importance of forest and should motivate for tree plantation in the near-by
forest too.
 Access to market for the surplus products is necessary.
Recommendations on health and education
 Need access to government health post as well as medicines in the Thudams’ villages
though in the remote mountain areas.
 Absence of primary school in the village has checked their access to education, so, a
school should be opened up.
 In the school, there should be special classes to teach Nepali language so that they can
communicate more freely with others in the near-by villages too.
Recommendations on indigenous knowledge and skills
 Need more skill-oriented training for weaving of ‘Radi and Pakhi’ so that increase in
quality may solve the problems of marketing.
Recommendation for Immediate Projects
According to the key informants of the community, the immediate need to the Thudam is
maintenance of the Buddhism religions and rituals in their traditional way. In the village, they
are facing problems of priests – Lama as well as religious equipment to perform the rituals at the
time of festivals, marriages and death. At present, they have to borrow the religious equipment
from the near-by Sherpa village, which is generally one-day walk. At the time of their need, the
Sherpa community too might be using them so their traditional rituals could not be performed in
time in lack of the equipment. They too are not always ready to lend the equipment in fear of
damage or loss of the equipment itself. So, there are instances of delaying death rituals to be
performed after two days also in lack of such religious equipment. So, provision of their own
religious equipment is immediate need in order to maintain their customs as well as performs
their rituals in time.
The Thudam Sewa Samaj will purchase equipment in Kathmandu and transportation and the
equipment will be kept at the house of the Village Leader of Gufapokhari at Nundhaki VDC.
There is a plan to erect a monastery in the village, so, after completion of the monastery the
equipment will be safely kept over there and will be used for daily puja at the monastery too.
The expected benefit, thus, could be performance of Thudam religion and rituals in time and the
children of the newer generation too could learn and practice them.
The other need in priority basis could be as follows:
1. Modern and efficient water mill since the current traditional water mill at Thudam village
of Chepuwa VDC Ward No. 9 is very slow and almost in a depleting stage.
2. Wooden brides linking to Thudam village of Chepuwa VDC to cross the river during the
monsoon season since the temporary brides made by the community is not working well
32
and washes away during the rainy season. The major benefit of such bridges goes to
HMJs like: Thudam as well as Lhomi-Shingsa residing there.
3. Since the settlement of the Thudam village is at the bank of Dhakcha Khola, there is
frequent problem of water logging during rainy season and water is entering into the
houses, so, there is immediate need of dams to check the river water.
Limitation of the Study
For the study of Thudam community the study team could visit at Gufapokhari of Nundhaki
VDC at Sankhuwasabha district only due to limited time for field study. It was one-day walk
from the nearest Tumlingtar Airport. A larger number of Thudams’ households are settled at
Thudam village of Chepuwa VDC which is about 6 day walks from Gufapokhari. At
Gufapokhari, there were only 6 households so the possibilities of interaction with many of the
Thudams were limited. Since the total number of households too is only 43 scattered at different
places, coordination needed to uplift the community too is not easy. However, the Thudam Sewa
Samaj located at Kathmandu is trying to bridge the gap and consolidate all Thudams in order to
empower them.
33
34
HILL
35
36
2.4. BANAKARIYA
Introduction
Bankariya is one of the many ethnic minorities who needing special attention from the
government for its protection and development. Most of the Bankariyas live in Hadi Khola VDC
of Makwanpur district. According to latest information available, the population of Bankariya is
69. Out of these, 62 belong to 12 families and live in Bankariya Tole in Twangra Dada village, in
Harikhola VDC. The others are two Bankariya families live in Lamitar village in Hadikhola
VDC and Thari VDC in Prasa district.
Like Kusundas and Rautes, Bankariyas are also at the verge of physical extinction due to
growing pressure from outside and due to lack of control and access to the resources. Apparently
their population is dwindling due to high incidents of morbidity and mortality in their population.
Therefore, the government, civil societies and donors should come forward and urgently launch
special programmes to save this community from total eclipse.
Identity and Language
Some people believe Bankariyas are the offshoots of Chepangs who share the same language,
tradition and culture. However, Bankariyas think otherwise and insist they are a different ethnic
community though culturally and socially they are very close to Chepangs. They inter-marry
each other with Chepangs and have close cultural and social affinities. Therefore, on the issues
of their history and ethnic identity, without doing anthropological research, all arguments remain
hypothetical. Nevertheless, the government has included Bankariya in the list of fifty-nine
indigenous nationalities of Nepal, recognizing them as an ethnic community with its own
identity.
Up to now, all Bankariyas, who live in Hadi Khola VDC, speak Bankariya language. So far the
linguists have not conducted any study on Bankariya language. Linguistic study must be
conducted to preserve and promote Bankariya language, which is a cultural heritage not only of
Bankariyas but of all Nepalis and the people of the world.
Bankariyas are animists who worship nature and their ancestors. Due to growing influence of
Hindus, they also celebrate festivals like Dasain and Tihar.
Population Distribution
All Bankariyas are found in Twangra Dada and Lamitar villages in Hadikhola VDC of
Makwanpur district except one family who has migrated to Thari VDC, Prasa district.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
In the past, Bankariyas had plenty of land and forest in the Chure area, which met their needs to
sustain life. The scenario changed following their eviction from their land by the then prime
minister Chandra Shamser Rana nearly a century ago to convert the area as wild life game for the
Ranas and they settled down in Twangradada.
For the last several decades, Bankariyas have settled down in Twangra Dada village in Hadi
Khola VDC of Makwanpur district. They have built temporary huts made of bamboo and woods
37
on wasteland near forest. They own no land and property. They collect seasonal roots and fruits
as food from the forest and work as labourers in surrounding villages. They live in extreme
poverty without any regular source of income.
From the discussions with Bankariys and other knowledgeable persons in the area, it was found
out that Bankariyas face acute food shortage throughout the year. Because of lack of land, the
growing of crops and vegetables does not arise. It is sad to note that Bankariyas get fewer wages
than other labourers even for the same work. They make bamboo baskets, mattresses and
wooden containers and barter these items with grains in the surrounding villages. Another source
of their cash income is medicinal herbs, which they collect in the forest and sale in surrounding
villages and towns. The little money they earn is necessary for buying grains and cloths.
About a year ago, Manahari Vikas Samiti, a local NGO, based in Hetauda, provided some goats
and chicken to the Bankariyas to increase their family income. Now, out of twelve households in
Twangra village, eight households have goats and chicken.
Health and Education
Due to extreme poverty and social exclusion, Bankariyas have no access to modern medical
services and facilities. They don’t go to hospitals and health posts for medical services, they
instead use faith healers and traditional medicine when they become sick. They use leaves, roots
and barks of different plants and trees as medicine. Bankariya children and adults suffer from
diseases related to malnutrition, water and sanitation. The common diseases they suffer from in
Twangra village as mentioned by Bankariyas are fever, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, swelling of
hands, legs and body, pain in the body, jaundice, measles, dizziness etc.
.
Most of the adult Bankariyas are illiterate. It is interesting to note that only one child has passed
grade five in Bankariya community. Now eight girls and six boys are enrolled in primary school
but they do not attend school regularly. During discussions and interviews with Bankariya
children and parents, they gave the following reasons for not attending the school.
 They cannot go to school empty stomach.
 Accompany their parents to collect fruits and roots in the forest.
 They cannot afford to buy books and pencils.
 They cannot pay examination fees.
 They cannot afford to buy clothes and school dress.
 They cannot pay monthly tiffin charges, which is Rs 10.
 Harassed by other children and including teachers.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
From their long experience Bankariyas are able to identify different kinds of plants and plant
products for their medicinal values. They can also make attractive bamboo baskets, mattresses
and wooden containers. These products can be further improved through training.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
Their social organization is based on kinship. Therefore, the eldest person is the head of the
community. Jetha Bankariya (Eldest Bankariya) who passed away last year is succeeded by
Maila Bankariya (Second Bankariya) as head of the Bankariya community in Twangra village.
38
Support from NGOs and INGOs
Last year, Swabalamban, an NGO, provided training for Bakariyas in goat farming. Likewise, an
NGO called Manohari Bikas provided one goat to each Bankariya family in Hari Khola VDC.
Since this year, Indigenous Women Forum, an NGO based in Kathmandu has shown interest to
work with Bankariyas.
Other issues
All the Bankariya are without citizenship certificates. Without citizen certificates, they cannot
register their land and property in their names and are also barred from receiving facilities.
Needs and Priorities
During group discussions and interviews, Bankariyas were asked about their needs and priorities
on different issues so they are addressed by different parties, including the government, donors,
JEP and by themselves. Their responses including those of the key informants to these questions
are categorized under different broad headings as given below.
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Bankariyas want to retain their ethnic identity as Bankariya although many people think they are
offshoots of Chepangs. They also emphasized the need for protecting and promoting their
language. So far, nobody has done any research on Bankariya culture and language. Bankariyas
also want to preserve their traditional religion and culture although it is becoming increasingly
difficult for them due to outside pressure. They also need citizenship certificates to establish their
ethnic identity as Bankariya.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
To identify economic and livelihood related needs and priorities of the community, the
researchers conducted PRA, involving Bankariya men, women and children in the village. The
finding of PRA, in order of priority, is given below.
 Food
 Land for cultivation
 Income generating activities such as goat and bee keeping, vegetable and ginger
farming,
livestock, fishery etc
 Skill development training
 Employment
 Livestock
 Education
 Awareness creation activities
 Citizenship certificate
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Bankariyas live in makeshift huts with no regular supply of clean drinking water in the village.
They use open fields for toilet purpose. Because of poverty and poor sanitation Bankariya
children suffer most from diarrhoea and other water born diseases. Lack of knowledge among
Bankariyas about primary health care and sanitation also contributes to high rate of child
39
morbidity and mortality in the community. Therefore, improvement of sanitation and housing
conditions are essential for them to improve their health condition.
As pointed out by some key informants, introduction of adult education in Bankariya village is
essential to enhance their knowledge about basic health, sanitation and livelihood strategies. It
can also help them to promote their self-confidence and manage meagre resources they have at
their disposal.
As mentioned above, most of the Bankariyas do not send their children to schools because of
extreme poverty and lack of awareness about the value of education. Provisions of scholarship,
school dress and tiffin can be incentives to Bankariya children to attend school. Most of the key
informants stressed the need for provisions of scholarships and school dress for Bankariya
children.
Bankariya youth also need vocational and short-term training to enhance their skills and increase
their productive capabilities. Such training would help them find better opportunities for
employment and escape poverty.
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Bankariyas possess valuable knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs found in the
forests. They are also good in making bamboo baskets and wooden containers, which they sell
and barter with grains in surrounding villages. Preservation and promotion of such traditional
knowledge and skills can benefit the whole community.
Ethnic Organizations
To receive support from NGOs and INGOs, Bankariya need to register their ethnic organization
in CDO office. Establishment of their ethnic organization can also help them to preserve and
promote their language and culture effectively.
Recommendations
JEP-NEFIN should follow the following steps to contribute in the rights-based development of
HMJs:
 If any one who receives JEP-NEFIN support is not a member of their respective
organization they should be enrolled;
 HMJ members, who receive support should form groups;
 JEP-NEFIN should provide support through organizations of respective HMJs; if such
organization does not exist with specific HMJ,
Recommendations concerning identity and language development
 Bankariyas themselves should decide the issue of their ethnic identity.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide necessary support to undertake linguistic study of Bankariya
language.
 NEFIN/JEP should assign linguists to prepare dictionary and grammar in Bankariya
language.
 NEFIN/JEP should involve Bankariyas in its advocacy programme so that Bankariys are
exposed to national indigenous peoples’ movement in Nepal.
40
Recommendations concerning economic and livelihood strategies
 NEFIN/JEP should provide support to Bankariyas to increase their food production. Food aid
is essential until they find sustainable source of food production and supply.
 NEFIN/JEP should buy and distribute land for Bankariyas for cultivation. Since Bankariyas
have no citizenship certificates, land bought cannot be registered in their names. In such a
situation, land should be bought in the name of NEFIN as custodian and in the mean time,
concerned bodies should initiate to get citizenship certificates for Bankariyas so that land
bought can be transferred in their names.
 It is the obligation of the state to provide minimum economic security to its citizens.
Therefore, it is recommended that the government should provide land to the Bankariyas for
cultivation. The land occupied for settlement by Bankariyas in Twangra village for
settlement should be registered in their name. NEFIN should raise this issue with concerned
authorities at district and central levels.
 NEFIN/JEP should support Bankariyas, through local NGO, in activities, which help increase
their income and improve economic condition. Income generating activities include bee
keeping, vegetable and ginger farming, livestock, fishery and processing non-timber forest
products.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide vocational training to Bankariya youths on carpentry, plumbing
and other related fields. Such training can help them to find better jobs and increase their
income.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide support to Bankariyas to establish and run saving and credit
scheme. The project should provide seed money to start such projects.
Recommendations on health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Bankariyas, NEFIN/JEP should
support them to improve existing drinking water supply system and construct pit latrines in
the settlement.
 Information on primary health care and sanitation should be given to Bankariyas through
Information Education and Communication activities in the settlement.
 Mobile immunization programme should be organized in Bankariya settlement.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide non-formal education for adults and out of school children in
Bankariya settlement.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide scholarship, and school dress to Bankariya children who are
enrolled in the school.
 NEFIN/JEP should organize meetings with District Education Officer, school principals and
teachers to discuss problems of Bankariya children in the school. Harassment of Bankariya
children must be stopped in the schools.
Recommendations on indigenous knowledge and skills
 NEFIN/JEP should conduct research on indigenous knowledge and skills of Bankariyas.
Findings of such study can help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge and skills of
Bankariyas.
Recommendation related to ethnic organizations
NEFIN/JEP should assist Bankariyas register their ethnic organization in the CDO office.
Indigenous Women Forum, an NGO run by indigenous women activists has expressed its interest
41
to assist Bankariyas to get their ethnic organization registered in CDO office, provided JEP
provides funds for the task.
Recommendation on citizenship certificate
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Bankariyas get their citizenship certificates from the CDO office.
NEFIN/JEP may contract one of the local NGOs to assist Bankariyas for processing
administrative matters to get citizenship certificates from the CDO office. In the mean time
NEFIN should exert pressure to the concerned authorities at district and national levels for
such purposes.
Recommendation for Immediate Project Support
 Recently, Bankariya Women Group has been formed in Twangra Dada village to undertake
income-generating activities. They have decided to lease a plot of land from a landlord in the
village for ginger cultivation. Indigenous Women Forum has agreed to provide necessary
technical support to the group for ginger farming. To implement the project, they need some
funding support from NEFIN/JEP. Therefore, NEFIN/JEP should provide funds to buy seeds
and fertilizers from the market so that the project designed by Bankariya women can be
implemented as planned.
42
2.5. BARAMU
Introduction
A study team visited Thumi and Takukot VDCs in Gorkha district. These VDCs are in a distance
of about one days walk from the districts headquarter. According to the concerned authorities in
the district headquarter in Gorkha district the Highly Marginalized Janjatis residing in the district
are: Siyar, Chepang and Baramu.
Identification of Janjatis
According to the concerned authorities in the district headquarter and key informants at
Kathmandu, the ethnic groups of Baramu are residing at the northeast remote areas of Gorkha
district. They are settled at different VDCs and different wards and one has to generally walk one
to two hours to travel from one ward to another ward of a VDC. Their settlement is one to three
days walk from the district headquarter. The ethnic group of Baramu is also recognized as
‘Baram’. The then Shah dynasty gave “Kipat’ land to the Baramus and were settled in 6 villages
namely: Masel, Arupokhari, Choprak, Baguwa, Takukot, and Kharchowk of Gorkha district.
However, the ancestors could not retain much of the ‘Kipat’ land due to reasons unknown. So,
the present Baramus have a very little land left for survival.
Ancestral Place
According to the concerned authorities in the district headquarter and key informants at
Kathmandu, the main ancestral places are: Masel, Arupokhari, Choprak, Baguwa, Takukot, and
Kharchowk of Gorkha district. The total population of Baramu is 7,383 as per the Population
Census of 2001 and they are residing in the hilly region. It has been reported that the Baramus
are residing at Gorkha, Dhading, Nuwakot, Nawalparasi, Chitwan, Makwanpur, Tanahu,
Kathmandu and Lalitpur. However at present, the distribution of the households at Gorkha,
Dhading, and Kathmandu. There are 1,360 households with a total population of 9,112 (Table
2.5.1). When the population of other districts too is included the total population will be
significant. The distribution of household and population by VDC is shown in Table 2.5.1.
Table 2.5.1. Baramu population by VDCs
District/VDC
Gorkha District
Thumi
Masel
Pandung
Khachowk
Choprak
Takukot
Aru Pokhari
Saurpani
Fujel
Chagling
Thalajung
No. of Households
Male
Population
Female
Total
175
150
128
120
110
100
100
80
48
38
35
600
500
570
400
400
320
300
480
100
120
100
500
400
500
320
350
300
300
400
75
80
75
1100
900
1070
720
750
620
600
880
175
200
175
43
Baguwa
Srinathkot
Aruwang
Wayak
Namjung
Pokharithowk
Tandrang
Nareswore
Dhading District
Maidi
Nalang
Khalte
Kebalpur
Swara
Deurali
Lakuri Bot
Duwakot
Kathmandu District
Kathmandu
Total
Source: 2001 Census
26
25
13
10
17
4
3
3
70
60
35
35
90
11
9
10
60
65
33
27
80
10
8
8
130
125
68
72
170
21
17
18
14
20
11
13
40
45
21
6
38
59
42
40
130
235
111
17
32
49
38
38
115
215
99
13
70
108
80
78
245
450
210
30
5
1360
15
4892
15
4200
30
9112
Citizenship
According to the community members residing at the district headquarter and male and female
FGD at Thumi VDC, about 80 percent of the Baramus have made Nepalese citizenship. Though
others are eligible to get the citizenship, they have not made it as there is no immediate need to
them. So, there is no problem about Nepalese citizenship in this ethnic group. At Takukot VDC
about 75 percent have made the Nepalese citizenship and other have not made it being not
necessary of the citizenship. The percent of Baramu with citizenship in detail by VDC is as
follows:
Table 2.5.2. Percentage of Baramu population with Nepalese citizenship in Thumi and Takukot VDCs
Area
Percent
Reasons of not getting citizenship
80
Being not necessary.
Thumi VDC
Residing at neighbouring VDCs
80
Being not necessary.
Residing at other places
Almost all
Being not necessary.
Takukot VDC
Concerned VDC/Municipality
75
Being not necessary.
Residing at neighbouring VDCs
65
Being not necessary.
Residing at other places
Almost all
Being not necessary.
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Language
The community members residing at the district headquarter and participants at FGD said that
the mother tongue is Baramu is ‘Balkura’ but most of them are not practically speaking this
language in their daily activities. Only a few old Baramus residing in the village can speak
Balkura language very well. The language mostly spoken by Baramu is: Nepali. They do not
have their own dialect too. The respondents feared that their language is in the verge of
44
extinction since the newer generation Baramus are shy to speak their mother language and not
used in daily activities at home too. According to the Key Informant of the Baramu language too,
there is no writing system and its development. Therefore, the details about the language are all
marked in “No’ as shown in Table 2.5.3.
Table 2.5.3. Writing system and its development
S.N.
Writing System and its Development
Yes
No
1
1.1
Writing System
Phoneme Identification

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script

1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/
Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/
Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
With regard to the issue of willingness to teach their children in their mother tongues, the
respondents expressed their willingness to do so. However, the problems for development of the
language in the village mentioned are: no school teaching in their language, un-conducive
environment, and lack of textbooks in their own language. The children in FGD also revealed
that they are speaking Nepali language at home and with friends of their own community too. On
the contrary at Takukot VDC, the children participants at FGD pointed out that they are speaking
‘Balkura’ at home and with friends and neighbours of their own community and in Nepali with
others as well as in the school.
At present, it has been reported that the Nepal Baramu Sangh has already decided to make
Balkura-Nepali-English dictionary in coordination with the Central Department of Linguistics,
Tribhuvan University in order to protect the language. With regard to the issue of willingness to
45
teach their children in their mother tongues, the respondents expressed their willingness to do so
and expressed urgency to revive the language for their identity too.
Religion
The religion of Baramu is Hindu and almost all of the people in the village follow this religion
and about 85 percent of the people outside the village adopt this religion and others have adopted
Buddhism due to their greater influence. There are some Baramus who have converted their
religion to Christian due to financial and educational motivations. So, there are some problems in
maintaining Hindu religion due to dire poverty and in lack of consciousness and awareness.
Religious Organization
The participants of FGD said that the Baramus have their own religious organizations namely:
Gorkha Baramu Sangh at Gorkha and Nepal Baramu Sangh at Kathmandu. This Nepal Baramu
Sangh is coordinating with the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University to
prepare Balkura-Nepali-English dictionary so that the younger generation too might be familiar
with the language.
Bases of Livelihood
Interview with the community members residing at the district headquarter and the key
informants indicated that major basis of livelihood is agriculture, livestock, forestry, weaving of
bamboo baskets, carpentry and masonry. There is no problem about access and ownership of
farmland though they themselves could not retain the ‘Kipat’ land traditionally owned by them.
In due course of time, they had to sell ‘Kipat land’ under compulsion to meet cash need for other
purposes. At present, they are facing problems of low productivity in dearth of HYV seeds and
modern technique of farming, and irrigation facilities. They have limited access to forest and
some of them are collecting some food-products from there. The access to water during winter
season is problematic and one has to walk far to fetch water. At Masel VDC about 5 percent of
Baramus are working as carpentry and masonry but in lack of training and certain tools their
efficiency is comparatively lower. However, the detail about livelihood at Thumi VDC is in
Table 2.5.4.
Table 2.5.4. Livelihood base of the community at Thumi VDC
Base
Enough
to Opportunity
Access
Problems
feed for (In
months)
Land
All year round Modern
Yes
Lower productivity.
of 10 %
farming
Forest
For few days
Yes
Deforestation.
Water
All year round Yes
Travel far during
for drinking
winter season.
Pasture
About 2
More market
Yes
Lack of pasture
months
land
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Government
policy
and
programs
Limited
in
paper only.
Don’t know.
No firm policy.
No policy.
Economic Viability
The major source of livelihood of Baramus is agriculture, livestock, forestry, masonry and
carpentry. Many of the Baramus have a limited land and most of the farmlands are sloppy, so,
46
the land productivity is low. As a result, their economic viability is not viable. About 10 percent
of the farmers are getting food products from their farm enough to feed their family for 12
months of the year and others have to depend upon other sources of income. However, from
different sources of income about 15 percent of Baramus are getting enough for 12 months and
another 15 percent for 9 - 11 months in a year. On the other hand, 30 percent of Baramus are
getting enough to feed for 5 - 8 months and so on as shown in Table 2.5.5.
Table 2.5.5. Food sufficiency by moths
Duration in months
12
15
Percent
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
9 – 11
15
7–8
30
5–6
30
3–4
5
0–2
5
The livelihood base is, thus, viable for 15 percent of Baramus only and for others not
economically viable to support their households in most of the months. In the months of
shortages they are supporting by working in others’ farm, as labourer, collection and
consumption of forest products, etc. During the lean period also, most of the Baramus are
supporting their household income by working in daily wages. At Thumi VDC about 3 percent
of the households is getting remittance income for their family members working outside the
country.
Supports from NGO/INGOs
According to the concerned authorities of DDC and other key informants there is no support or
help from any NGO or INGOs to the Baramus. There is no specific program though majority of
the Baramus are suffering from poverty and is far behind in education and skill-oriented training.
On the other hand, however at Thumi VDC, the Care Nepal has provided tap drinking water
facilities at different wards. Besides this, Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) has also
promised to construct a middle level school at Thumi VDC but the program has been stopped
due to objection from the Maoist.
Other Problems
Generally most of the Baramu ethnic group has limited educational opportunities as well as skilloriented and income-generating training. The employment opportunities too are very limited.
The livelihood base which is agriculture too has lower productivity so their economic viability id
doubtful. Most of Baramus have more than 5 members per household, so, they are facing more
related to economic problems.
Access to Education
The FGD participants and the community members residing at the district headquarter pointed
out that generally Baramus are not that aware of sending their children in the schools. At Thumi
VDC, there is primary level school only and they have to travel far for further education of
middle level and others. Therefore, parents generally cannot afford for their education due to
poor economic condition of the households and urgency to help in the household activities.
Despite these limitations in general, there are many Baramus with one member of the family
with SLC education but they are hardly employed. In reality, due to problems of educated
unemployment, the community is not in favour of school education. In addition in the village,
there is no program of informal or adult education. The women participants in FGD revealed that
there is lower tendency to send girls in the school as compared to the boys due to gender biasness
47
as well as less importance felt in providing education to the girl children. The children
participants at FGD also pointed out that many children of their ethnic group are not going or
continuing in school education due to illiteracy of the parents as well as their economic poverty.
So, their parents prefer them to work in some household activities so that they may earn though a
little income.
Access to Health
The participants of FGD said that there is no problem in access to the government health post.
However, there is shortage of medicines. In the village, there are no private doctors or medical
assistant available. The women participants in their FGD revealed that they have to bear frequent
problems at the time of delivery as well as in other complications. On the other hand, the Baramu
community has their own traditional healers like: ‘Dhami’ and ‘Jhakris’. Therefore, the Baramu
community are relying more in their traditional methods of treatment than in the health posts. In
general, providing safe drinking water facilities as well as awareness about cleanliness can
increase the health condition of Baramus. The observation of the Researcher also pointed out that
the poorer Baramus are less aware about cleanliness and hygiene is comparatively less in this
community.
Traditional Skills
According to the participants of FGD said that Baramus have no traditional skill and knowledge.
However, many have adopted the skill of carpentry and masonry and making bamboo ‘Dokos’
and baskets. But the quality is not good in absence of skill-oriented training so the market, at
present, is limited.
Access to Employment
Most of the FGD male and female participants pointed out that the Baramus have no access to
government jobs since a majority of them have no sufficient education and skill needed for
employment. There is only one Baramu working as ‘Peon’ in the Health Post and some others
are working as schoolteachers. Hardly any one has taken a job in the Indian Army due to
different ethnic group than Gurung and Magars. A very few had gone in the foreign labour
market due to limited skill and initial capital investment needed to go for foreign employment.
Though there are some Baramus with formal education up to SLC and had to remain idle in lack
of job opportunities, so, they have a negative impact on education too.
Interview with the children pointed out that they are not going to schools due to economic
poverty of their parents. In reality, they have stopped going to schools, on the one hand, in lack
of books and copies and dress needed in the school and urgency to work at home and household
activities on the other. Some children pointed out that they could not continue school education
beyond primary level since they have go far from their home and have to afford for lodging and
fooding.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
According to the concerned authorities of the Gorkha DDC and the concerned VDCs, there is no
special program for Baramus as per their budget since they have limited budget. On the other
hand in Gorkha district, there are special government programs for the Chepang community from
48
the last three years. However, the Chepang programs have indirectly and partially benefited
some of the Baramu communities.
Recommendations
The study team in course of group discussions and interviews asked the Baramu community
members about their immediate and other needs, in priority basis, so that could be addressed by
different parties including the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their response
including those of the key informants in different issues are categorized as follows:
Recommendations concerning identity and language development
 Respondents of the Baramu community expressed their willingness to teach children in
‘Balkura’ language also. Therefore, they have suggested for schools teaching in their
language as well as publication of books.
Recommendations concerning economic and livelihood strategies
 Most of the farm land has lower productivity in dearth of improved seeds and modern
technique of farming, and irrigation facilities, therefore, it is necessary to give proper
training for intensive farming as well as providing irrigation facilities.
 At Masel VDC about 5 percent of Baramus are working as carpentry and masonry but in
lack of training and certain tools their efficiency is comparatively lower, so, proper
training is very necessary.
 Since some Baramus with SLC education are idle, some skill-oriented as well as incomegenerating training to them will help to generate self-employment in the village itself.
The respondents also urged for special program for promotion of employment in the
foreign labour market.
Recommendations on health and education
 Though most of the Siyars have access to health post in the villages there is problems of
medicines, so, the supply of necessary medicines should be done in time.
 Most of the Baramus are illiterate as well as poor, so, they need motivation to send their
children in the school for formal education.
 Those Baramus who are mostly illiterate as well as poor, they need awareness creation
about cleanliness and hygiene to improve the health condition in general.
Recommendations on indigenous knowledge and skills
 Need more skill-oriented training for making bamboo ‘Dokos’ and baskets to increase the
quality so that the problems of market could be resolved.
Recommendations for Immediate Projects
According to the key informants the immediate need of Baramus is to increase in farm
productivity and income. So, the proposed project is distribution of improved variety of potato
seeds at Thumi VDC since the climate is good for potato. Nepal Baramu Sangh and Gorkha
Baramu Sangh will jointly implement the project. The expected budget from JEP, NEFIN is Rs.
30,000/-. The project will be monitored by both Sanghs and will have to start from coming
Jestha. In the second stage, HYV maize seeds distribution can be implemented. At the same
49
time, the local people need awareness creation not to graze their livestock and poultry freely in
others’ farm.
The other need in priority basis is as follows:
1. About 5 percent of Baramus are carpenters and mason man at Takudada of Takukot
VDC. They need modern technique as well as equipment to increase their efficiency.
2. The DDC authority also pointed out for a special vocational training program to Baramus
in order to create self-employment opportunities.
3. Special interest-free credit programs as well as skill training to Baramus to go out for
better foreign jobs.
4. Programs of adult education in the village.
5. Need of a middle level school in the village.
6. Irrigation facilities through small canals in order to increase farm productivities.
50
2.6. CHEPANG
Introduction
The Chepang is one of the indigenous nationalities of Nepal. Like many other indigenous people,
Chepangs too share a common condition that they are at the bottom of the social and economic
indicators, placing them among the poorest of the poor. Historical exploitation by the state,
market forces and the richer section of the society, has resulted in massive destruction of social
fabric of Chepang society. In spite of their proximity to the capital city Kathmandu, with access
of motorable roads, they remain isolated and marginalized from the benefit of modern day life.
The total population of Chepang exceeds 55,000. Most of the Chepangs live in upper slopes of
Chitwan, Makwanpur, Dhading and Gorkha districts, in the Central Region of Nepal. Until early
part of the twentieth century, Chepangs lived in their homeland autonomously. Other indigenous
groups, Tharu in the south, Kusunda, Gurung and Magar in the north and west and Tamang in
the east are the traditional neighbours of Chepangs.
Chepangs are nature worshipers. Their main deity is Tonkola, which they worship once in a year.
Like many other indigenous people, they are also influenced by other religions including
Hinduism and Christianity.
Most Chepangs speak Chepang and Nepali fluently. Some Chepangs of Makwanpur district
speak Tamang language as well.
Ethnic Identity and Language
Chepangs have their own distinct culture, language, religion and value system. They are
originally animists who worship nature and variety of deities and spirits of their forefathers.
Their language is called Chepang language, which falls under Tibeto-Burman language family.
During his visit to Central Development Region in 1977, the late King Birendra took notice of
Chepangs and issued an order to initiate development interventions for the upliftment of the
community. He also declared that they should be called “Praja”(citizen) instead of Chepang, as
the word was considered derogatory, mainly by the dominant caste groups of surrounding areas.
Thereafter, Chepangs are called Prajas.
In the recent past Chepangs have reinvented their almost lost identity as Chepangs These days,
many Chepangs, especially the younger generation, want to be recognised and identify
themselves as Chepang rather Praja, as a result of their increased awareness and pride of their
ethnic identity. The establishment of the Nepal Chepang Association (NCA) in 1998 by a few
individual Chepang who wanted to launch various programmes for the common interest of the
Chepangs, has been one of the most significant changes within the community.
Population Distribution of Chepangs
More than 99 percent of Chepangs live in four districts: Chitwan, Makwanpur, Dhading and
Gorkha. According to 2001 national census the population distribution of Chepangs by district
and VDCs are given in Table 2.6.1.
51
Table 2.6.1. Chepang population by districts and VDCs (2001 Census)
S.N.
VDC
Population
1
Chitwan District
1.1
Ayodhayapuri
653
1.2
Bharatpur Municipality
334
1.3
Birendranagar
83
1.4
Chainpur
29
1.5
Chandi Bhanjayang
1336
1.6
Dahakhani
682
1.7
Darechok
1058
1.8
Jagatpur
18
1.9
Jutpani
41
1.10
Kabilas
540
1.11
Kathar
62
1.12
Kaule
3151
1.13
Khairahani
44
1.14
Korak
2634
1.15
Lothar
3258
1.16
Padampur
208
1.17
Patihani
16
1.18
Piple
1401
1.19
Pithuwa
27
1.20
Siddi
2827
1.21
Sukranagar
9
Sub-Total 18,413
2
Dhading District
2.1
Chhetre Deurali
16
2.2
Dhussa
2517
2.3
Gajuri
1050
2.4
Goganpani
65
2.5
Jogimara
2326
2.6
Kumpur
21
2.7
Mahadevthan
1857
2.8
Naubesi
52
2.9
Pida
2109
2.10
Sertung
6
2.11
Tasarpu
11
2.12
Tarke
298
Sub-Total 10,328
3
Gorkha District
3.1
Bhumlichok
911
3.2
Gyalchok
269
3.3
Makaisingh
570
3.4
Taklung
336
3.5
Tanglichok
648
Sub-Total 2734
4
Makwanpur District
4.1
Basamadi
240
52
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
Bhaise
306
Bharta Pundyadevi
1581
Bhimphedi
122
Churiyamai
162
Danda Kharka
218
Hadikhola
1443
Hatiya
202
Hetauda Municipality
150
Kalitar
1120
Kankeda
4056
Khairang
819
Kogate
7
Manahari
1069
Namtar
325
Nibuwatar
63
Padam Pokhari
19
Raksirang
2211
Sarikhetpalse
1205
Shreepur Chhatiwan
19
Sub-Total 17, 237
Source: Population of Nepal: Caste/Ethnicity, Mother Tongue and Religion, CBS 2001
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
The main sources of income of Chepangs are farming and livestock breeding. They also work as
labourers in road construction projects and porters in towns. Economically, most Chepangs are
poor and deprived of their basic needs. Their traditional livelihood is dependent in forest-based
agro-pastoralism, although departure from this practice is slowly emerging. The influx of nonChepangs in their traditional areas has dramatically changed the livelihood pattern of the
Chepangs. As a result of encroachment of land by outsiders, the hold of local population on
forest, fertile land and other natural resources has diminished considerably. This has been
exacerbated by the fact that most Chepangs do not have land-holding certificates. Moreover, the
Chepang inhabited areas are also susceptible to natural disasters. Every year, floods and
landslides in the hills have reduced several families into destitution.
Majority of the Chepangs suffer severe food deficit. Studies have shown that very high percent
of Chepang infants and children below two years of age, suffer from malnutrition. Furthermore,
over 80 percent Chepangs, above 16 years of age, who are eligible for citizenship certificates, do
not have them. More importantly, almost half of the households have been denied from receiving
land registration certificates of the land they have been cultivating for centuries.
Health and Education
Chepangs use faith healer called pandey when they fall sick. They also use different medicinal
plants and herbs to treat diseases. Most Chepangs have no access to modern health services and
facilities. There are few health posts in Chepang areas, which are poorly staffed with no proper
medical equipment. Nearest hospitals are in Bharatpur and Hetauda where majority of Chepangs
cannot afford to go for medical treatment.
53
Most Chepangs have no access to education for their children beyond primary level because
most of the secondary schools are located in towns where Chepangs cannot afford to send their
children for education. When they are asked why they do not send their children to school, the
common reply is that they are poor so that they cannot buy books and pay school fees. Recent
data shows that only 36 percent of Chepangs are literate, far below average national literacy rate,
which is 51 percent. A single Chepang youth is currently enrolled in university, clearly
indicating their marginalisation in the education sector.
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Chepangs possess valuable knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs. They collect
many kinds of wild fruits, herbs and fungus and sell to the dealers of pharmaceutical companies.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
Chepangs have established an ethnic organization called Nepal Chepang Association (NCA) in
1998. Now NCA has branches in four districts and 42 VDC. NCA is currently implementing a
large Chepang empowerment project with SNV assistance.
Support from Government, NGOs and INGOs
During his visit to Central Development Region in 1977, the late king Birendra had issued an
order to initiate development programme for the uplift of Chepangs. Accordingly, the
government initiated Praja Development Programme (PDP) under the Ministry of Panchayat and
Local Development. Until the establishment of NFDIN in 2003, Ministry of Local Development
implemented PDP through DDCs. In fact, it was the first ever development programme focussed
to an indigenous community in Nepal. But due to lack of proper planning and lack of
commitment on the part of implementing agencies, PDP could not bring tangible changes in
Chepang community. All activities were planned at central level without involving Chepangs in
planning processes. Consequently, the project designed to affect overall development of
Chepangs launched nearly two and half decades ago failed to deliver the results.
Since 1992, Netherlands Development Organization (SNV)-Nepal has been supporting Chepangs
in the areas of social mobilization, income generation activities, agro-forestry and Natural
Resource Management. Review of Praja Capacity Development Programme (PCDP) conducted
in 2003 had concluded that the project had positive effect on awareness creation and confidence
building among Chepangs. It was also found that average income of Chepang families in the
project areas increased due to supplementary income from sale of NTFP, agro-products and
goats. Now, Nepal Chepang Sangh has become an active partner in the implementation of
Chepang Mainstreaming Project funded by ICCO, a Dutch INGO and SNV/Nepal and the
project coverage has been expanded to four districts: Chitwan, Makwanpur, Gorkha and Dhading
where 99 percent of the Chepang live.
Needs and Priorities
Needs concerning ethnic identity and Language Preservation
Chepangs want to preserve their indigenous religion and culture. Young generation Chepangs
want to retain their original surname Chepang rather than Praja.
54
Some Chepangs have been working to develop curricula materials in Chepang language for
primary schools although government has not decided yet to introduce Chepang language in the
primary school curriculum.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
More than 80 percent of Chepang households face acute food shortages. From the discussions
held with Chepangs from Dhading, Chitwan and Makwanpur districts, it was revealed that 60
percent Chepangs have food sufficiency for 5-6 months, 30 percent have 7-8 months and 10
percent have 9-11 months.
Many Chepangs think vocational and technical education for Chepang youths can help to
increase their income and chances of employment opportunities. The Chepang Mainstreaming
Project being launched in Chepang areas also addresses the issues of livelihood, education,
citizenship and organization strengthening based on the identification of Chepangs’ needs.
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Chepangs suffer from poor health due to lack of knowledge about primary health care.
Conducting health awareness programmes particularly on maternal and child health is essential
for the improvement of health condition of Chepangs.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Promotion and preservation of indigenous knowledge on plants and medicine used by Chepangs
is needed. For this, research is needed to record and investigate the plants and their use as
medicine.
Ethnic Organizations
Nepal Chepang Sangh has already established its DDC and VDC level branches. The
organization still needs support in expansion of its activities at grassroots level. It is hoped that
Chepang Mainstreaming Project will address the issues.
Others
More than 70 percent Chepangs have no ownership on lands they cultivate. Therefore, land
registration is a priority for Chepangs because without land registration certificates, they can
neither sell nor transfer the land to their children and relatives when they want.
Similarly, more than 70 percent Chepangs have no citizenship certificates without which they
cannot register their land in their name. Therefore, one of the major activities of Chepang
Mainstreaming Project is to assist Chepangs to get their citizenship certificates and registration
of their land in their name.
Recommendations
Recommendations Regarding Ethnic Identity and Language
 Research should be conducted on history, culture and language of Chepang community
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Chepangs to obtain their citizenship certificates from CDO offices.
Recommendations Regarding economic and livelihood:
55




NEFIN/JEP should support Chepangs to promote eco-tourism in Chepang area. NEFIN and
Nepal Chepang Sangh in collaboration with Department of Tourism should explore
possibilities of promoting eco-tourism in Chepang areas. Chepangs must be involved in
planning and execution of such programmes.
NEFIN/JEP should assist Chepangs in building rural trail and other infrastructures for the
promotion of eco-tourism in the area.
NEFIN/JEP should provide training to Chepangs in small business schemes so that they can
take advantages of eco-tourism in the area.
NEFIN/JEP should assist Chepangs to obtain their land ownership certificates from the
concerned government offices
Recommendations Regarding Health and Education
 The government should establish more health centres and health posts in Chepang area
 NEFIN/JEP should share its experience with NCA for effective implementation of Chepang
mainstreaming project assisted by SNV/ICCO.
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Chepangs to introduce Chepang language in the school curriculum.
NEFIN should discuss this subject with the Curriculum Development Centre of the Ministry
Education for immediate action.
 NEFIN/JEP should make provision of scholarship for Chepang students particularly at
secondary and tertiary levels.
Recommendations Concerning Ethnic Organization
 NEFIN should assist NCA in the areas of office management and leadership through training
and workshops.
Recommendations for Immediate Project Support
Chepangs do not need immediate project for confidence building as Chepang Mainstreaming
Project is already there for their support. However, NEFIN/JEP should support Chepangs in the
areas of eco-tourism for their sustained development of their livelihood and they also need
support in the development of curriculum in their mother tongue. NEFIN/JEP should also
provide scholarship to Chepang children to improve their educational status. NEFIN/JEP should
involve Chepangs in training and advocacy workshops as participants/stakeholders. NEFIN
should also assist Chepangs organization develop networking with other similar ethnic groups.
56
2.7. HAYU
Introduction
Hayu is one of the highly marginalized ethnic minorities who needing special attention for its
protection and development. Hayu lives mainly in hilly area of Ramechhap and Sindhuli district
both sides of the Sunkoshi River. Now their dense settlements are found in three VDCs of
Ramechhap and four VDCs of Sindhuli districts. Their homeland what they believe is in
Ramechhap districts. According to CBS data of 2001 the population of Hayu is 1,821 and among
them 929 are female and 892 are male and Hayu language speaking population is 1743 among
them 896 are Female and 847 are Male.
We have selected two villages of two VDCs of Ramechhap for the study. One is Mudajor village
of Sukhajor VDC-2 and other is Wadi village of Ramechhap VDC-8. FGD revealed that there
were 850 HHs in Ramechhap district (Table 2.7.1).
Table 2.7.1 Hayu population and language retention
S/N
District
Total
F
M
pop.
Nepal
1,821
929
892
1.
Sindhuli
991
512
479
2.
Ramechhap
683
336
347
3.
Others district
147
81
66
Language
Speakers
1,743
301
75
1,367
F
M
896
157
38
701
847
144
37
666
Source: 2001 Census.
Hayus are at the verge of physical extinction due to growing pressure from outside and due to
lack of control and access to the natural and local resources. Therefore, Janajatis Empowerment
Program (JEP) should implement special programs to save this community from total eclipse.
Ethnic Identity and Language
Hayu settlements are found in hill area of Ramechhap and Sindhuli district. These settlements
are in both side of Sunkoshi River. Weaving and knitting of bamboo products are traditional
occupation of Hayu people. They have distinct culture and social norms and values.
They speak their mother tongue know as ‘Hayu language’. It is member of Tibeto-Burman
family. Hayu language is in a verge of extinction now. Only adult people use to speak their
language inside home. According to CBS data of 2001 only 1,743 people speaks Hayu language
and among them 896 female and 847 male. There is no any language preservation and
development work in this language. So linguistic study must be conducted to preserve, promote
and develop Hayu language.
Hayus worship nature and ancestors. They refer their religion as ‘Kirat religion’. Due to growing
strong influence of Hindus, they celebrate Hindu religion and festivals.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Main occupation of Hayus is agriculture and traditional occupation is bamboo products.
Nowadays they have less farming land. There are 70 HH in Bhatauli village among them 40 HH
57
have food sufficient for year and rest of all can only food sufficient for 3-6 months. It is the same
for Hayus of Manthali. They have to go outside to wage labour. Traditional occupation boating is
stopped due to Bandre, Karambot, Manthali and Seleghat Bridge in Tamakosi River.
Health and Education
Hayu use faith healers and traditional medicine when they become sick. They use leaves, roots
and barks of different plants and trees as medicine. Hayu children and adults suffer from diseases
related to malnutrition and sanitation. The common diseases they suffer from are fever, cough,
diarrhoea, dysentery, gastric and dizziness etc.
Most of the adult Hayu are illiterate. It is interesting to note that only two children have passed
IA in Hayu community in the area even though they are very close to district headquarter since
long time. But they do not attend school regularly due to poor economic condition. They have to
work in home and have to go for labour and supply firewood in nearby market.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Hayu People are able to identify different kinds of herbs and plant products for their medicinal
values. They have special knowledge on weaving of bamboo products. They can make ‘marcha’
too to make ‘fermented rice’ to sell and barter it.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
They are unable to mention any traditional organizations but they think that there must be some
organization. They have registered Nepal Hayu Utthan Samaj in Sunsari district office and it is
central level organization. They have also formed and registered Nepal Majhi Mahila Utthan
Sangh in Kathmandu district office.
Other issues
Hayu people have no any problem related to citizenship certificates. They say that they are able
to get if they requested for it. Most of them have citizenship certificates.
Community Needs and Priorities
During Focus Group Discussions and Key Person Interviews, Hayu people were asked about
their needs and priorities on different issues so they be addressed by different parties, including
the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their response including those of the key
informants to these questions are categorized under different broad headings as given below.
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Hayu wants to retain their ethnic identity as Hayu. They also emphasized the need for protecting
and promoting their language, religion and culture. So far, nobody has done any research on
Hayu people and community. Hayu also wants to preserve their traditional religion and culture
although it is becoming increasingly difficult for them due to outside pressure. They worship
river ‘ladi puja’ regularly in Phagun by Hayu of Bhatauli and in Baisakh month by Manthalis.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
Hayu youths need Income Generative training to enhance their skills and increase their
productive capabilities. Such training would help them to find better opportunities for
58
employment and escape poverty. Different PRA tools were used to identify economic and
livelihood related needs and priorities of the Hayu community. The findings is given below as
they priories:

Income Generating Activities - Goat Raising, Vegetable Farming

Skill Development Program

Employment

Saving and Credit Program

Off-Seasonal Vegetable farming
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Most of Hayu people use open fields for toilet purpose. Some of they have pit toilet in Wadi but
Modajor Hayu has no toilet. Because of poverty and poor sanitation Hayu children suffer most
from diarrhoea and other water-born diseases. Lack of knowledge among Hayu about primary
health care and sanitation also contributes to high rate of child morbidity and mortality in the
community. Therefore, improvement of sanitation and housing conditions are essential for them
to improve their health condition.
Most of adult are illiterate as pointed out by some of the key informants. So introduction of adult
education in mother tongue in Hayu village is essential to enhance their knowledge about basic
health, sanitation and livelihood strategies as well as language retention. It will raise awareness
on language and culture. It can also help them to promote their self-confidence and manage
meagre resources they have at their disposal.
Hayu uses to send their children to schools but drop out rate is very high because of extreme
poverty and lack of awareness about the value of education. Provisions of scholarship,
educational materials, schools dress and Tiffin can be incentives to Hayus children to attend
school. Our Research Assistant collected their needs and priorities it as follows:

Scholarship Program for school going children

Educational material and dress to Hayu students

Mother tongue education to have homely environment in school

Awareness Program on health and sanitation
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Hayus have good knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs. They are also good in
making marcha and jhand, which they sell and barter with grains in surrounding villages.
Preservation and promotion of such traditional knowledge and skills can benefit the community.
Ethnic Organizations
Hayu has registered ‘Nepal Hayu Utthan Sangh’ in Sunsari in 2054 and affiliated in NEFIN.
They are working with UNESCO, NEFIN and Pritisthan. They are working to preserve language
and culture. JEP can support this community through their organization.
59
Recommendations
Suggestion concerning identity and language development
 JEP should involve Hayu in its advocacy program so that Hayu are exposed to national
indigenous peoples’ movement in Nepal.

JEP should support to organize ancestral worship regularly to preserve cultural dimension of
Hayu.

JEP should provide necessary support to undertake linguistic study of Hayu language.

JEP should assign linguists to prepare basic linguistics work- phoneme identification, script
selection, standardization, dictionary and grammar in Hayu language.
Suggestion concerning economic and livelihood strategies
 JEP should provide support to Hayu to increase their food sufficiency around year.

JEP should support Hayu, through their local IPO, in activities, which help increase their
income and improve economic condition. Income generating activities include goat and pig
raising, bee keeping and vegetable farming.

Vegetable farming and Goat raising program for Mudajor and Goat raising in Wadi as they
felt need in FGD

JEP should provide vocational training to Hayu youths knitting and swing and other related
fields. Such training can help them to find better livelihood, jobs and increase their income.

JEP should provide support to Hayu to establish and run saving and credit scheme. The
project should provide seed money to start such projects.
Suggestion on health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Hayu, JEP should support them to
improve existing drinking water supply system and construct pit latrines in the settlements.

Information on primary health care and sanitation should be given to Hayu through their
mother tongue including Information Education and Communication activities in the
settlements.

JEP should provide non-formal education in their mother tongue for adults and out of school
children to make aware and preserve language.

JEP should provide scholarship and educational materials to Hayu children who are enrolled
in the school.

Budget should be provided to organize meetings with District Education Officer, Head
master and teachers to discuss problems of Hayu children in the school.
Suggestion on indigenous knowledge and skills
 JEP should provide fund to promote different kinds of herb products and market manage to
Hayu.
60

JEP should conduct deep research on indigenous knowledge, skills and practices of Hayu.
Findings of such study can help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge and skills of
Hayu community.
Suggestion related to ethnic organizations
 JEP should assist Hayu to institutional development of their ethnic organization in
different district and local level. Mobilization of this IPO will be helpful to NEFIN and
JEP to implement its program and activities effectively.
Action Plan/Immediate Project Support
Prioritised Needs of Hayu Community
Table 2.7.2. Immediate and long term needs and priorities
Prioritised Needs


IG activities - Goat
Raising (M/W) and
vegetable farming (M)
Immediate Needs

Goat raising program
(M/W)

Vegetable Farming
(M)
Health Post (M/W)
Long Term needs




Drinking Water in every
house (M/W)

Saving and credit
program


High School in Wadi

Mother tongue
preservation – Writing
system development
(M/ W)



Mother Tongue
preservation and
development and Mother
Tongue education in School
Electricity (M/W)

Access to Forest
resources (M/W)

Saving and credit
program

Health and Sanitationdrinking water and pit
latrine (M/W)

Awareness program
on Health and
Sanitation M/M)
Health Post (M/W)
Drinking Water in
every house (M/W)
High School in Wadi
Access to Forest
resources (M/W)
Electricity (M/W)

Health and Sanitationdrinking water and pit
latrine (M/W)

Mother Tongue
development program
M = Mudajor, W = Wadi
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2.8. KUSUNDA
Introduction
Kusunda is one of the ethnic groups of Nepal, which is almost at the verge of physical extinction.
Their total population is estimated to be about 40 to 45 living in nine to ten families. They are
scattered in Halbar, Hapur Bijauri, Bhaluhang and Jhanam VDCs of Dang and Rolpa districts of
Mid-west Nepal. Raja mama, a Kusunda widely publicized by the media is from Tanahu district.
Ethnic Identity and Language
These days most of the Kusundas prefer to pass as Thakuris who are high caste Hindus, since
Kusundas are regarded as low caste, therefore, despicable by high caste Hindus. Although they
do not belong to Hindu caste system they are often looked down and discriminated as
untouchables by the high caste Hindus in the surrounding areas. Therefore, to avoid harassment
and discrimination, they hide their real ethnic identity and claim as Thakuris.
Unlike other ethnic minorities, they do not live in groups, forming their own band or settlements.
Kusundas have been found to spread over different villages perhaps intentionally to avoid being
abused and harassed by other communities.
These days only a few Kusundas speak their language. The National Foundation for the
Development of Nationalities, in collaboration with the Linguistic Department of Tribhuvan
University, has taken initiative to record and document Kusunda language.
Should the government fail to protect them, Kusunda as an ethnic identity, will disappear from
the world sooner than later.
Population Distribution
From the field study, Kusundas are found in the following districts and VDC.
1. Dang district: Hatilaute VDC, Khandre VDC, Nidhubar VDC-5, Trivhuvan
Municipality
2. Rolpa district: Jhenam VDC
3. Tanahu district: Raja Mama and his family
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Most of the Kusundas do not possess land or property. They live in makeshift huts built on
wastelands near forest and seek employment as agriculture labourer in the surrounding areas. So
far the government has not launched any programme designed to settle them or for that matter,
protect these people from disintegration although millions of rupees are being spent in
resettlement programmes in Terai districts. A few months ago, two families have come to
Kathmandu valley from Dang in order to seek employment in brick and tile factory.
Some Kusundas still depend on forest for their livelihood. They hunt animals and birds and
collect roots and fruits in the forest for their sustenance. They also collect honey in the forests.
Health and Education
Kusundas use medicinal plants and herbs when they are ill. They know the value of different
plants and forest products use as medicine. They often collect such plant in the forest and sell
62
them in the market. They have no access to modern health services and medicines merely
because they cannot afford to buy such services. Even if medical services are provided free, they
are too timid to ask for services.
These days some Kusundas send their children go to schools. But Kusunda children encounter
many problems in the schools. During discussion with the children, it was revealed that Kusunda
children are often harassed and abused by other children and even by the teachers. As per their
version, to buy dress, books, bags and writing materials are beyond their reach. The school going
children also mentioned that they can not attend the school regularly since, at times, they had to
do without food, also play part in discouraging the children from attending the school. For
Kusundas, education for all by 2005 is merely a dream and rhetoric.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Kusundas are well known for their ability to distinguish between different plants for their
medicinal values and also forest products that are consumed as food.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
Kusundas have neither formal nor informal ethnic organizations.
Support from NGOs and INGOs
There is no NGOs or NGOs, which have been supporting Kusundas for their livelihood
improvement. Since last year, NEFDIN has been involved in the study of Kusunda language
through Linguistic Department of Tribhuvan University. Raja Mama, a Kusunda from Tanahu
district has received some financial support from NFDIN.
Needs and Priorities
Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation Related Needs
After receiving some assistance from NFDN through Indigenous Women Forum, some
Kusundas have decided to discard their false identity as Thakuris and happy to be known as
Kusundas. The changed mindset is going to help establish ethnic identity.
Kusunda language is at the verge of extinction. Efforts of NFDN and linguistics Department of
Tribhuvan University to document and preserve Kusunda language are commendable and this
practice should be continued.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
Discussions were held with Kusundas and other knowledgeable persons on various issues
including their needs and priorities concerning income generation and livelihood strategies. To
assess the needs of Kusundas, PRA involving Kusundas from different places was held in
Tribhuvan Municipality in Dang district. Needs identified by Kusundas in preferential order are
given below.
 Land
 Shelter
 Bee Keeping
 Vegetable farming
 Goat farming
 Poultry
63

Education
Most of the Kusundas have no land for cultivation. Providing them land and shelter may help
them improve their social and economic condition and preserve their language and culture.
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Due to their small and dwindling population, Kusundas need special attention from the
government and NEFIN/JEP. On the basis of discussions held with different key informants and
Kusundas themselves, following health and education related needs have been identified.
 Free health services in the hospitals and private clinics
 Free education for Kusunda children at all levels
 Scholarship to all Kusunda children who attend schools and colleges
 Provision of free dress, books, pen and pencils to Kusunda children
 Vocational training for Kusunda youth and adults
 Non formal education for out of school children and Kusunda adults
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Preserving indigenous knowledge of Kusundas about plants and herbs, which are useful as
medicine, are important. Preservation of such knowledge and skills is possible through research.
Ethnic Organizations
Establishment of ethnic organization and social network of all Kusundas are necessary. They can
preserve their language and ethnic identity if they are organized under an ethnic organization of
their own.
Recommendations
Recommendations Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language
 Kusundas should be encouraged to return to their original ethnic identity by exposing them to
workshops, training and discussions forums. Hence, NEFIN/JEP should organize such
activities in consultation with Kusundas.
 Advocacy programmes should be conducted to enhance self-esteem and self-respect for
Kusundas.
 NFDN and Linguistics Department of Tribhuvan University should continue their efforts to
document and preserve Kusunda language.
Recommendations Related to Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
 NEFIN/JEP should buy land for the settlement of Kusundas. However, settlement scheme for
Kusundas should be on voluntary basis. They should be encouraged to settle in one or two
settlements so that protection and preservation of their language and culture are made easy.
 NEFIN/JEP should launch income-generating activities for Kusunda involving them as
decision-makers as well as beneficiaries.
 The government should guarantee job to all Kusundas who have some education and
training.
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Recommendations Related to Health and Education
 All Kusundas should get health services and medicines free of charge in government and
private hospitals. NEFIN should lobby with government for such provisions.
 Education should be free for Kusunda children at all levels in government schools as well as
in private schools. NEFIN should take this issue to the government so that government
implement such programmes immediately.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide Scholarship to all Kusunda children who attend schools.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide free dress, books, pen and pencils to Kusunda children
 NEFIN/JEP should provide vocational training for Kusunda youth and adults
 NEFIN/JEP should provide non- formal education for out of school children and Kusunda
adults
Recommendations Regarding Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
 NEFIN/JEP should conduct research on indigenous knowledge system of Kusundas
particularly about plants and herbs that are useful as medicine.
Recommendation for Immediate Project Support
As a confidence building measure, NEFIN/JEP should provide food aid to Kusundas living in
different parts of the country. They should also be consulted regarding their settlement and
income generating activities to be undertaken under JEP project.
65
2.9. LAPCHA
Introduction
Outsiders call Lapcha as Lepcha, but they prefer to call themselves as ‘Lapcha’. They are
generally very polite and shy people. The uniqueness of their language ‘Rong’ is that it is spoken
softly and sweetly if spoken fast they believe the character of the language is lost. Their nature is
to respect guests.
History of origin
There are different sayings as to the origin of Lapcha. Some say they originated from Odar (rock
over hang), others say they originated in Himal and were spread from 8 people. The names of
places indicate that Lapchas were the original settlers. It is derived from the word Lep (to bury)
to Lap that became Lapcha means the tribe that are buried after death. (But now they are
cremated for lack of land to bury). This tribe extend up to Sikkim and were said to have settled in
Ilam. Long ago there was only one household of Lapcha. Lapchas were also found settled in
Karphok, Antu and Haspokhari in Kolbung VDC. Presently they are spread within the perimeter
of Darjeeling in the east, Maikhola in the west, Sikkim in the north and Jhapa in the south. The
main settlements (VDCs) of Lapchas are Panchakanya, Fikkal, Kanyam, Kolbung, Sri Antu,
Samalbung, Jirmale, Irauntar, Pashupati Nagar, Gorkhe, Jogmai, Shantipur, Godak, Laxmipur
and Namsaling.
Legend has it that long ago in Kottappa in Sikkim the royal family banished Yoglathok warrior
who came to settle in Ilam and began to organize Lapchas in Ramphok
After the unification by the Shah King, Lapcha who had won the battle are given the title of Kaji,
and the Subba as Rong and Mukhiya post is held by other castes as well. The first Kaji in the
area is known to be Yoglathok.
Lapchas live in sloppy land and the legend has it that when Lapchas were given a chance to
select land the preferred sloppy land as it is easy for slash and burn farming of kaguni or Kandak
(L) (similar to juneli) without back pain compared to flat land where one needs to bend for
farming.
Citizenship
Most Lapchas have their citizenship now because of the mobile camp held in order to facilitate
old people’s welfare disbursement of funds. Only about one percent population does not have
citizenship as they were still under age and not interested in obtaining.
(Table on Citizenship of different community insert)
Religion/belief practice, support needed,
Buddhism and Shamanism are the main religion of Lapcha. In Fikkal Ward 6, Ramphat, Kajini,
Panchakanya, They worship nature and the ancestors. Yuba Yuma (Male female) are the shaman
priests and are disappearing. In 10-15 years there will be no Yuba Yuma as new ones are not
being as trained to generate new ones. Nature is worshipped after every harvest of crops.
66
Lapchas observe the annual festival sakyuram and make puja to deity in November and
February. The puja require the items of tite pati, banana leaf, bans ko chungi, tip of sugarcane
plant, ginger, newly harvested rice, beaten rice, pangdur (alcohol from a variety of millet that
grows fast), river fish (not from aquarium), egg and chicken. Barley is also offered to deity in
puja and the deity gets angry if not offered. Then there is 3 yearly festival of thenburam done by
lama and thomram by yaba/bungthing the Lapcha priest.
Celebration of dashain the’ Hindu festival' is in declining trend although tika is still offered. But
since the last 2 years the trend to observe Namban=Lhosar the Lapcha New Year in last week of
December, is in increasing trend. The twelve-year cycle represented by twelve animals is
believed to sort out gods and devils in 12 steps killing each other. The devil that comes out in
different forms of animals and the pig kills all devils
Christian religion promotion have been discouraged by Maoists since the last 7-8 years otherwise
it was gaining ground.
Language
Rong is spoken in most communities with some degree of variance. Table Lapcha’s language is
called Rong. The importance of Lapcha Language is increasingly being felt by Lapchas these
days. This is also because there had been a number of studies in recent years inquiring on their
language and thus they began to feel the need to preserve the language. The concern and
preservation of Rong language is indicated by the use of their own language by the children.
Only school going children use Nepali language. Although children are humiliated and laughed
at when they use their language they still use it as private language when other groups are
around. In general over half the population 55% speak Lapcha well, another 25% have the ability
to talk and 20 % cannot talk in Rong Aring (Lapcha) and others speak Lum/Kuncha (Nepali).
The uses of Nepali language in schools and TV, and also by parents at homes have led to the
inability to speak Rong.
The group did Rong's phoneme and selection of standard language. The script falls under the
family of Tibeto-Burman. But various aspects of language development still remain to be done
as per Padam and Gyan Bahadur Lapcha who teaches and studied the language respectively.
There are three teachers who teach Lapcha.
Lapchas have their own script called Chhyoming and a written language. It has 10 vowels Akop
Ming and 28 consonants called Amo Ming. Uses of the written language vary in different
community but mostly used in Ward 9 of Fikkal, Kolbung and Jilbung VDCs. There are 3
teachers who can teach the language.
Culture of Lapchas is still rich in Kolbung and Jilbung which are in the interior area unlike
Fikkal, which is along the road, where, about 85% of children use Nepali as communication
language while other in areas only 15% use Nepali. Dawa and Chitra Bahadur Lapchas are the
resource persons on Lapcha culture where most people go to study. These two people are the
only ones who can narrate Namthet the holy book of the Lapchas.
67
Economic Conditions and/or Livelihood Situation
Land used to be owned by community prior to the Shah rule. Later years saw the practice of
individual ownership of land given for cultivation by Subba/Kaji to servicemen and those loyal
to the palace.
Wealth of Lapcha is differentiated by rounded house in the shape of an umbrella that allows
tying the livestock all around. The roof can be of thatch/shiru or phoos. Inside the sitting area
chyuthi/jyuthi sichuk and food storage is kept clean and decorated. Customarily, the elders are
served first while eating respectively followed by younger ones.
Temporary toilets are used by about 80-95 % of households and hence sanitation is acceptable.
Livestock are not kept around the house.
Observation of Settlements
The settlements of Lapcha community are generally dense and are also mixed with other groups.
The houses of Lapchas are mostly thatched (85%) with some roofed with tin (15%) while other
have mostly tin roof. Generally they have separate house for kitchen from living and sleeping
house. Water is generally available from local sources that people bring with own pipes.
Farming practices
Main crops grown by Lapchas are potato, wheat, maize, and tea. Livestock is generally looked
after by men; while women looks after the household. Access to forest is available mostly from
private forest. Community forest is not available around. The irrigation system of Fikkal VDC
had benefited all Lapcha in the area. Where canal irrigation does not exist, people bring water
from small sources through pipe for small-scale vegetable and potato farming. In Panchakanya
ginger farming is possible. From their owned land and farming of different crops, livestock and
dairy products thrives 5-6 months in a year for most of Lapchas. The rest of the year they need to
resort to wages earned from different activities like helping in tea garden, wood selling, craft
products etc. Forest resources and water is available that aids the farming systems. But Lapchas
are unaware about the policies of the government regarding agriculture, employment and
interventions in the area as they do not seem to be involved in the multitude of groups that are
very common. There are possibilities for coffee and floriculture but there is no access to
technical support or marketing facilities. Hunting in own private lands used to be practiced until
4-5 years before and is restricted now.
Employment
Off-farm employment during off-season includes house building, making bamboo jhak, doko and
other bamboo crafts. Tea picking is a good opportunity that gives employment in the area.
Collection and selling wood is another work available. To date only one person had gone
overseas to the Middle East for work. Many aspire to go abroad but do not get access or could
find resources to go.
Land ownership and women’s access
Difficulties in getting the ‘Lalpurja’ during the period of the Kajis who had to be bowed down
and appeased for providing land certificate led to many people not having land certificates of
land ownership. Now the officials had to be bribed therefore stands as an obstacle in getting
68
lalpurja. The distance to Malpot Office and lack of transport makes it further difficult to
commute and get land certificate and hence most do not have land ownership certificates.
Women do not own any property except their pewa (self earned) from selling alcohol. Women
have little control over the resources or benefits of land, forest, employment, collection of
medicinal herbs trade which men solely decide and control. Women contribute labour in most of
them. Women have control over only water, labour and savings in the micro-credit where
available.
Health and Education
There is no health post or school in the Lapcha community. The services are available at
Panchakanya Ward 9 (health post) at a distance of 2 and half hours walk from other Lapcha
community. During sickness they first treat with the medicinal herbs they know and consult with
Yaba Yama and only then visit Health Post. As such Lapchas suffer from health and education
problems as observed by NGOs. Most especially the problem of reproductive health is acutely
felt. Lapchas in general are too shy to talk about issues about reproductive health and thus
women suffer a lot of problems associated with it.
Regarding education, only primary schools are available in the Lapcha community and for
secondary/high schools children need to travel 2 to 2 and half hours, which is very far. Children
refer to other reasons of as beating by teacher, poverty and lack of food, and work at home for
not attending schools beyond primary level. Hence only 30 children have passed SLC. Education
among the Lapchas is poor and hence they are humiliated as ignorant and unaware people. Poor
education among Lapchas is caused by lack of education in mother tongue.
Status of Traditional Knowledge and Skill/Technology
Lapchas had the tradition to eat gittha, bhyakur, nettles, yam, simal tarul and oil from roasted
mustard grounded in stone. These are considered to be good food that act as medicines. These
needs to be preserved as traditions although availability of different food commodities now does
not require them to resort to eating these roots and tubers.
Lapcha area do not still have modern medical services. There is still the tradition of curing
different diseases with medicinal herbs. For instance feeding rate mudhe cures pneumonia,
diarrhoea by boiled root of raspberry and Jamuna bokra for 5 minutes or by Ratbise or guava
leaves boiled and consumed. Abhijalo, Chinpin, Haledo, Ratomato, Chiplejhar and Hadchur and
other 15 different items (21) are mixed to prepare a paste to plaster for fracture. Fever is cured by
feeding neem leaves, chiraito( and also tips of pineapple). Goats and pigs are cured with
abhijalo, dhobini jara, chhatiwan as medicines.
Lapchas had the traditional skill of making doko, namlo, and dori (rope) and jhallar a kind of
lace. They are facing problems in marketing of these products due to influx of manufactured
goods in the market. Professional skill development trainings are required to make their products
competitive.
Needs in order of Priority
Planning Officer at DDC expressed the need of study on Lapcha in Ilam and the organization of
the Highly Marginalized so that their needs could also be reflected in the planning process of the
69
District. He also acknowledges that to date the district had not addressed the needs of Indigenous
Peoples specifically.
National Identity, Language and Needs
All groups participated in the discussions overwhelmingly emphasized the need to promote
formal and informal education and teaching in Rong language as education is the only way to
increase awareness. They aspire for books in Lapcha at all levels in order to retain their language
and identity. To start with at least a book in each class can be introduced gradually more books
can be introduced and teaching initiated.
There seems to be an awakening that the language needs to be preserved and promoted for their
identity and culture. Although there is no culture of teaching in own language but some use to
talk private matters. As schools do not use the language, it contributed in endangering the
language. Lack of awareness in the past and absence of teaching/reading materials in Rong, and
the regulation of using Nepali language, and poor economic condition to develop own materials
are other factors that contributed in endangering Rong Ring language.
Religion
As the priests are disappearing, Lapchas have felt-needs to revive them by training to new
generation of Yaba Yama. Their own efforts are becoming inadequate to conserve and promote
the religion with generation of required number of lamas. Support is required from Government
including with financial resources in generating developing new lamas and to observe festivals
of Nambang and other festivals of Lapchas. The Gumba of Lapcha needs to be conserved but
remains unattended for lack of financial resources. Poor economic condition makes the Lapchas
unable to attend to religious needs.
Needs of Economic Livelihoods
Skill development trainings are necessary that could help in their employment other than in
farming. Trainings in health and education could generate service and also employment. Also
income-generating activities needs to be introduced.
Access to health education
Discussions reveal that lack of education in formal and non-formal education is a felt problem as
it attributed in lower level of literacy and education among Lapchas. Groups acknowledge that
there are 30 Lapchas who have passed SLC but none are employed. Lapchas constitute about 34% in the groups formed in the area for services like agriculture, forest, irrigation, micro-credit
and so forth. Most non-indigenous people view Lapchas as ignorant, passive, inactive and
incapable people and cannot benefit from the roles, they are not included. Local Reyukai Chapter
that has membership of 500 Lapchas out of 2,700 proves this. As the Chapter is chaired by Prem
Lapcha, it gives access to other Lapchas. Besides, Reyukai is similar to shamanism
Employment foreign
Subsistence from own farming is possible in general for 5-6 months and the rest had to be
covered from wages. Lapchas are generally seen as unaware group of people by others and hence
are not involved by development programmes and NGOs do not make investments. Some
programmes i.e. Gobar gas (biogas) even claim that Lapchas do not show interest. In other
70
micro-credit service like Sunkoshi saving credits, Lapcha’s groups were formed but poor service
was given because Lapchas live far and one and half hour downhill.
Lapchas do not make to any positions in the government’s decision-making levels at the district
or at the national. Even in army or in police Lapchas are not available. This means there is no
voice of Lapchas reaching anywhere.
To meet financial requirements Lapchas want to join work forces abroad but the long process
and lack of support in the process limits their participation. This is an area that could be
supported with proper information and trainings to meet the skills needed in working abroad.
Need for traditional and Modern Social Institutions
Lapchas have organized themselves an institute – Rong Sijum Thi. But it does not have an office.
JEP’s recent support with furniture and equipments will help to set up an office of their own.
Discussions with the NGOs at the district reveal that there are a variety of NGOs, Clubs and
private companies such as Mahila Manakamana Multipurpose Cooperative, Ptivara Gobar Gas,
Dims Club, NCDC, Juntara Club, Mirmire, Sungava, etc. working in the area who know about
Lapchas but do not particularly render services to them. There is general that are working in
cooperatives,
Recommendations
There is a unanimous acknowledgement that Rong needs to be supported and education provided
in Rong by the community and the local authorities. The authorities in the district also realized
absence of programmes' access to Lapchas. As a shy and polite group, Lapchas do not make their
habit to challenge interventionists to outreach them. However they now feel the problem of
economic resources as it hinders them from developing or conserving their language and
religion, culture and identities. Further their crafts and products are gradually facing marketing
problems. Consolidating from the group discussions and from the authorities in the district the
following areas were identifies as those that needs to be supported in the coming days:
 Rong language development and teachers training for the promotion of the identity of
Lapchas to protect them from being endangered. An overwhelming emphasis was
stressed on Rong language and teaching in their own language to educate and aware
people. It shows the level of consciousness among the Lapcha
 Reproductive and general health service to women and men and training to traditional
birth attendants and health workers from the community.
 Skill development and trainings in the preservation of indigenous knowledge on
biodiversity and medicinal plants.
 Scholarship and access to formal education beyond high school
 Improvement in agriculture and horticulture for better utilization of the opportunities.
 Quota in employment opportunity for Lapchas within and outside the country.
Work Plan
Lapcha Teachers to be prepared through training on language to 10 teachers for 6 months.
Trainers can be invited from Sikkim.
71
2.10. RAUTE
Introduction
This small report has been prepared on the basis of information collected by SFRA from the
Jogbudha and Shirsa VDCs of Dadeldhura district of far-west Nepal.
Raute are nomadic peoples, but they have settled life in Jogbudha and Shirsa VDCs of
Dadeldhura district. The total population of Raute is reported to be 658 (2001 Census) and the
total population of Raute in Jopgbudha is130 and in Shirsa is 193. They have distinct settlements
very close to the forest areas of ward -1 in Ampani village of Jogbudha VDC and ward 6
Rajyauda village of Shirsa VDC. But other communities have already encroached their
settlements and influenced their socio-economic life.
Present Condition and Problem Identification
Every community attempts to protect and promote their cultures, customs, languages, religion
and other traditional practices for their ethnic identity. But Rautes are about to loose their
cultures, particularly their traditional costumes, as a result of outsiders encroachment. Those who
still live nomadic life are still able to retain their traditional cultures, but those who were caught
and brought to Dadeldhura for permanent settlements in the decade of 80s have already lost their
traditional cultures. Because other communities tease and look them down, Raute call themselves
as Raut instead of Raute. Raute hide their real ethnic identity to outsiders. According to Sangram
Sing Raute, Raute hide their ethnic identity to get respect from other communities. Due to
influence of other communities and due to lack of consciousness, Raute have changed their ethic
names, used the dress of other communities and adopts' traditional occupation is woodcarving.
They make nice boxes and containers of wood.
Raute do speak their own language called Khamchi among their communities. This is a dialect of
Tibeto-Burman language family. They also speak Nepali Khasa Language and Dotel with other
non-Raute communities.
The Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Economically, the settled Raute do not look that worse. They produce not that little, but not
enough to support their livelihood. They own little land and produce mainly maize, wheat and
paddy. They also make wooden containers and sell them to supplement their agriculture
economy. They also work as wage agricultural labourers. Particularly, men work as wood
carpenters and women work as wage labourers. They depend mainly on the agricultural lands
provided by the government. But many of them have already sold that land. They told that the
sale of land is difficult, as they cannot transfer the ownership in buyers' names as Rautes have
only temporary kind of land ownership certificates provided by the government. Yet, Chhetris
and Kamis have already entered into their settlement areas to cultivate lands and raise animals
Present Situation of Health and Education
Raute are not yet conscious about the health and education even though they have already spent
about 22 years for their settled life. Only one Raute student has SLC sent-up degree. The rest of
the Raute students are below the grade five. This is because of their poor economic condition.
72
Those who are physically capable, their either work as wage labourers or they go to India to look
for employment opportunities. There is a Primary school in their own village from where they
can complete up to Grade Five. After Grade Five, they need to go to another village. Because
Raute students are poor, they cannot afford middle and high school education for their children.
Also because students from other communities tease and humiliate, Raute students are reluctant
to go to another village for their middle and high school education.
There is no health post in their settlement area. They need to go to district Headquarters that is
far from their village. They cannot afford the medical cost. They do not get equal treatment by
the health service providers in the health posts. If they go to Health post or hospital, the doctors
or other health service providers return their sick person without any treatment saying there is no
medicine in the health post or hospital. This compels them to entirely depend upon their local
faith healers (dhami/jhakris) to cure their sickness. As a result, they are not aware of the modern
medical health services.
Traditional Knowledge and Skill
Raute are wood workers. They make a variety of containers of the wood. Their traditional
wooden containers consist of wooden box called sandush and wooden bowls. They are skilfully
carved out. These days, they also make wooden plough, yoke and window. Raute depend heavily
upon the forest and forest products. These days, they do not easy access to forests as community
forestry program has restricted their access. This has cause to disappear their traditional
knowledge and skills.
Needs in order of Priority
Rautes identify themselves as Raut or Rajwar as they hesitate to call themselves as Raute in front
of others. Therefore they need programs that help them create awareness about their own original
ethnic identity. Because other communities look them down socially, they cannot openly call
themselves as Raute. The same is the case with their language and thus they have learned either
to speak Nepali Khas language or Dotel language. They speak their Khamchi language with their
family at home. This has cause to endanger their language and thereby their identity. The
medium of education in school is Nepali language and Raute school children are forced to learn
Nepali language. So education is Khmachi language is an urgent need for Raute to protect and
promote Raute language.
Needs of Economic and Livelihoods
There is no guaranteed market for the Raute products. So they are discouraged to produce their
wooden containers. They also need agricultural training as their economic life is based on
agriculture and agriculture wage labour. For the last two decades, Raute have their settled life,
but they do not have enough land to produce. Due to lack of adequate land, they are poor. In
order to strengthen their economy, they need income generating programs.
Needs About Health and Education
Because Raute are uneducated, they do not have knowledge about the modern medical health
services. Therefore, they need special training to raise their awareness about the health. Their
dhami/jhakri do have special knowledge about the health and they need to be protected and
promoted. They need special health training to link up traditional health practices with modern
73
medical health practices. Raute children from Jogbudha go to school, but the children from
Shirsa village do not go to school. They need special education campaign to motivate their
children to go to school. Raute children need scholarships as a special incentive for education.
The Raute need to have education in their language and accordingly curriculum should be
developed.
Needs about Traditional Knowledge and Skill
Traditionally, Raute make wooden containers and other items. But they do not have guaranteed
markets. Due to this, their traditional knowledge is slowly disappearing. They produced very oldfashioned wooden products that do not attract good market and heavy demands. So they need
special training to modernize their products.
The Traditional and Modern Social Institutions
The traditional institution headed by the community head, called mukhiya, rules Rautes. They
have a collective life, but they do not have ethnic association registered in the district
administration office.
Recommendations
Ethnic Identity and Language.
Due to encroachment of other communities, Raute's ethnic identity and language are in
dangerous situation. They need to have special programs to create their ethnic awareness and to
promote their language.
Economic and Livelihood
Raute do not have enough lands to support their family economy. The government has provided
2 to 3 kaththas of land for one family. This is not enough to maintain their livelihood. Many of
them have already sold their lands. Due to community forestry program, they are deprived of
their customary rights to use forest resources. They demand that they should have rights to use
forests without restriction. This needs special attention of the concerned authorities.
Health and Education
Due to lack awareness about education, due to economic poverty and due to language problem in
the school, Raute children find it difficult to go to school. Raute are also unaware of the modern
medical services. Therefore, they need scholarship programs for motivate for education and
health training to raise their awareness about the modern medical system. Their traditional health
practices should also be promoted.
Traditional Knowledge and skill
Raute have a rich traditional knowledge on woodworking. But they need training to modernize
their traditional skill so that they can modify their wood products for the markets.
Social Institutions
Raute do have a very strong traditional socio-political institution headed by the Mukhiya system,
This institution should be legally recognized and it should be strengthened. It can work as a
modern ethnic association if it is registered.
74
2.11. SUREL
Introduction
Surel is one of the many ethnic minorities who needing special attention for its protection and
development. Surel live in Suri village of Suri VDC-7 of Dolkha district. According to FGD in
the sites, the population of Surel households (HHs) is 32. Out of these, 30 HHs found in Suri
Village and 2 HH found in Khari village of Khari VDC of Dolkha. FGD revealed 7-9 HHs in
Darjeeling (Table 2.11.1.). Their total population is 128, with 45 females and 83 males.
Most of Surel People lives in Suri Village of Suri VDC. Only 2 HH lives nearby Village called
Khari of Khari VDC of Dolkha. Some of Surel lives in Darjeeling, India. They have gone for
wage labour.
Table 2.11.1. Surel population by VDCs
S.N. VDC/Ward
Village
1
Suri-7
Suri
2
Suri-7
Grownphi
3
Suri-8
Sumna
4
Suri-8
Suridobhan
5.
Khari-4
Khari
Total
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
HH
26
1
3
1
2
32
Surel people are also at the verge of physical extinction due to growing pressure from outside
and due to lack of control and access to the natural and local resources. Therefore, Janajatis
Empowerment Program should implement special programs to save this community from total
eclipse.
Ethnic Identity and Language
Some Surel people themselves say that they are the offshoots of Sunuwars who share almost
same language, tradition and culture and other says that they are not. They are a different ethnic
community though culturally and socially they are very close to Sunuwars. There is no
linguistics and anthropological study to say anything on this debate.
Surel speaks Surel language. Surel youth and children who are almost below 30 do not speak
Surel Language. New generation is not able to speak their language; it meant that this language
is in the verge of extinction. There is no any language development work in this language.
Linguistic study must be conducted to preserve, promote and develop Surel language.
Surels are animists who worship ‘Ewi’, nature and their ancestral gods and goddesses. Due to
growing strong influence of Hindus, they celebrate Hindu religion and festivals.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Surels had plenty of land for cultivating and grazing land even in time of Democracy Era but
they lost it gradually during the Panchayat era as reveal it in FGD. Now they are losing gradually
and even surrounding land also capture. Only two households have food sufficient for year and
rest of all can only food sufficient for 3-6 months. They have to go outside to carry load and
wage labour. Some of them manage their livelihood selling bamboo products in the village.
75
Health and Education
Due to poverty Surels have less access to modern medical services and facilities. They don’t go
to health posts for medical services; they instead use faith healers and traditional medicine when
they become sick. They use leaves, roots and barks of different plants and trees as medicine.
Surels children and adults suffer from diseases related to malnutrition, water and sanitation. The
common diseases they suffer from in are fever, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, pain in the body,
dizziness etc.
.
Most of the adult Surels are illiterate. It is interesting to note that only one child has passed SLC
in Surels community and he is studying outside the village. Now 23 girls and 17 boys are
enrolled in school (Table 2.11.2).
Table 2.11.2. Number of students by class by sex
Class
Girls
Boys
Total
XI
1
1
X
1
1
2
IX
1
1
VIII
0
VII
1
1
VI
1
1
V
2
2
I
5
1
6
III
2
2
4
II
3
2
5
I
8
9
17
17
40
Total 23
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
But they do not attend school regularly due to economic condition. They have to work in home
and have to go for labour.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Surel people are able to identify different kinds of plants and plant products for their medicinal
values. They have good knowledge of herbs. They can also make attractive bamboo baskets,
mattresses and containers and sell nearby village. These products can be further improved
through training and market will be villages and cities.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
They are unable to mention any traditional organizations but they think that there some
organization. They have registered Surel Jati Utthan Samaj in district some year ago but they are
not able to renew it. Now again they are trying to renew the organization. This organization is
product of local development concept not a community awareness concept.
Other issues
Surel people have no any problem related to citizenship certificates. They say that they are able
to get if they requested for it. Most of them have citizenship certificates.
76
Community Needs and Priorities
During Focus Group Discussions and Key Person Interviews, Surels were asked about their
needs and priorities on different issues so they be addressed by different parties, including the
government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their response including those of the key
informants to these questions are categorized under different broad headings as given below.
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Surel wants to retain their ethnic identity as Surels. They also emphasized the need for protecting
and promoting their language, religion and culture. So far, nobody has done any research on
Surels. Surels also want to preserve their traditional religion and culture although it is becoming
increasingly difficult for them due to outside pressure. Abire Surel (87) is an only man who
knows how to worship the ancestral gods, want to worship their ancestors and preserve the
traditional culture.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
Different PRA tools were used to identify economic and livelihood related needs and priorities of
the Surel community. The findings is given below as they priories:

Handicraft Production

Income Generating Activities

Employment

Access on Forest Resources
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Most of Surels use open fields for toilet purpose. Some of they have pit toilet. Because of
poverty and poor sanitation Surel children suffer most from diarrhoea and other water-born
diseases. Lack of knowledge among Surels about primary health care and sanitation also
contributes to high rate of child morbidity and mortality in the community. Therefore,
improvement of sanitation and housing conditions are essential for them to improve their health
condition.
Most of adult are illiterate as pointed out by some of the key informants. So introduction of adult
education in mother tongue in Surel village is essential to enhance their knowledge about basic
health, sanitation and livelihood strategies as well as language retention. It will raise awareness
on language and culture. It can also help them to promote their self-confidence and manage
meagre resources they have at their disposal.
Surels used to send their children to schools but drop out rate is very high because of extreme
poverty and lack of awareness about the value of education. Provisions of scholarship,
educational materials and tiffin can be incentives to Surels children to attend school. NEFIN has
provided some cash for scholarships but used by the parents. So proper channel should use for
better management for scholarships.
77
Surel youths also need vocational and short-term training to enhance their skills and increase
their productive capabilities. Such training would help them to find better opportunities for
employment and escape poverty.
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Surels have good knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs. They are also good in
making bamboo baskets, containers and mats, which they sell and barter with grains in
surrounding villages. Preservation and promotion of such traditional knowledge and skills can
benefit the whole community.
Ethnic Organizations
Surel has registered ‘Surel Jati Utthan Samaj’ some year ago to get support form DDC, Dolkha
but able to renew the organization and they are eager to renew it again. To receive support from
NGOs and I/NGOs even from line agencies Surels need to register/renew their ethnic
organization. This kind of organization can help them to preserve and promote their language
and culture more effectively. JEP can support this community through the ethnic organization.
Recommendations
Identity and language development
 JEP should provide necessary support to undertake linguistic study of Surels language.

JEP should assign linguists to prepare basic linguistics work- phoneme identification,
script selection, standardization, dictionary and grammar in Surels language.

JEP should involve Surels in its advocacy program so that Surel are exposed to national
indigenous peoples’ movement in Nepal.

JEP should support to organize ancestral worship to Abir Surel who is the only able and
living man to celebrate it.
Eeconomic and livelihood strategies
 JEP should provide support to Surels to increase their food sufficiency around year.

JEP should support Surels, through their local indigenous peoples' organizations, in
activities, which help increase their income and improve economic condition. Income
generating activities include goat raising, bamboo product and processing non-timber
forest products.

JEP should provide vocational training to Surels youths on bamboo product, carpentry,
knitting and swing and other related fields. Such training can help them to find better
livelihood, jobs and increase their income.

JEP should provide support to Surels to establish and run saving and credit scheme. The
project should provide seed money to start such projects.
78
Health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Surel, JEP should support them to
improve existing drinking water supply system and construct pit latrines in the
settlement.

Information on primary health care and sanitation should be given to Surels through their
mother tongue including Information Education and Communication activities in the
settlements.

JEP should provide non-formal education in their mother tongue for adults and out of
school children.

JEP should provide scholarship and educational materials to Surel children who are
enrolled in the school.

JEP should organize meetings with District Education Officer, Head master and teachers
to discuss problems of Surel children in the school. Harassment of Surel children to speak
mother tongue must be stopped in the schools as well as community.
Indigenous knowledge and skills
 JEP should provide fund to promote different kinds of bamboo products and market
manage to Surels.

JEP should conduct deep research on indigenous knowledge, skills and practices of
Surels. Findings of such study can help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge
and skills of Surel community.
Ethnic organizations
 JEP should assist Surel to renew their ethnic organization in the CDO office as well as
registration Welfare Council. Mobilization of indigenous peoples' organizations (IPOs)
will be helpful to JEP to implement its program and activities effectively.
Action Plan/Immediate Projects
Prioritised Needs of Surel Community
Prioritised Needs of Surel community are shown in Table 2.11.3.
Table 2.11.3. Prioritised Needs of Surel Community
Prioritised Needs

Mother tongue
preservation and development

Drinking Water

Health and Sanitation

IK/S- Bamboo Work
Production

Income Generating
Activities –weaving and
knitting, goat raising
Immediate Needs
Long Term needs

Institutional Strengthening
and Capacity build up of Surel

Drinking Water

Health and Sanitation

Mother tongue
preservation and development

Income Generating
Activities

IK/S - Bamboo work
Production

Access on Forest
Resources

IG activities - Goat raising
and Weaving & knitting

Food security Program

Employment
 Organization of Ancestral
79


Scholarship and Incentives
Access on Forest
Resources

worship
Opportunities
 Scholarship for school
enrolled children
Food Security Program

Employment
Opportunities

Organization of Ancestral
worship

Institutional Strengthening
and Capacity build up of Surel
People
Action Plan for SUREL Development Project (2005-2007)
Action plan for SUREL development project (2005-2007) is shown in Table 2.11.4.
Table 2.11.4. Action plan for Surel development project (2005-2007)
S/N
Program Activities
1.0
Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation and
Development Activities
Ethnic Identity Activities
Awareness and Advocacy Program on situation of
Surel People
Ancestral worship program to revive their cultural and
religious identity
Language Preservation and Development activities
Awareness Program on situation of Mother tongue and
important of Mother tongue education in Nepal
Writing System Development
Phonemes Identification,
Dialect Selection,
Script Selection and
Standardization
Primer Development
Basic Dictionary Work
Basic Grammar Development
Development of Conversational Work
Basic Literacy Book (NFE-Child) Development
*Basic Literacy Book (NFE-Adult) Development
*Community Discussion Class Material development
ICE (Information, Communication and Educational)
material development in mother tongue
Syllabus Development for Primary Education with
Curriculum Development Center
Textbook Development for Primary Education with
Curriculum Development Center
Economic and Livelihood Strategies Activities
Goat raising activities to poor households
Bamboo Production (local mats, baskets etc)
Market access to Bamboo Production (local mats,
A
1.1
1.2
B
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
2.0
01.
02.
03.
Implementing
Agency/ Person
Responsible Org. /
Person
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO
IPO/LSO
Abir Surel
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO
IPO/LSO
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
80
04.
05.
06.
07.
3.0
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
09.
4.0
01.
02.
03.
5.0
01.
02.
03.
04.
baskets etc)
Access to Community Forest to Surels
Vocational Training- carpentry, bamboo products,
weaving and knitting
Community mobilization for 'Saving and Credit
Program'
Food sufficiency program
Health and Education Activities
Aware program on health and sanitation
Drinking water management
Pit latrines as needed
NFE in mother tongue to support livelihood strategies
program
NFE for Out of School Children in mother tongue
Scholarship program to stop drop out
Educational Material support to School Going Children
IEC material development in mother tongue
Sharing Program with DEO, Headmaster /Teacher and
Community to encourage to speak mother tongue and
enrollment
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills Activities
Support to skill development of Bamboo Products
Market managements to Indigenous Skills
In-depth Research on Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
to preserve and promote
Ethnic Organizations Activities
Renewal of Surel Jati Utthan Samaj including
objectives on language, religion and cultural
development
Affiliation with Social Welfare Council and NEFEN
Effective 'Institutional Strengthening Development
Program' to IPO to run the program efficiently
Support program to implement the Surel Project
efficiently and independently
IPO/LSO/JEP
LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
LSO
PC/LSO
LSO/JEP
PC/LSO
LSO/JEP
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO/LSO
LSO/JEP
IPO/LSO
IPO/LSO/JEP
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO
PC/LSO
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and IPO
LSO/JEP
LSO/JEP
LSO/JEP
PC/LSO
PC/LSO
PC/LSO
IPO/LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
IPO/LSO/JEP
LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and IPO
PC/LSO and JEP
LSO/JEP
PC/LSO and JEP
IPO = Indigenous People Organization, LSO = Local Support Organization, PC/LSO = Program
Coordinator of LSO
81
2.12. THAMI
Introduction
Thami is one of the highly marginalized ethnic minorities who needing special attention for its
protection and development. Thami lives mainly in hilly area of Dolkha, Sindhupalchok and
Ramechhap district. Their homeland what they believe is in Suspa and Rangrangthali of
Chhemawati VDC of Dolkha districts. According to CBS data of 2001 the population of Thami
is 22,999 and among them 11,607 are female and 11,392 are male and Thami language speaking
population is 18,991 among them 9,608 are Female and 9,383 are Male (Table 2.12.1).
We have selected Kurathali (Gujarpa) village of Lapilang VDCs and Bhimesor Municipality -1 of
Dolkha district for the study. Thami people are distributed mainly in three districts- Dolkha,
Sindhupalchok and Ramechhap.
Table 2.12.1. Thami population and language retention by districts
S.
District
Total
Female
Male
Language
N.
pop.
Speakers
Nepal
22,999
11,607 11,392
18,991
1.
Dolkha
13,936
7,025
6,911
12,394
2.
Sindhupalchok
3,993
2,026
1,967
3,163
3.
Ramechhap
1,511
793
718
1,482
4.
Others district
3,559
1,763
1,796
1,952
Source: 2001 Census
Female
9,608
6,246
1,613
783
966
Male
9,383
6,248
1,550
699
886
Thami people are at the verge of physical extinction due to growing pressure from outside and
due to lack of control and access to the natural and local resources. Therefore, Janajatis
Empowerment Program (JEP) should implement special programs to save this community from
total eclipse.
Ethnic Identity and Language
Thami people identify themselves as ‘Thami’ and ‘Thangmi’. Their settlements are found in hill
area of Dolkha, Sindhupalchok and Ramechhap district. Focused Group Discussion reveals the
data of Thami distribution in different district and it is shown in Table 2.12.2.
Table 2.12.2. Thami population distribution of Thami by VDCs
District
Village Development
House
Female Male
Committee
Hold
1. Dolkha
Chhemawati
641
1127
1056
Bhimeswor Municipality
135
420
401
Sundarwati
174
436
468
Kalingchok
290
664
680
Sunkhani
21
58
56
Alampu
341
910
920
Khopachangu
131
353
383
Lapilang
534
1522
1465
Babare
261
761
747
Lakuridanda
48
157
155
Total
2183
821
904
1344
114
1830
736
2987
1508
312
82
Chilankha
Melung
Dandakharka
2. Sindhupalchok Chokati
Piskar
Karthali
Dhorthali
Sunkhani
Duskun
3. Ramechhap
Khaddevi
Dormba
Daduwa (Surke Deurali)
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
-
-
-
-
Bamboo products and nettle weaving are traditional occupation of Thami people. They have
distinct culture and social norms and values.
They speak their mother tongue know as ‘Thangmi language’. It is member of Tibeto-Burman
family. Thami people speak their language. It is not in a verge of extinction. Mark Twin, British
linguist studied it. According to CBS data of 2001 only 18,991 people speaks Thami language
and among them 9,608 female and 9,383 male. There is no any language preservation and
development work in this language. So linguistic study must be conducted to preserve, promote
and develop Thami language.
Thami are ancestors worship and believes that they originated from ‘Bhumyamthan’ of
Chhemawati. They also follow ‘Bonbo religion’ as they mentioned. Due to growing strong
influence of Hindus, they celebrate Hindu religion and festivals too.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Main occupation of Thami is agriculture and traditional occupation is bamboo products and
nettle weaving. Nowadays they have less farming land. Most of Thami have sufficiency for 4-9
months. They have to go outside to wage labour. Traditional occupation is no more surviving.
Health and Education
Thami use faith healers and traditional medicine when they become sick. They use leaves, roots
and barks of different plants and trees as medicine. Thami children and adults suffer from
diseases related to malnutrition and sanitation. The common diseases they suffer from are fever,
cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, gastric and dizziness etc.
.
Most of the adult Thami are illiterate. But they do not attend school regularly due to poor
economic condition. They have to work in home and have to go for labour and supply firewood
in nearby market.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Thami People are able to identify different kinds of herbs and plant products for their medicinal
values. They have special knowledge on weaving of bamboo and nettle products.
83
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
They have Mulmu and Khami system as traditional organizations. They have registered Nepal
Thami Samaj in district office and it is central level organization. They have also formed and
registered Thami Bidhyarthi Manch.
Other issues
Thami people have no any problem related to citizenship certificates. They say that they are able
to get if they requested for it. Most of them have citizenship certificates.
Community Needs and Priorities
During Focus Group Discussions and Key Person Interviews, Thami people were asked about
their needs and priorities on different issues so they be addressed by different parties, including
the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their responses including those of the key
informants to these questions are categorized under different broad headings as given below.
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Thami wants to retain their ethnic identity as ‘Thami’ and ‘Thangmi’. They also emphasized the
need for protecting and promoting their language, religion and culture. So far, less research had
done on Thami people and community. Thami also wants to preserve their traditional religion
and culture although it is becoming increasingly difficult for them due to outside pressure.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
Thami youths need Income Generative training to enhance their skills and increase their
productive capabilities. Such training would help them to find better opportunities for
employment and escape poverty. Different PRA tools were used to identify economic and
livelihood related needs and priorities of the Thami community. The findings is given below as
they priories:
 Employment

Traditional Skill Development and Marketing

Income Generating Activities
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Most of Thami people use open fields for toilet purpose. Because of poverty and poor sanitation
Thami children suffer most from diarrhoea and other water-born diseases. Lack of knowledge
among Thami about primary health care and sanitation also contributes to high rate of child
morbidity and mortality in the community. Therefore, improvement of sanitation and housing
conditions are essential for them to improve their health condition.
Most of adult are illiterate as pointed out by some of the key informants. So introduction of adult
education in mother tongue in Thami village is essential to enhance their knowledge about basic
health, sanitation and livelihood strategies as well as language retention. It will raise awareness
on language and culture. It can also help them to promote their self-confidence and manage
meagre resources they have at their disposal.
84
Thami uses to send their children to schools but drop out rate is very high because of extreme
poverty and lack of awareness about the value of education. Provisions of scholarship,
educational materials, schools dress and Tiffin can be incentives to Thamis children to attend
school. Our Research Assistant collected their needs and priorities it as follows:
 Awareness Program on health and sanitation

Scholarship Program for school going children

Educational material and dress to Thami students

Mother tongue education to have homely environment in school

Basic language development program
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Thami has good knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs. They are also good in
making bamboo and nettle products. They sell and barter with grains in surrounding villages.
Preservation and promotion of such traditional knowledge and skills can benefit the community.
Ethnic Organizations
Thami has registered ‘Nepal Thami Samaj’ in Dolkha and affiliated in NEFIN. They are working
with Pratisthan. They are working to preserve language and culture. JEP can support this
community through their organization.
Recommendations
Identity and language development
 JEP should involve Thami in its advocacy program so that Thami are exposed to national
indigenous peoples’ movement in Nepal.

JEP should provide necessary support to undertake linguistic study of Thami language.

JEP should assign linguists to prepare basic linguistics work- phoneme identification,
standard language selection, script selection, standardization, dictionary and grammar in
Thami language.
Economic and livelihood strategies
 JEP should provide support to Thami to increase their food sufficiency around year.

JEP should support Thami, through their IPO, in activities, which help increase their
income and improve economic condition. Income generating activities include goat and
pig raising and bee keeping.

JEP should provide vocational training to Thami youths knitting and swing and other
related fields. Such training can help them to find better livelihood, jobs and increase
their income.

JEP should provide support to Thami to establish and run saving and credit scheme. The
project should provide seed money to start such projects.
85
Health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Thami, JEP should support them to
improve existing drinking water supply system and construct pit latrines in the
settlements.

Information on primary health care and sanitation should be given to Thami through their
mother tongue including Information Education and Communication activities in the
settlements.

JEP should provide non-formal education in their mother tongue for adults and out of
school children to make aware and preserve language.

JEP should provide scholarship and educational materials to Thami children who are
enrolled in the school.
Indigenous knowledge and skills
 JEP should provide fund to promote different kinds of herb products, bamboo and nettle
products and market manage to Thami.

JEP should conduct deep research on indigenous knowledge, skills and practices of
Thami. Findings of such study can help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge
and skills of Thami community.
Suggestion related to ethnic organizations
 JEP should assist Thami to institutional development of their ethnic organization in
different district and local level. Mobilization of this IPO will be helpful to NEFIN and
JEP to implement its program and activities effectively.
86
INNER TERAI
87
88
2.13. BOTE
Introduction
Bote is one of the fifty-nine indigenous ethnic nationalities of Nepal as identified by the
government. Their total population is estimated to be around 8,000 and above. Majority of them
live in Chitwan, Nawalparasi and Tanahu districts although some are found in Gorkha, Lamjung,
Palpa, Sarlahi and other districts as well. Like Majhis, Bote also live close to rivers in Terai and
inner Terai regions. They live in close proximity. Botes have their own language, which fall
under Indo-European language family. Like other indigenous people, they worship nature and
ancestors.
Their main occupation is fishing in the rivers, which provide them food and income. They also
make boats and help people crossing big rivers in boats. But construction of suspension bridges
over the rivers and restrictions on fishing without license have severely affected the livelihood
and way of live of Bote people. Furthermore, establishment of National Parks and Wildlife
Conservation Areas in Terai and inner Terai region displaced many Botes from their traditional
lands. Most of the Botes are poor with little land and resources to support their families. In
Chitwan and Nawalparasi districts, majorities of the Botes live in extreme poverty. They work as
agricultural labourers in the villages to support their families. They also work in rivers sides to
collect sands and crushing rocks. Some work as construction workers and labourers in
Narayanghat and other towns.
Ethnic Identity and Language
Traditionally Botes had established their ethnic identity as boat builders and fishermen. They live
around riversides and help people crossing rivers in boats. From the field observations in
Chitwan and Nawal Parasi districts, it was noted that majority adult Botes speak Bote as well as
Nepali languages. Some Botes speak Tharu and Darai languages as well.
Like other indigenous people of Nepal, Botes worship nature and their ancestors. They also
celebrate Hindu festivals like Dasain and Tihar.
Population Distribution
Botes are found in many districts of Central and Western Development Regions. Their major
population distributions by district and VDCs are shown in Table 2.13.1
Table 2.13.1. Bote population by districts and VDCs
S.N.
VDCs
Population
1.
Chitwan District
1.1
Gardi
597
1.2
Parbatipur
386
1.3
Ayodhyapuri
267
1.4
Patihani
250
1.5
Bhandara
183
1.6
Jagatpur
156
1.7
Sukranagar
147
89
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
Lothar
93
Padamppur
90
Bachahyauli
71
Kaule
66
Bharatpur Municipality
57
Mangalpur
38
Chainpur
32
Sub-Total
2433
2
Nawalparasi District
2.1
Agryouli
459
2.2
Rajahar
196
2.3
Dipyapuri
94
2.4
Pragatinagar
134
2.5
Kawasoti
88
2.6
Tamasariya
71
2.7
Mukundapur
65
2.8
Tribenisusta
19
2.9
Narayani
14
Total
1140
3
Tanahu District
3.1
Byansi Municipality
572
3.2
Devghat
463
3.3
Purkot
94
3.4
Chhipchhipe
13
Total
1142
Source: Source: Population of Nepal: Caste/Ethnicity, Mother Tongue and Religion, CBS
2001
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Traditionally rivers were the sources for food and income for Botes. These days they have no
free access to forests and rivers, which were the chief sources for their survival in the past. In
Chitwan and Navalparasi districts, influx of migrants from the hills and other parts of the country
pushed Botes and other indigenous people further to the marginal lands and vulnerable areas.
Development activities, including construction of roads and eradication of malaria in Terai and
inner Terai proved counter productive to the indigenous people, including Bote, who became
poorer and landless in their own land.
Health and Education
Like majority of other ethnic indigenous peoples, Bote people are deprived of modern health
services and facilities, which are mainly concentrated in big towns and cities. They depend on
faith healers and traditional medicine for treatment when they become sick.
Majority of the adult Botes are illiterate. There are very few Botes who have passed S. L. C.
examination. Botes have no say in the management of local schools. During discussions in the
field, it was revealed that most of the Bote children leave school because they cannot afford to
buy books, dress and pay examination fees. They prefer to be taught in Bote language in the
primary schools rather than in Nepali, which is not their mother tongue.
90
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Botes possess valuable knowledge and skills related to aquatic lives. They also make fine
wooden boats and weave nets out of local materials.
Support from NGOs and INGOs
According to Botes in the field, there is no project or programme specifically designed for Botes
run by NGOs. Community Development Organization (CDO), an NGO based in Chitwan, has
helped some Botes of Chitwan to get their citizenship from the CDO office.
Needs and Priorities
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Although highly influenced by other religion and culture, Botes are keen on conserving their
ethnic identity. They want free and unrestricted access to rivers for fishing. They want their
language to be preserved and promoted. So far no efforts have been made to preserve and
promote Bote language by the government.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
In the past, Botes have heavily depended on rivers for their subsistence. Following restriction
imposed on them, they have suffered immensely. Thus, they want their rights to be restored.
Most Botes are poor and are exploited by other dominant groups. Implementation of income
generating projects in Bote settlements is essential to improve their economic condition.
Vocational and employment oriented training for Bote youths can help them to find alternative
sources of income. Lack of skills prevents Bote youths from seeking employment in organized
economic sector.
Distribution of land for landless and displaced Botes with irrigation facilities is one way of
helping Botes to sustain their livelihood through agriculture.
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Botes lack awareness about primary health care and sanitation. Launching awareness creation
programme in Bote communities can help improve their health condition. Most of the Bote
children suffer from diseases such as diarrhoea and dysentery, which can be prevented with the
improvement of knowledge about primary health care and sanitation.
Botes also need support for drinking water supply. Although they live close to rivers most Botes
have no access of clean water.
According to 2001 national census, only about 40 percent of Botes are literate. Field
observations shows that most of the Bote children do not go schools beyond primary level due to
extreme poverty and other reasons. Therefore, non-formal education for out of school children
and adults is essential to enhance their capabilities for self-development. Similarly, provision of
scholarship for school going children can help Bote children to continue their study until they
complete secondary level.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Preservation and promotion of traditional knowledge of Bote people particularly about
preservation of aquatic lives is important. Such knowledge can be preserved and promoted
through research.
91
Ethnic Organizations
Botes have established an ethnic organization called Bote Sewa Samaj based in Madi, Chitwan
district. Organizational structure and networking of the organization are very weak. It has not yet
been registered in CDO office. It needs support for institutional strengthening and development
of human resources.
Recommendations
Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
 NEFIN/JEP should help Botes conduct workshops, seminars and interaction programs on
history, culture and language of Botes.
 NEFIN/JEP and government should assist Botes to prepare curricula materials for
introduction of Bote language in primary schools.
Concerning Economic and Livelihood Strategies
 The government should guarantee Botes free and unrestricted access to the rivers for
fishing. NEFIN/JEP should assist Bote Sewa Samaj to lobby for advocacy for the issue.
 NEFIN/JEP should implement income-generating activities in Bote settlements in order
to help them to improve their economic condition. Bee keeping, goat farming and
production of vegetables are some of the income generation activities, which can be
implemented in Bote settlements.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide employment oriented training for Bote youths so that they
can find alternative sources of income.
 The government should distribute land for landless and displaced Botes. NEFIN/JEP
should consider this issue if it is within the limit of project fund.
Health and Education Related Issues
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Botes and local NGOs to organize activities to create awareness
on health and sanitation among Botes.
 NEFIN/JEP should implement sanitation programmes through Bote organizations to
construct latrine in Bote areas.
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Botes in improving drinking water supply in their settlements.
 NEFIN/JEP should support Botes to organize non-formal education for out of school
children and adults. Local NGOs or Indigenous Women Forum can implement such
activities with financial support of NEFIN/JEP.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide scholarships to Bote school children at all levels.
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Botes for advocacy and lobby with the Ministry of Education
for education in their mother tongue
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
 NEFIN/JEP should conduct research on indigenous knowledge of Bote people
particularly about preservation of aquatic lives.
92
Ethnic Organization
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Bote Sewa Samaj registered in CDO office and help
strengthening its institutional capacity and make it transparent and accountable to Bote
people.
 NEFIN/JEP should assist Botes to obtain their citizenship certificate from CDO offices.
Bote Sewa Samaj should develop a detailed programme strategy for this activity.
Recommendation for Immediate Project Support
Although Bote Sewa Samaj exists, it is not effective in mobilizing Botes for their ethnic and
cultural rights. Therefore, NEFIN/JEP should assist Bote Sewa Samaj in strengthening its
institutional capacity including development of human resources and basic office infrastructure.
Organizing a general assembly of Bote Sewa Samaj representing Botes from all respective
districts should be the beginning of implementing empowerment project.
Prioritised Needs of Thami Community
Pprioritized needs of Thami community are shown in Table 2. 13.2.
Table 2.13.2. Pprioritized needs of Thami community
Prioritised Needs
Immediate Needs

Income Generating Activities
–traditional skill (bamboo
and nettle), goat raising and
market management

Mother tongue preservation
and development

Employment Opportunities

Cultural Development

Education - Scholarship and
Incentives

Awareness program on
reservation

Food sufficiency program
Long Term needs

IG activities - Goat raising
and traditional skill
(bamboo and nettle)

Mother Tongue Development
Program

Vocational Training

Market management for
traditional skills

IEC materials development in
Mother tongue

Saving and Credit
Program

Awareness Program on
Reservation

Mother tongue
preservation – Writing
system development

Food sufficiency program

Scholarship, incentives
and educational materials
for school enrolled
children
93
2.14. DANUAR
Introduction
Danuwar is one of the marginalized ethnic minorities. Danuwar lives mainly in Inner Terai area
of Sindhuli and Udaipur district. It is also found in Kavre and Sindhupalchok districts. Their
homeland is not clear. According to CBS data of 2001 the population of Danuwar is 53,229 and
among them 27,037 are female and 26,192 are male and Danuwar language speaking population
is 31,849 among them 16,104 are Female and 15,745 are Male (Table 2.14.1). We have selected
Baireni of Triyuga Municipality-17 of Udaipur and Tamaghat village of Panchkhal VDC-6, Kavre
district.
Table 2.14.1. Danuwar population and language retention
S.N.
District
Total
Female
Male
pop.
Nepal
53,229
27,037 26,192
1.
Sindhuli
12,244
6,149
6,095
2.
Udaipur
7,425
3,811
3,614
3.
Kavre
5,715
2976
2739
Source: 2001 Census.
Language
Speakers
31,849
14,358
4,019
4,110
Female
16,104
7,217
2,027
2,144
Male
15,745
7,141
1,992
1,966
Danuwar people are at the verge of extinction due to growing pressure from outside and due to
lack of control and access to the natural and local resources. Terai Danuwar lost their cultural
heritage and adopted Hinduism but hill Danuwar is maintaining tradition and language.
Therefore, Janajatis Empowerment Program (JEP) should implement awareness programs.
Identity and Language
Danuwar is called as ‘Danuwar’ as well as ‘Rai Danuwar’. Settlements of Danuwar are mainly
found in Inner Terai area of Sindhuli and Udaipur district. The main occupation of Danuwar
people is agriculture and traditional occupation is net-weaving, fishing, bamboo products, cloth
weaving. They have distinct culture and social norms and values.
They speak their mother tongue know as ‘Danuwar language’. It is a member of Indo-European
language family. According to CBS data of 2001 only 18,991 people speaks Danuwar language
and among them 9,608 female and 9,383 male. There is no any language preservation and
development work in this language. Danuwar of Udaipur unable to speak their language but they
are eager to learn. So linguistic study must be conducted to preserve, promote and develop
Danuwar language.
Danuwar people worship ancestors and called as ‘Kul puja’. Due to strong influence of Hindus,
now they follow Hindu religion and celebrate Hindu festivals also called as Hindu.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
As mentioned above the main occupation of Danuwar people is agriculture and traditional one is
net weaving, fishing, bamboo products, and cloths weaving. Danuwars of Udaipur have less
fertile land and survive with wages in comparison with Danuwar of Kavre. Economic condition
of Kavre is well. They have food sufficient around the year.
94
Health and Education
Danuwar people also use faith healers and traditional medicine when they become sick. They use
leaves, roots and barks of different plants and trees as medicine. Danuwar children and adults
suffer from diseases related to malnutrition and sanitation. The common diseases they suffer
from are fever, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, gastric and dizziness etc.
.
Most of the adult Danuwar are illiterate. But they do not attend school regularly due to poor
economic condition. They have to work in home and have to go for labour.
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Danuwar People are able to identify different kinds of herbs and plant products for their
medicinal values. They have special knowledge on net weaving, fishing, bamboo products, cloth
weaving.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
They have Guthiyar system as traditional organizations and they do not know much more about
it. They have registered Danuwar Jagaran Samiti and its Head is office located in Dhanusha
district and it is central level organization.
Other issues
Danuwar people have no any problem related to citizenship certificates. They say that they are
able to get if they requested for it. Most of them have citizenship certificates.
Community Needs and Priorities
During Focus Group Discussions and Key Person Interviews, Danuwar people were asked about
their needs and priorities on different issues so they be addressed by different parties, including
the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Danuwar people of Udaipur are conscious on
health issue. They prioritise health (7) and education issues (6) in top and other are in less
priority (Table 2.14.2).
Table 2.14.2. Priority ranking of problems
S.N
.
1
List of
Problem
Education
2
Economy
3
Employment
4
Health
5
Irrigation
6
Transportati
on
7
Drinking
water
Educati
on
X
Economy
Education
Employm
ent
Education
X
Health
Irrigation
Education Education
Transpor
tation
Education
Drinking
water
Education
Economy
Health
Health
Health
Drinking
water
X
Health
Employmen Employme
t
nt
Employment
X
Health
Health
Health
X
Irrigation
Irrigation
X
Drinking
X
6
1
3
7
2
0
2
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
95
Their responses including those of the key informants to these questions are categorized under
different broad headings as given below.
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Danuwar wants to retain their ethnic identity as ‘Danuwar’ even though some of them are
interested to write ‘Rai’ or ‘Rai-Danuwar’. They also emphasized the need for protecting and
promoting their language, religion and culture. So far, nobody has done deep research on
Danuwar people and community. Danuwar also wants to preserve their traditional religion and
culture although it is becoming increasingly difficult for them due to outside pressure.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
Danuwar of Tamaghat of Panchkhal survives on agriculture and vegetable product and need
market for vegetable product. Danuwar youths need Income Generative training to enhance their
skills and increase their productive capabilities. Such training would help them to find better
opportunities for employment and escape poverty. Different PRA tools were used to identify
economic and livelihood related needs and priorities of the Danuwar community. The findings is
given below as they priories:

Income Generating Activities - Vegetable Farming and goat raising

Skill Development Program

Employment

Saving and Credit Program
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Most of Danuwar people use open fields for toilet purpose in study area. Because of poverty and
poor sanitation Danuwar children suffer most from diarrhoea and other water-born diseases.
Lack of knowledge about primary health care and sanitation also contributes to high rate of child
morbidity and mortality in the community. Therefore, improvement of sanitation and housing
conditions are essential for them to improve their health condition.
Most of adult are illiterate as pointed out by some of the key informants. So introduction of adult
education in mother tongue in Danuwar village is essential to enhance their knowledge about
basic health, sanitation and livelihood strategies as well as language retention. It will raise
awareness on language and culture. It can also help them to promote their self-confidence and
manage meagre resources they have at their disposal.
Danuwar uses to send their children to schools but drop out rate is very high because of extreme
poverty and lack of awareness about the value of education. Provisions of scholarship,
educational materials, schools dress and Tiffin can be incentives to Danuwar children to attend
school. Our Research Assistant collected their needs and priorities it as follows:

Scholarship Program for school going children

Educational material and dress to Danuwar students

Mother tongue education to have homely environment in school
96

Awareness Program on health and sanitation
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Danuwars have good knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs. They are also good
in making marcha and jhand, which they sell and barter with grains in surrounding villages.
Preservation and promotion of such traditional knowledge and skills can benefit the community.
Ethnic Organizations
Danuwar has registered ‘Danuwar Jagaran Samiti’ in Dhanusha and affiliated in NEFIN. They
are working with NEFIN and Pritisthan.
Recommendations
Identity and language development
 JEP should involve Danuwar in its advocacy program so that Danuwar are exposed to
national indigenous peoples’ movement in Nepal.

JEP should provide necessary support to undertake linguistic study of Danuwar language.

JEP should assign linguists to prepare basic linguistics work- phoneme identification,
script selection, standardization, dictionary and grammar in Danuwar language.
Economic and livelihood strategies
 JEP should provide support to Danuwar to increase their food sufficiency around year.

JEP should support Danuwar community to increase their income and improve economic
condition. Income generating activities include goat raising in Udaipur and vegetable
farming in Kavre.

JEP should provide vocational training to Danuwar youths knitting and swing and other
related fields. Such training can help them to find better livelihood, jobs and increase
their income.

JEP should provide support to Danuwar to establish and run saving and credit scheme.
The project should provide seed money to start such projects.
Health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Danuwar, JEP should support them
to improve existing drinking water supply system and construct pit latrines in the
settlements.

Information on primary health care and sanitation should be given to Danuwar through
their mother tongue including Information Education and Communication activities in the
settlements.

JEP should provide non-formal education in their mother tongue in Kavre for adults and
out of school children to make aware and preserve language.
97

JEP should provide scholarship and educational materials to Danuwar children who are
enrolled in the school.
Indigenous knowledge and skills
 JEP should provide fund to promote different kinds of traditional skill products and
market manage to Danuwar.

JEP should conduct deep research on indigenous knowledge, skills and practices of
Danuwar. Findings of such study can help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge
and skills of Danuwar community.
Ethnic organizations
 JEP should assist Danuwar to institutional development of their ethnic organization in
different district and local level. Mobilization of this IPO will be helpful to NEFIN and
JEP to implement its program and activities effectively.
Action Plan//Immediate Project Support
Prioritized Needs of Danuwar Community
Prioritised needs of Danuwar community are shown in Table 2.14.3.
Table 2.14.3. Prioritised needs of Danuwar community
Prioritised Needs
Immediate Needs

IG Activities – goat raising
(U) Vegetable Farming (K)

IG Activities – goat raising
(U) Vegetable Farming (K)

Employment Opportunities


Education - Scholarship and
Incentives

Mother tongue preservation
and development

Vegetable market
management (K)

Health and sanitation
program

Awareness program on
language and culture

Saving and Credit Program

Food Sufficiency Program
(U)



Long Term needs

Market management for
vegetable production
Employment
Opportunities -Vocational
Training

Saving and Credit
Program
Mother Tongue
Development Program

Mother tongue
preservation – Writing
system development
Health and sanitation
program

IEC materials
development in Mother
tongue

Awareness Program on
language and culture

Food sufficiency program
(U)
Scholarship, incentives
and educational materials
for school enrolled
children
U= Udaipur, K = Kavre
98
2.15. MAJHI
Introduction
Majhi is one of the ethnic minorities who needing special attention for its protection and
development. Majhi lives mainly in riverside of Sunkosi, Tamakosi and Dudhkosi rivers. Now
their dense settlements are found in different VDCs of Ramechhap, Sindhuli, Sindhupalchok,
Kavre, Okhaldhunga and Khotang districts. Their homeland what they believe is in the riversides
of Tamakosi of Ramechhap districts. According to CBS data of 2001 the population of Majhi is
72,614 and among them 36,247 are female and 36,367 are male.
We have selected two villages of Ramechhap for the study. One is Bhatauli village of Bhautauli
VDC and other is Gadawari-Manthali village of Manthali. FGD revealed that there were 850
HHs in Ramechhap district (Table 2.15.2).
Table 2.15.1. Majhi population and language retention by districts
S/N District
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Total
Population
Sindhuli
9,339
Morang
6,440
Ramechhap
5,510
Sindhupalchok 5,082
Sarlahi
4,909
Jhapa
4,339
Sunsari
3,111
Makawanpur
2,813
Udaipur
2,598
Kavre
2,535
Total 46,676
Language
Retention
2,816
1,818
4,710
0,787
1,514
1,017
1,296
1,183
0,642
1,358
17,141
Source: 2001 Census.
Table 2.15.2. Majhi population above 400 by districts
S/N
District
VDC/Ward
HH
1
2
3
4
5.
Ramechhap
Bhatauli
Pakarbas
Bhaluwajor
Manthali
Chisapani
Total
200
150
250
100
150
850
Total
Pop
792
764
1115
483
505
1840
Source: 2001 Census.
Majhi are at the verge of physical extinction due to growing pressure from outside and due to
lack of control and access to the natural and local resources. Therefore, Janajatis Empowerment
Program should implement special programs to save this community from total eclipse.
99
Identity and Language
Majhi settlements are found closely to the riverside. Fishing and boating and selling of fermented
rice are traditional occupation of Majhi people. They have distinct culture and social norms and
values.
They speak their mother tongue know as ‘Majhi language’. It is member of Indo-Aryan family.
Majhi language is in a verge of extinction now but Majhi of Ramechhap use to speak their
language in and around home. According to CBS data of 2001 altogether 21,841 people speaks
Majhi language and among them 11,014 female and 10,827 male. There is no any language
preservation and development work in this language. So linguistic study must be conducted to
preserve, promote and develop Majhi language.
Majhi people are tantarik and worship thikuri devi- ‘river goddess,’ nature and their ancestors.
Due to growing strong influence of Hindus, they celebrate Hindu religion and festivals.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Main occupation of Majhi is agriculture and traditional occupation is fishery and boating. They
also sell fermented rice ‘jand’. Nowadays they have less farming land. There are 70 HH in
Bhatauli village among them 40 HH have food sufficient for year and rest of all can only food
sufficient for 3-6 months. It is the same for Majhi of Manthali. They have to go outside to wage
labour. Traditional occupation boating is stopped due to Bandre, Karambot, Manthali and
Seleghat Bridge in Tamakosi River.
Health and Education
Majhi don’t go to health posts for medical services; they instead use faith healers and traditional
medicine when they become sick. They use leaves, roots and barks of different plants and trees
as medicine. Majhi children and adults suffer from diseases related to malnutrition and
sanitation. The common diseases they suffer from are fever, cough, diarrhoea, dysentery, gastric,
pain in the body, dizziness etc.
.
Most of the adult Majhi are illiterate. It is interesting to note that only two children have passed
IA in Majhi community in the area even though they are very close to district headquarter since
long time. But they do not attend school regularly due to poor economic condition. They have to
work in home and have to go for labour as they have proverb as ‘padi guni ke kam, halo jotyo
khayo mam.’
Indigenous Knowledge and Skills
Majhi people are able to identify different kinds of herbs and plant products for their medicinal
values. They have special knowledge of ‘marcha’ herbs to make. They can make ‘marcha’ to
make ‘fermented rice’ to sell and barter it.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
They are unable to mention any traditional organizations but they think that there must be some
organization. They have registered Nepal Majhi Utthan Samaj in Sunsari district office and it is
central level organization. They have also formed and registered Nepal Majhi Mahila Utthan
Sangh in Kathmandu district office.
100
Other issues
Majhi people have no any problem related to citizenship certificates. They say that they are able
to get if they requested for it. Most of them have citizenship certificates.
Community Needs and Priorities
During Focus Group Discussions and Key Person Interviews, Majhi people were asked about
their needs and priorities on different issues so they be addressed by different parties, including
the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their response including those of the key
informants to these questions are categorized under different broad headings as given below.
Needs Concerning Ethnic Identity and Language Preservation
Majhi want to retain their ethnic identity as Majhi. They also emphasized the need for protecting
and promoting their language, religion and culture. So far, nobody has done any research on
Majhi people and community. Majhi also want to preserve their traditional religion and culture
although it is becoming increasingly difficult for them due to outside pressure. They worship
river ‘ladi puja’ regularly in Phagun by Majhi of Bhatauli and in Baisakh month by Manthalis.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs and Priorities
Majhi youths need Income Generative training to enhance their skills and increase their
productive capabilities. Such training would help them to find better opportunities for
employment and escape poverty. Different PRA tools were used to identify economic and
livelihood related needs and priorities of the Majhi community. The findings is given below as
they priories:

Income Generating Activities - Goat Raising, Vegetable Farming

Skill Development Program

Employment

Saving and Credit Program

Off-Seasonal Vegetable farming
Health and Education Related Needs and Priorities
Most of Majhi use open fields for toilet purpose. Some of they have pit toilet in Manthali but
Bhatauli Majhi has no toilet. Because of poverty and poor sanitation Majhi children suffer most
from diarrhoea and other water-born diseases. Lack of knowledge among Majhi about primary
health care and sanitation also contributes to high rate of child morbidity and mortality in the
community. Therefore, improvement of sanitation and housing conditions are essential for them
to improve their health condition.
Most of adult are illiterate as pointed out by some of the key informants. So introduction of adult
education in mother tongue in Majhi village is essential to enhance their knowledge about basic
health, sanitation and livelihood strategies as well as language retention. It will raise awareness
on language and culture. It can also help them to promote their self-confidence and manage
meagre resources they have at their disposal.
Majhi uses to send their children to schools but drop out rate is very high because of extreme
poverty and lack of awareness about the value of education. Provisions of scholarship,
101
educational materials, schools dress and Tiffin can be incentives to Majhi children to attend
school. Our Research Assistant collected their needs and priorities it as follows:

Scholarship Program for school going children

Educational material and dress to Majhi students

Mother tongue education to have homely environment in school

Awareness Program on health and sanitation
Traditional Knowledge and Skills
Majhi people have good knowledge and skills about medicinal plants and herbs. They are also
good in making marcha and jhand, which they sell and barter with grains in surrounding
villages. Preservation and promotion of such traditional knowledge and skills can benefit the
community.
Ethnic Organizations
Majhi has registered ‘Nepal Majhi Utthan Sangh’ in Sunsari in 2054 and affiliated in NEFIN.
They are working with UNESCO, NEFIN and Pritisthan. They are working to preserve language
and culture. JEP can support this community through their organization.
Recommendations
Identity and language development
 JEP should provide necessary support to undertake linguistic study of Majhi language.

JEP should assign linguists to prepare basic linguistics work- phoneme identification,
script selection, standardization, dictionary and grammar in Majhi language.

JEP should involve Majhi in its advocacy program so that Majhi are exposed to national
indigenous peoples’ movement in Nepal.

JEP should support to organize ancestral worship regularly to preserve cultural dimension
of Majhi.
Economic and livelihood strategies
 JEP should provide support to Majhi to increase their food sufficiency around year.

JEP should support Majhi, through their local IPO, in activities, which help increase their
income and improve economic condition. Income generating activities include goat and
pig raising, bee keeping and vegetable farming.

Vegetable farming and Goat raising program for Bhatauli and Pig raising and bee
keeping for Manthali as they felt need in FGD

JEP should provide vocational training to Majhi youths knitting and swing and other
related fields. Such training can help them to find better livelihood, jobs and increase
their income.

JEP should provide support to Majhi to establish and run saving and credit scheme. The
project should provide seed money to start such projects.
102
Health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Majhi, JEP should support them to
improve existing drinking water supply system and construct pit latrines in the
settlements.

Information on primary health care and sanitation should be given to Majhi through their
mother tongue including Information Education and Communication activities in the
settlements.

JEP should provide non-formal education in their mother tongue for adults and out of
school children to make aware and preserve language.

JEP should provide scholarship and educational materials to Majhi children who are
enrolled in the school.

Budget should be provided to organize meetings with District Education Officer, Head
master and teachers to discuss problems of Majhi children in the school.
Indigenous knowledge and skills
 JEP should provide fund to promote different kinds of herb products and market manage
to Majhi.

JEP should conduct deep research on indigenous knowledge, skills and practices of
Majhi. Findings of such study can help to preserve and promote traditional knowledge
and skills of Majhi community.
Ethnic organizations
 JEP should assist Majhi to institutional development of their ethnic organization in
different district and local level. Mobilization of these IPOs will be helpful to NEFIN and
JEP to implement its program and activities effectively.
Action Plan/Immediate Project Support
Prioritised Needs of Majhi Community
Prioritised needs of Majhi community are shown in Table 2.15.3.
Table 2.15.3. Prioritised needs of Majhi community
Prioritised Needs



Immediate Needs
Income Generating Activities 
–goat raising and vegetable
farming (B), pig raising and bee
keeping (M)

Mother tongue preservation
and development (B/ M/ KTM)
Employment Opportunities
(B/M/KTM)

Long Term needs
IG activities - Goat
raising, vegetable farming (B)
and Pig raising (M)

Education materials
development in Mother tongue (B/
M)
Scholarship, school dress
and incentives and educational
materials for school enrolled
children (B/M)

Vocational Training
(B/M/KTM)
Mother tongue
preservation – Writing system

Health and Sanitation (B/M)

Saving and Credit Program

Awareness Program
103



Health and Sanitationdrinking water and pit latrine
(B/M)
development (B/ M/ KTM)

Education - Scholarship and
Incentives (B/M), school dress
(B), educational materials
(B/M), mother tongue education
(B/M)
Language Speaking
Course Development and
classroom management
(KTM)

Awareness program on
health and sanitation
(B/M/KTM)

IEC materials development in
Mother tongue
Awareness program on
health and sanitation
B = Bhatauli, M = Manthali, KTM = Kathmandu
104
2.16. RAJI
This small note has been prepared on the basis of information provided by Madan Ale. Under the
need assessment research program of highly marginalized indigenous peoples, NEFIN/JEP
research teams had sent Madan Ale to conduct field study and collect information on Raji
community of Surkhet, Kailali and Bardiya. From Kathmandu he flew to Dhangadhi on 13 th of
February 2005. But he could not go to Surkhet and Bardiya due to security reason caused by
intense fighting between the Maoists and the government’s security forces. However, he was
able to visit Kuchaini and Jhilko villages of Chaumala VDC of Kailali district and collected very
preliminary information on Raji community from there.
Rajis are one of the 10 endangered indigenous peoples of Nepal. The national census of 2001
reports 2,399 as their total population of Raji. But the Raji claim that their population is more
than 12,000 in Kailali district alone.
Raji are semi-nomadic people. According to them, the confluence area of Karnali and Bheri
Rivers is their main homeland. At present, They are found mainly in Surkhet, Kailali,
Kanchanpur and Bardiya. Their settlements are scattered mainly along the banks of river and
partly along edges of marginal public lands. Their houses are poorly constructed with wooden
poles and thatched either with green leaves or with thin plastic sheet.
Raji are divided mainly into two clan groups; naulake Raji and atharpanthi Raji. They speak
their own language with their own peoples and Nepali khas language with other people.
Raji are very poor, marginalized and exploited peoples. Because of the domination by others,
they look very timid and submissive people. They have not only hesitation, but they are also
equally reluctant to speak to other peoples, as many have raised their hopes and aspirations, but
one of them has fulfilled their hopes and aspiration so far.
Raji do not own any lands. They have also no job opportunities. Half of the time they move from
place to place to catch fish, hunt wild games and collect roots and fruits and subsidy their foods.
They prepare local beer and liquor and drink in excessive quantity.
Raji do not have permanent settlements. They have also do not have good houses to live. Their
small huts are built in a very unstable land. They need permanent settlements and immediate
support to get stable lands needs support to construct safe and comfortable houses.
They need financial support to raise their livelihood. Goat farming is one possible option to raise
their income. They also need skill development training to create job opportunities and saving
and credit program to improve their economic condition. They need tube well (hand pipe) for
safe and adequate drinking water.
105
Very few Rajis have gone to schools for formal education. Therefore, the literacy rate of Raji is
very low. They need books, bags, pen, pencils, uniform and stipends for their children to send
schools.
Raji are not aware of their cultural, economic and political rights. They are also not aware about
the outside world. Both of their traditional as well as modern community organizations are not
active to protect and promote their culture, language and other traditional customs and manners.
Their modern community organization Raji salmo is very inactive. They have not yet held any
regular meetings and general convention of their organization. So they need awareness raising
programs to protect and promote their socio-cultural, economic and political rights and
institutional support programs to strengthen their community organization.
106
TERAI (MADHESI)
107
108
2.17. DHANUK
Introduction
For the study of Dhanuk Janajatis at Duberkot VDC in Dhanusha district. Interviews with the
Key Informants as well as Dhanuks working at the DDC of these districts could not reveal about
the existence of the real Rajbansi Dhanuks there. On the other hand, one old man reported that
they could be in Jhapa or Morang district only.
Identification
The ethnic group of Dhanuks is migrated from India about 600 years back. According to one old
man aged 80 years named Rambilas Mandal, Village Mukhiya - at present residing at Janakpur,
said that initially they are called as ‘Rajbansi Dhanuk’ and they were expert in playing archery
which in termed as ‘Dhanus’ Nepali, so, they became ‘Dhanuk’. According to the concerned
authorities of the District Development Committee (DDC) and the key informants, there are
different types of Dhanuks like: Sirauha; Dhudawa; Maghaiya; and Sur Dhanuk. Among them,
Sur Dhanuks were untouchables till some years back. Most of the Dhanuks are also known as
Mandals, Kapar, Kurmi, Kusawa, Khatawe, etc. Among them, Khatawe Mandals are Dalits and
considered as untouchables. According to Rambilas Mandal there may be ‘Rajbansi Dhanuk’ at
Jhapa and/or Morang district. He further opined that the present Dhanuks or Mandals like to
recognize them as an upper caste group of Terai.
Ancestral Place
The total population of Dhanuk is 188,150 as per the Population Census of 2001. The
participants of the Focus Group Discussion (FGD) consisting of the local community leaders
pointed out that the main ancestral place of Dhanuk is Inner Terai of Nepal after migration from
India. At present, they are scattered in different districts. For example in Saptari district the
distribution of the population is about 21 percent of the total population of Nepal while in
Dhanusha 18 percent, Mahottarai 18 percent, Siraha 12 percent, and Bara 8 percent. The
household distribution of Dhanuks in those districts are scattered in all VDCs and Municipalities.
Citizenship
According to the key informants residing in the district headquarter as well as the local
community leaders present at FGD, about 80 percent of Dhanuks have got Nepalese citizenship
and the rest had some problems such as: Children born before 2038 B.S. had problem to get
citizenship due to ‘Angrikit’ Nepali citizenship of their parents; marriage relations with Indian
nationals; lack of land ownership and registration; not speaking Nepali language, marriage with
the Indian citizens, and so on.
Language
The mother tongue of the Dhanuk is Maithali. About 80 percent of the Dhanuks can speak
Maithali very well. Those Dhanuks who are residing in the hilly areas may not speak their
mother tongue very well. The other languages generally spoken by Dhanuks are: Hindi, Nepali,
Bhojpuri, and English. The students present in the Children’s’ FGD pointed out that the main
language spoken at home, friends and neighbours of own community as well as other community
is Maithali. In the school, the medium of instruction is generally Maithali but all will have to
109
write in Nepali language. The Key Informant pointed out that Maithali language has own identity
with vocabulary, published books and literatures, songs, films, etc.
With regard to the issue of willingness to teach their children in their mother tongues, the
participants of FGD consisting of the community leaders expressed their willingness to do so.
The participants also mentioned problems for development of the language as:
 No school teaching in Maithali language;
 Lack of text-books in Maithali language; and
 No recognition of the language in the government office.
Interview with the key informant of language gave the following observation, as shown in Table
2.17.1, about the situation of language development of Dhanuk at Dhanusha district:
Table 2.17.1. Writing system and its development in Dhanuk community
S.N.
Writing System and its Development
Yes
No
By the same
language speakers
1
1.1
Writing System
Phoneme Identification

Yes
1.2
Selection of Standard Language

Yes
1.3
Selection of Script - In Devnagari

Yes
1.4
Standardization

Yes
1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

Yes
1.6
Grammar

Yes

Yes

Yes
2
2.1
2.2
Language Development
Syllabus
Development
(Primary/Lower
Secondary/ Secondary)
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower
Secondary/ Secondary)
2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult)
Development

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child)
Development

2.5
Folklore Publication
2.6
Newspapers Publication
2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio /
TV)

Yes
2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine
Production

Yes
2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language
Source: 2001 Census.

Yes
Don’t know
Don’t know
110
Religion
The religion of the Dhanuks is Hindu and almost 100 percent of the people adopt this religion.
So, Hindu priests perform the marriage ceremony and other rituals. The main religious
ceremonies are: Durga puja, Chaath parba and holi. The participants pointed out that they have
no problem in this religion as well as in adoption of the religion.
Religious Organization
Dhanuks have their own religious organizations and the recent one is: Dhanuk Kalyan Sewa
Samiti located at Janakpur Municipality. According to the concerned authority of the Samiti
they are organizing religious ceremonies in the major festival from time-to-time at Janakpur.
Bases of Livelihood
Interview with the Key Informants were done at Duberkot VDC of Dhanusha district in order to
find out the bases of livelihood and economic viability. The findings show that the major base of
livelihood is agriculture and about 90 percent of Dhanuk are farmers. So, the major economic
activities are farming and/or livestock and fishery. There is no problem about access and
ownership of farmland. Some of them are facing problems of land registration in absence of
Nepalese citizenship. Some other households have problems of pastureland to graze their
livestock.
Economic Viability
Though agriculture has been the major source of livelihood to the Dhanuks, their economic
viability is not significant. About 80 percent of the farmers are small or middle level farmers, so,
they have not enough land to feed their families. On the other hand, about 10 percent of the
farmers are getting food products from their farm enough to feed their family for 12 months of
the year. On the other hand, about 20 percent of them get enough food for 9-11 months, 40
percent for 7-8 months and so on as shown in Table 2.17.2.
Table 2.17.2. Food sufficiency by months
Duration in months
Percent
12
10
9 - 11
20
7–8
40
5-6
10
3–4
5
0–2
5
Source: 2001 Census.
The livelihood base is, thus, not economically viable to support their households in all months
due to limited land as well as lower productivities. Therefore, in the months of shortages they are
supporting by cultivating as a tenant farmer and/or generally working in others farm in daily
wages. In addition, some of the households have their family members gone to India or to
Middle East or Malaysia and sent back some of their savings annually as remittances. During the
lean period, most of the Dhanuks are supporting their household income by working in daily
wages in construction or other economic activities.
Supports from NGO/INGOs
With regard to the support or help from any NGO or INGOs to the Dhanuks, the Key Informants
from Dhanusa, Siraha and Mahottari districts opined that there is no support or special program
in particular to Dhanuks from any NGO/INGOs. So, there is no development activity done in
order to increase their economic viability of the Dhanuk community only.
111
Access to Education
Most of the Dhanuks have access to education and their literacy rate is generally higher for both
male and female as compared to other Highly Marginalized Janjatis. However, they are
dissatisfied due to absence of school teaching in their mother tongue, that is, Maithali. About
access to education for women, there is lower tendency to send girls in the school as compared to
the boys.
According to Mandal (Dhanuk) Digdarshan written by Rambalak Mandal, the total population of
Dhanuk at Siraha is 20.008, out of them 6,527 (31.7 percent) are literate. Likewise at Saptari
district, the total population is 38,813, out of them 12,912 (33.3 percent) are literate.
The focus group discussion with the children of Dhanuk community revealed that most of them
are going to school. However, they have problems of textbook in their mother language and
necessity to write in Nepali language. On the other hand, some are not gong to school due to the
following reasons:
 Less affordability of the parent, so, they can not buy books and pencils; and
 Need to help for income generating activities at the household level.
Access to Health
Most of the Dhanuks have access to health in both government and private clinics. However, the
cost of service in the private clinics is very high as compared to their affordability. So, their
access to private heath services is limited. On the other hand, there is no traditional healer
representing the specific ethnic group of Dhanuks. About access to health for women, there is
some problem due to shyness and absence of female doctors as well as doctors of their
community.
Traditional Skills
The traditional skill and knowledge of the Dhanuks is agriculture and farming only and there is
no problem in adopting this skill and occupation.
Access to Employment
Most of the Dhanuks have access to employment as per their education and skill. However, the
number of employed Dhanuks in the government jobs is comparatively low due to limited
education and technical degrees. No one Dhanuks have taken a job in the military service. About
employment abroad, many had gone to India, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, and Malaysia and there
has been a great attraction to go there for full employment in recent years. Among the women,
there is lower tendency to go in the job market and get employment in the open market due to
shyness as compared to male Dhanuks.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
In the budget of the District Development Committee and Village Development Committees,
there is no special program for Dhanuks though they have been registered as highly marginalized
janjatis. However, the major problems faced by Dhanuks are: poor people do not have land or
they are marginalized farmers. In the farm, most of the farmers adopt traditional farming
techniques and there is no access to irrigation facilities. Most of the farmers also face marketing
difficulties do the middlemen and insignificant amount of surplus farm products.
112
Recommendations
During group discussions and interviews, Dhanuks were asked about their immediate needs and
other needs, in priority, on different issues so that could be addressed by different parties
including the government, donors, JEP and by themselves. Their response including those of the
key informants in different issues are categorized as follows:
Identity and language development
 The study of the Dhanuk community shows that this community may not fall under the
category of highly marginalized Janajatis due to their size of population, literacy and
employment rate, livelihood base, and economic viability. Some of the Dhanuks opined
that the present Dhanuks or Mandals do not like to recognize them as HMJ but as an
upper caste group of Terai. So, NEFIN/JEP should do necessary in-depth study to clarify
this statement and do necessary action to modify the classification of Dhanuks as one if
HMJs of Nepal.
 The mother tongue of the Dhanuk is Maithali and almost all of the Dhanuks can speak
Maithali. The participants of FGD consisting of the community leaders expressed their
willingness to teach their children in Maithali language by opening schools teaching in
Maithali language as well as by publishing text-books and recognition of the Maithali
language as one of government language.
Economic and livelihood strategies
 The major base of livelihood is agriculture and the average land productivity is low in
absence of irrigation facilities. So, such facilities can be increased by repair and
maintenance of the community managed irrigation through participation of the concerned
farmers.
 Allocating certain public and/or VDC land as pastureland can minimize the problems of
pastureland to the livestock. At the same time, motivation is necessary to keep livestock
within a boundary or fence to the livestock.
 The farmers should be given training about modern farming as well as intensive farming
technique so that they can increase their household income.
 There in problem in access to public pond, however, maintenance and cleanliness is very
important.

Some of the households have their family members gone to India or to Middle East or
Malaysia and sent back some of their savings annually as remittances. If more of trained
and semi-skilled youths could be sent, then the income and remittance can be
significantly increased. Besides this, the Dhanuk youth should be given skill-oriented
training in order to be self-employed within the village itself.
Health and education
 In order to improve health and sanitation condition of Dhanuks, the existing tube-well
should be repaired and should be checked about arsenic content.
 Awareness creation should be provided about the importance of pit latrines at the
household level as well as in the community.
113

Access to education particularly to the girls should be increased by creating more
awareness about the importance of education to all as well as by increasing their
affordability in general.
Recommendation for Immediate Projects
As compared to other HMJs, the population of Dhanuks in Nepal is significant numbering
188,150. The sources of livelihood and economic viability of Dhanuks residing at Siraha,
Dhanusha and Mahottarai are comparatively better than other HMJs. Many of the respondents
opined that their classification as HMJs might not be correct and suggested for revision of their
status. Therefore, the concerned authorities of NEFEN and Pratisthan should make a detailed
study about classification of the Dhanuks as HMJs of Nepal or not. Because of this, the issues of
the immediate project to increase their economic viability may not be relevant.
About the issues of Rajbansi Dhanuk who could be HMJ, most of the Key Informants and
respondents opined that there is no one at Siraha, Dhanusha and Mahottarai districts. On the
other hand, one old man aged 80 years opined that HMJ Dhanuks might be Rajbansi Dhanuk,
who may be residing at Jhapa and Morang. Therefore, the concerned authorities of NEFEN and
Pratisthan should explore the possibility of existence of the Dhanuks at Jhapa and Morang
districts and decide about the classification as HMJs in due course of time.
114
2.18. JHANGAD/DHANGAD/URAU
Introduction
Jhangad are known as ‘Urau’ and call themselves as such rather than Jhangad. The population
size of Jhangad/Urau is about 50,000 spread in and around Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa districts
of eastern Terai. The economic, social and political status of the community had pushed them in
the category of highly marginalized group. The appraisal study is base on empirical data from
Birendra Tol, Inaruwa Municipality, Raghudas Tol, Thitru Tol, Bhokraha; Bakhla Tol
Narsightappu, Kaptangunj in Sunsari District. The research team observed the communities of
their habitation, livelihood pattern and interacted on the issues of identity, culture, language,
access and control of resources and what needs to be done to enhance their status. Apart from the
community and its key people, the team also interacted with authorities at the District
headquarter and local centres like Bhadrapur, Jhapa regarding their view on Jhangad and how
district development addresses the community. Some observations were also made in
Mechinagar area in Jhapa, especially during the period of a wedding. The study is conducted
entirely during the 2 weeks bandh period imposed by Maoists in the eastern region and it
imposed limitations in the mobility and interactions with the community.
The people who speak Jhangad call themselves as ‘Kudukh’ meaning ‘us’ speaking Jhangad and
they appear dark in colour. These people look distinct from other communities not just in colour
but also in the settlement and its surroundings. The settlements are clustered as in Bakhla Tol
(possibly due to the clustered = baklo or thick) village, or Thitru Tol in Bhokraha, which is
scattered in nature, and in Raghudas Tol it is row houses along both sides of the road. But in all
these settlements the houses of Jhangad look poorer both outside and inside. Outside the poverty
of the house is reflected by the thatch roof and mud walls, with some exceptions of tin roof while
most other groups houses have tin roof. The surroundings of Jhangad community have poorer
sanitation while others appear to be better off in hygiene and sanitation. Inside the house, most
Jhangad’s houses have very limited clothing sleeping on the floor and few houses have beds
while the other groups have beds, blankets and clothing. The economic condition of the Jhangads
is very poor and as such had not been able to pay attention to education and health compared to
other groups in the surroundings. The livelihoods of most Urau are farming albeit it is limited in
small scale and they work in others farms as labourers.
Identity and Population of Jhangad
Interactions and findings from earlier research indicate that Jhangad came from Rajasthan during
15th /16th century to Nepal in search of work as labourers after the war of Santhal hul when they
protested against labour exploitation in India by the landlords. During the war, many who did not
participate in the war, moved to present day Nepal in order to save their lives. The original
habitat of Jhangad, according to researcher Sharad Chandra Raye, is Deccan Plateau while
Dalton, another researcher says their origin is in Koncan. These people seem to have moved
north from the area of their origin. As they moved towards the north one group settled in
Rajmahal hill and other group settled in the Chhotanagpur on the bank of river Koyel. It is also
noted that in Chhotanagpur they taught farming to Munda and were mixed with their group. It
looks as though some of the Jhangads were involved in the railway construction in the section of
Pani Tyanki and Galgale of Bihar area during the British rule and they settled in the forest area
115
of then Nepal. The deforestation process, possibly created by the railway construction in India
seem to have forced Jhangad to take up farming while they were hunters when the forest was in
lush state.
The fact that they were forced to move due to labour exploitation from historical period and
never received justice seems to have influenced their behaviour. To date they have continuously
been exploited by other people and are on the move as they have lost their land to the dominant
groups. They seem to have owned ample land in the past but lack of education and lack of access
to information regarding improved farming system have led to poor productivity that could not
subsist the population. As subsistence communities, they have no sources of cash income and
had to rely on local credits from loan sharks with exorbitant interests that led to indebtedness and
gradual dispassion of land to pay their debts. Presently most Jhangads have been relegated to
work in others land and live in land belonging to the landlords in exchange for one male member
working for the family full time. The sense of exploitation and disagreement with the landowner
seem to unsettle them continuously. Therefore the main outstanding problem of the Jhangad’s
seems to be the impermanent nature of their settlement.
Time has changed and changes have occurred among other groups but the state of Jhangad in
Sunsari, Morang and Jhapa remains where it was several decades ago and rather degrading by
the day. Due to lack of education and their unassertiveness, people seem to take advantage of this
group and have progressed at their cost directly and indirectly. Jhapa, Morang and Sunsari
districts have a range of NGOs working in various communities but the involvement of Jhangad
in those programs have been minimum.
Population of Jhangad
There are over 50,000 population of Jhangad in Sunsari district based on the focused group
discussion. They felt that there is another equivalent number in the neighbouring districts. This
needs to be ascertained through the baseline survey. In Sunsari alone there are 29 big and small
communities of Urau. The smallest community is Kaptangunj with 16 households and Jhokraha
Tappu the largest community has about 25,000 people. Other communities are in the range of
300- 800 households. The perceptions of communities on the size of their neighbouring
communities vary as shown in Table 2.18.1 and Table 2.18.2.
Table 2.18.1. Jhangad population of in Sunsari
S.N.
VDCs
Total No.
1.
Amaiwala
727
2.
Aurabli
125
3.
Bardiyabirta
1700
4.
Basandur
1500
5.
Bhokaha
2000
6.
Chhitaha
2500
7.
Dawabandi
160
8.
Dumraha
2000
9.
Gautampur
250
10. Ghuski
550
11. Jhokarha
Tappu
25000
Male
400
45
800
700
1200
1000
70
1100
100
250
Female
327
80
900
800
800
1500
90
900
150
300
No of HH
140
25
200
300
400
500
20
400
50
200
15000
10000
5000
116
12. Kabalasha
13. Kaptangunj
14. Karwabagej
15. Kushaha
16. Lauki
17. Madhuban
18. Mahendranagar
19. Mokaha
20. Mrigauliya
21. Musaha
22. Narsingha
23. West. Kusaha
24. Prakashpur
25. Rajgunj
26. Saterjhoda
27. Simriya
28. Sundarpur
29. Tanamuna
30. Total
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
400
241
100
3800
1800
1800
200
2090
750
1700
2200
1764
700
700
2500
250
250
1555
65885
150
100
70
1800
800
800
80
941
300
700
1000
925
300
400
1000
100
100
933
30864
250
141
30
2000
1000
1000
120
1149
450
1000
1200
839
400
300
1500
150
150
622
35021
100
16
20
1500
500
600
30
400
150
600
800
350
100
150
500
50
50
300
31291
Table 2.18.2. Differential Jhangad population in some communities from different informants
S.N.
VDCs
Total No.
Male
Female No of HH
Bardiyabirta
1500
800
700
200
Bhokraha
2040
1000
1040
700
Chhitaha
1636
900
736
320
Dumraha
1147
585
562
200
Ghuski
2500
1200
1300
500
Louki
300
100
200
25
Madhuban
2200
1000
1200
500
Madhuwan
981
540
441
190
Narshigha
1940
940
1000
700
Narsinhatappu
1940
1000
940
380
P. Kusaha
250
100
150
50
Pa. Kusaha
1700
700
1000
600
Singiya
170
70
100
25
Tanamuna
3500
1700
1800
700
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Citizenship
The number of people without citizenship varies from 10 percent in Inaruwa to 60 percent in
Birendra Tol, Inaruwa Municipality while Thitru, Bakhla have 40 and 30 percent residents
respectively without citizenship. In Raghudas Tol of Jhokraha, everyone has the citizenship as
claimed by the VDC Chair who happen to be Urau. The participants of the group discussions
said citizenship is not a major issue; people do not have the citizenship not because they cannot
get it but because they are mobile or because they are squatters and have no knowledge about the
need of it. Their continuous mobility within Terai and also in India in search of work makes it
difficult for some to get the citizenship, as they do not belong to any particular location. This is a
117
new phenomenon seen among the Jhangads. Still others could not produce the supporting
documents as they have lost the lands from their possessions. Most of them do not know how to
acquire citizenship without land and others could not understand the implication of it and care
less about obtaining it. In other cases women now want to have citizenship but husband would
not help in acquiring one. One woman was crying during the study period as the husband will not
get the citizenship and he feels she does not need it. It shows that women were probably the ones
that do not possess citizenship among those without it and those that were still under aged.
The findings of the study on the citizenship of Jhangad indigenous peoples in Sunsari district are
shown in Table 2.18.3.
Table 2.18.3. Communities with and without citizenship
Village/Ward
No./VDC
Birendra Tol 6
Inaruwa
Municipality
Resident
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
Inaruwa 7, Inaruwa Resident
Municipality
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
Raghudas Tola 9, Resident
Jhokraha
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
Thitru Tol 7,
Resident
Jhokraha
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
Bakhla Tol 9,
Resident
Narsinhatpu
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
Kaptanganj 5,
Resident
kaptanganj
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
With
Without
Citizenship Citizenship Reasons
100
200 Due to migrant population
2000
1500 under aged
150
1000 under aged
3000
10% Others are Sukumbasi
40000
15% Being Sukumbasi/squatters
50000
20% Being Sukumbasi/squatters
2500
2500 All have it
9100
900 returned to home
50000
Do not know
3000
1000 lack of awareness of citizenship
20000
5000 lack of education, labour
50000
22000 Migration and lack of knowledge
5000
2000 under aged and migration
4000
1000 Do not feel need of citizenship
15000
1000 Being poor and migration
800
200 under aged
500
550 under aged
400
100 under aged
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Language
The findings on the Kudukh language spoken by the Jhangads in Sunsari district are shown in
Table 2.18.4 and 2.18.5.
Table 2.18.4. Kudukh language spoken of Jhangad in Sunsari district
Village/Ward No./VDC
Birendra Tol 6
Inaruwa
Municipality
VDC
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
Inaruwa 7, Inaruwa VDC
Municipality
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
Total
300
2000
700
40000
50000
Not
Speaking Un-Ability Speaking
300
2000
700
95%
80%
5%
15%
Reasons
Mixed living
5%
118
Raghudas Tola 9, VDC
Jhokraha
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
Thithuru Tol 7,
VDC
Jhokraha
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
Bakhla Tol 9,
VDC
Narsinhatpu
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
Kaptawaganj 5,
VDC
kaptawaganj
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
2500
2500
9100
3000
20000
50000
5000
40000
1500
800
500
400
2500
2500
9100
3000
20000
50000
5000
40000
1500
800
500
400
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Table 2.18.5. Jhangad/Kudukh writing system and its development
S.N.
1
Jhangad/Kudukh Writing System and its Development
Yes
No
Writing System
1.1
Phoneme Identification

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script - Sambhora Tibetan or Devnagari
Script is not clear but initial attempt is in the process to develop
script of Jhangad/Kudukh language
1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
By same
language
speakers

Attempt is being
made by Bishnu
Dev Urau
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/
Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development – In Devnagari

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development – In Devnagari

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
119
Bases of Livelihood
The economic condition of Jhangad is very poor. Only about 10 percent of Jhangad have
adequate land and resource to thrive the whole year and the 90 percent have difficulties to meet
their daily requirements of food and clothing the year around. Even those who have ample land
could not subsist on land alone because the productivity is very low.
Support from Government NGOs/INGOs
District Development Officer in Sunsari out rightly said there had never been any demand from
Jhangad for any development activity and thus has no program aimed for this group. District of
Sunsari annually have some budget for Dalits and Janjatis but Jhangads have never approached
for this. DDC is also unaware if any NGOs were working in the Jhangad community. The
officer, however acknowledge that the main problem of Jhangad is lack of land, alternative
sources of income generation and marketing, lack of awareness and mental state and poverty.
Lack of education and proper health could be the factors that had led Jhangads to this state.
Interaction at the District Development Office in Jhapa revealed that there were nearly a dozen
projects aimed to support the deprives communities, such as Garib Sanga Bisheswor, District
Local Governance Strengthening Program, Poverty alleviation, District Transport Management
Program, Rural Urban Partnership Program, British Nepal Medical Trust, Eastern Gramin Bank
and other Village Development Program, etc. Plan International had been working for over a
decade in Sunsari but very few Jhangads have benefited from it as well. Many actually do not
know that Plan exists. Strangely enough, appraisals in the Jhangad communities did not reflect
that the Jhangad had been targeted from any of those programs. Local Development Officer (in
absence of locally elected Government) says that there is poor coordination between the
government and NGOs in out-reaching the deprived groups.
In general NGOs seem to have not focused them because they were not assertive in demanding
their rights. Because Jhangads speak different language, NGO workers, who were non-Jhangads,
feel they are inactive and often bypass them. Jhangads, on the other hand, as they do not get to
understand the approaches of programs like micro-credit or subsidies in different interventions,
are scared of being involved as they feel they may further loose what they have through
indebtedness. It explains clearly the quality of social mobilization for the indigenous peoples and
the approach of development interventions.
Education
Jhangad fall behind in education compared to most other groups in the area. Poor economic
conditions have been a main obstacle in sending children to school. As they do not have
alternative sources of income besides subsistence farming and labour works, their affordability is
very low for education. Some of them had tried hard to get jobs in neighbouring factories to
supplement their livelihood needs.
Health
Health awareness is low and the surroundings of their habitation clearly demonstrate their level
of health consciousness. As such most Jhangads have poor health. Their access is limited to
government's health services, as it is free, but their service is reputedly low quality. They could
not afford private health facilities. As Urau/Jhangad do not have women Community health
volunteers, most women are also deprived of the minimum health services being instituted at the
120
community level. Jhangad women indicated they have very poor access to reproductive health
services and most women do not get immunized Repro
Action Plan
Development and government programs have bypassed Jhangad for ages. As such their needs are
boundless and naturally so. As they observe other communities benefiting from numerous
programs, they express their hope to have a bit of share. The do not have the time to collectively
think out their strategic interest but can only quickly list some practical needs. The following is
the quick shopping list in response to the action plan for Rs 10,000 to 30,000. As very little is
possible with the amount allocated compared to their needs, they simply listed some programs:
1. Savings and credit program.
2. Income generating activities, i.e. goat raising, vegetable farming, etc.
3. Awareness program for the conservation of culture and social practices of Jhangad.
4. Conferences and public discourse to name their religious practice.
5. Scholarship program for children to send to schools.
6. Awareness raising program on health and mobile health camps.
7. Organisational development program to strengthen Jhangad’s institution.
8. Skill development program for the male and female school drop outs,
121
2.19. KHADIYA
Introduction
The rapid participatory appraisal of Khadiya, one of the 24 Highly Marginalized Janajati was
undertaken in the late February 2005 amidst the difficult environment caused by the state of
emergency and the mobility restrictions imposed by the Maoists in various parts of the country.
The 15 days bandh imposed by the Maoists in Jhapa posed limitations in the mobility (except
walking) of the study team to the Khadiya communities. As Khadiya researcher could not be
located, Santhal researcher undertook the task of conducting research in Khadiya community. As
the Khadiya community had never been involved in focused group discussion, they were quite
uncomfortable in responding and do not know how to respond to many questions and look
confused. So although groups came together, few members, most often men, gave response,
while others listened and gave concurrence to the response given by men. Women’s confidence
had yet to be developed in participating actively. Their role remains to be listeners only.
Inexperienced in giving information in the past, women feel strong hesitation that they may be
making mistake and hence remain silent observing only. Further the researcher also did not have
previous experience in research and it posed some limitations as well. The undeclared curfew
from 8 pm in the area posed difficulties, needless to say. In spite of it, the report is based entirely
on primary data collected through focused group discussions with communities and children in
Khadiya Basti Mechinagar Municipality. The district and local leaders also did not have a good
understanding on the situation of Khadiyas. The research team observed the communities of their
habitation, livelihood pattern and interacted on the issues of identity, culture, language, access
and control of resources and what needs to be done to enhance their status. As settlements in
other parts of the district could not be involved in the study, the report is largely based on the
Khadiya Basti of Mechinagar alone.
Identity and Population of Khadiya
Khadiya is also one of the 7 Indigenous groups in Jhapa, which fall under the category of HMJs.
Khadiya’s are not included in the 59 Indigenous Groups so far recognized by the government.
The 2001 Census noted a population of 1575 Khadiya in Kapilbastu and Jhapa (Table 2.19.1).
But the study indicated their main settlement as Jhapa and some other households live in Rangeli
in Morang, Damak. The Khadiya community has not listed Kapilvastu as their homeland.
Khadiya’s settlements are generally small and contained within the tea garden.
Table 2.19.1. Population of Khadiya
District
Khadiya
1,575 Kapilbastu
Jhapa
Source: 2001 Census.
Village Development
Committee/Municipality
Pakadi
Mechinagar Nagar Palika
376
99
Presently all Khadiya’s are labourers in the tea garden owned by private farmers/companies.
Khadiyas used to own about 1-2 bigha land in the past. As their situation started to get bad
Khadiya’s started to sell their land and eventually were displaced from their land. They have,
then, sought jobs in tea gardens. Their settlement is determined by the size of tea garden. The
community said their forefathers sold all their land to Gopal Karki who used to be their Mohi.
122
Now almost all households of Khadiya’s in Jhapa live in the land provided for housing in tea
gardens by their owners. Only two households have managed to acquire one and half bigha
land.1
History
History has it that the Khadiyas came from Jharkhandi hence they call themselves as Jharkhandi
Khadiya. The local community also knows them as Jharkhandi Khadiya. The Khadiya girls
engrave a scar on their forehead as symbol of Khadiya.
Stories had it that long ago Khadiya’s once lost all their cattle and could not worship Tihar
during new moon. Later they found the cattle after 15 days and observed the occasion as
‘Dhauni’ on full moon day. Tihar is called ‘Bandai’ when lights are put and people go to dance
from house to house in a festival called ‘Chhapail’.
The settlement size of Khadiya in Jhapa and outside is given in Table 2.19.2.
Table 2.19.2. Settlement size of Khadiya in Jhapa and outside
Table Population of Khadiya in Jhapa
VDC
Total No. Male
Data received from Dasrath Khadiya
Mechi Municipality
175
75
Bhadrapur Municipality
75
35
Jyamirgadhi
50
24
Damak Municipality
60
25
Sarang Pada
50
26
Gaurahatta
25
11
Total
435
196
Other settlements
Rangeli, Morang
Laphatti/gaurada
Female
No of HH
100
40
26
35
24
14
239
35
15
10
12
10
25
107
15
10
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
The figures show that there are more households in Jhapa than given by 2001 census but
Khadiyas' of Jhapa do not consider Khadiyas' of Kapilvastu as their community people. The
Phase II survey will perhaps give the figures more. The population size of females is shown as
40% more than the males. This also requires further inquiry as to the reasons of the differential
data and composition of male and females.
Khadiya’s main livelihood is from working as labourers in the tea gardens. They work from 7 am
in the morning at the rate of Rs. 70/day and are paid on weekly basis to permanent workers. In
addition to the wage permanent workers also get a set of tools like kalam chhuri Chhil Pharuwa
(pen, knife etc.) and bag to pick tealeaves and trim the plant.
1
Present cost of land in Jhapa rural area where Khadiya’s live is Rs. 20,000/Kattha or Rs. 400,000.
123
Citizenship
Focused group discussions in the Khadiya village in Ward 13 of Mechi Municipality showed that
about 40 percent of the inhabitants have citizenship and the rest have not acquired due to absence
of inadequate supporting documents (Table 2.19.3). Not knowing the need of documents in
support of citizenship. Another factor is that as all Khadiya’s work on a daily basis they will
loose their day’s wage.
Table 2.19.3. Citizenship by Ward/Village Development Committee
Village/Ward
No./Village
Development
With
Without
Committee
Citizenship
Citizenship
Khadiya Basti
Ward 13 Mechi
Resident
125
50
Municipality
Surrounding VDCs
150
180
Other district/areas
NA
NA
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Reasons
Inadequate supporting
documents
Under aged/no supporting
documents
Language
Khadiya have their own Khadiya language, which they use among themselves and use different
languages spoken in the area to communicate with others. The common language used by
different groups is called Sadri language to speak with Munda, Urau/Jhangad, Kisan and Santhal.
Children also speak Khadiya and other languages like Rajbanshi, Urau, Santhal, Dhimal, Hindi,
and Bengali. FGD showed that about 60-80 percent of Khadiyas speak their language well and
20 to 33 percent do not speak because they do not practice speaking at their households. The
language is in declining trend because it is spoken less at household and is not used in schools.
Many have not learned the language.
Children speak Khadiya at homes but in the school and locality they speak in Nepali. Dominance
of Nepali language had helped in loosing their language directly or indirectly. State’s lack of
attention in supporting and conserving the language discouraged the community from developing
the language. Their own poverty and need to struggle for survival do not allow them to think
about the loss of language, meaning that the race to meet the practical needs like food kept them
away from attending to their strategic interests like retaining language and investing in
developing their own script, books and so on. They were unable to develop books or magazines.
Survey indicated that Khadiya language writing system and language development is yet to be
developed in all areas (Table 2.19.4).
Table 2.19.4. Khadiya writing system and its development
S.N.
Khadiya Writing System and its Development
Yes
No
1
1.1
Writing System
Phoneme Identification

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script - Sambhora Tibetan or Devnagari

124
1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development – In Devnagari

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development – In Devnagari

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Khadiya also sees the importance of retaining their language and developing it to teach the
children and develop the script as well. As Khadiya’s are tied to their daily labour for living, they
do not have the luxury to think about developing language script etc. Many of these issues make
sense to them but are often far fetched to think about.
Religion
Khadiya have their own religion, which they call as Sarna. About 75% of Khadiya follow Sarna
but 25% have assumed Christianity largely because of economic destituteness. People who know
about Sarna and can explain are decreasing. They feel they have to explore more about their
religion in their heartland. Khadiya’s worship fish and regard it, as a symbol of their god. They
observe Khattu puja with alcohol (golang aarkhi) and wooden sculpture carved like a stack of
triangular shaped flower vase.
Bases of Livelihood
Khadiya squarely subsists on working in the tea garden and working as labourers in others farms.
They have no alternatives to survive. The wage merely survives them without any extra to do
anything else. Even if they manage to save a little and buy livestock, for lack of feed and forage
they cannot raise livestock. Even the opportunity of buying livestock form micro-credit does not
work with the Khadiya because they are landless and do not have the systems support in raising
livestock. Only 20 percent keeps goats to earn some money.
Working on tea garden is the only skill they have now. The reluctance in working in teagarden
for generations has left them without knowing their own traditional skills. The level of
subsistence pattern of Khadiyas is shown in Table 2.19.5.
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Table 2.19.5. Food sufficiency by months
Duration in months
Percent
12
1
9 – 11
5
7–8
20
5-6
25
3-4
35
0–2
14
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
In this pattern one percent have enough to survive from farm, 20 percent have some earning from
goat raising, next 5 percent have regular and 25 percent have irregular work in the tea gardens.
The others survive from various kinds of on and off-farm labour works.
The little land Khadiya’s own have neither access to irrigation nor water from the streams is
being managed to irrigate the lands. Their own resources do not allow them to organize resources
necessary to improve agriculture. Yet none of the governments programs seem to have reached
Khadiyas except the Eastern Gramin Bank, which could not succeed their micro-credit program
in the Khadiaya community.
For lack of education and qualification, Khadiyas have not acquired any jobs in the government
in any level nor in NGOs or private companies except in the tea gardens.
Besides, Khadiyas have not received any kinds of trainings in skill development apart from tea
related works.
Support from Government NGOs/INGOs
Interestingly enough the district authorities or any NGOs/INGOs have any knowledge about the
Khadiya group. They were actually blank about the group itself forgetting about issues related to
Khadiya. Perhaps for the first time they heard about the group. The LDO at the District
Development Office accepted that there are no programs specifically addressing the deprived
indigenous groups. They anticipated that this study would be useful to help them understand
about the group.
FGD with the Khadiya group revealed that as the group works as daily labour in the tea garden it
does not allow them to participate in the different intervention. Instead of organizing to suit the
context of the labourers, projects come with their own convenience and do not help to
accommodate the needs of the local community, such as the Khadiya. Therefore, Khadiya’s have
not been able to benefit from interventions supported by INGOs or multi-lateral programs.
Khadiya’s were not part of the dozen projects aimed to support the deprives communities, such
as Garib Sanga Bisheswor, District Local Governance Strengthening Program, Poverty
alleviation, District Transport Management Program, Rural Urban Partnership Program, British
Nepal Medical Trust, Eastern Gramin bank, NDCD and other Village Development Program,
etc. The only program they have is scholarship for the deprived groups under which Rs 50,000
were distributed last year. Khadiya’s did not seem to The loss of revenue this year from Rs. 1020 million last year to 1-2 million makes it impossible to focus on the deprived section as well as
it is hardly adequate to meet the operational cost of the DDC.
Education
Education level of Khadiya is low. Two persons had passed S.L.C. (Table 2.19.6). Clearly the
opportunity cost of education had been high, as everyone in the family needs to work to earn a
living. However, the newer generation of children are all sent to school as they realize the
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importance of education. All children go to school now. The language used in the school is
Nepali and it contributes in decreasing the importance of Khadiya language.
Table 2.19.6. Education Level of Khadiya
Level
Number
graduates
S.L.C.
10th grade
High School
Lower Secondary
Primary
Total
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
of
2
4
10
15
30
61
Apart from the economic reasons, the lower level of education is due to teaching done only in
Nepali language, which is not the language of the Khadiya. Therefore, Khadiyas find it difficult
to understand Nepali language. The teachers also come from other communities, and the children
do not understand their language. Schools are also not available in the Khadiya community.
The children present in FGD expressed that schools are located far from Khadiya village and
makes it difficult to attend schools and there are no transport system for the children to commute.
Some children do not go to school because they are too poor to afford to join or pay for books
and stationary and be regular in classes despite their willingness. As parents do not understand
the importance of education, they do not send their children. Poor economic condition stands as
obstacles in paying for school dress and school fees in time.
Health
Khadiyas have poor health status. They have no potable water source, nor toilets or drainage
system. They rely on stream for all purposes. Lack of these basic services is certainly a problem
among the Khadiya. Again poor economic condition is referred as a primary reason of poor
health as they cannot afford to improve the living conditions. While traditional beliefs acts as the
barrier in reaching the available health services, low levels of education and not having Khadiya
any key position of decision level had excluded Khadiya from accessing services from health
posts as these services are away from the communities. The government services are often poor
and could not be relied. However, the private health services available in the district or outside
the district are beyond the affordability of all the Khadiya.
Traditional Skills
The appraisal survey did not indicate that the Khadiya have any traditional skills. The short
period of study to explore in depth could be one reason that the skills did not surface. This would
be one agenda to cover in the Phase II study.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
Khadiya call their organization as Karatthaha. If there had been their organization, it is certainly
not in an active state. They felt the need to organize themselves through their institution and be
the federated member of NEFIN. Their awareness about NEFIN is very recent. But still they do
not know how to form an organization, as the opportunity cost could be high since everyone
127
lives form daily earnings. This study itself had exposed them to the efforts of other Indigenous
groups form Jhapa and they aspire that JEP could help in organizing their community in an
organization.
Other Problem
Khadiyas lack basic services like water, sanitation, drainage or any services. There is no
telephone, no private wells except public wells. The respective VDCs and DDC do not recognize
Khadiya’s needs for development or to include them in the ongoing programs in the district. As
such exclusion of the indigenous and voiceless people prevails as a rule. Do not know how to
make claims of their rights at their ward level.
Priorities and recommendations
Identity and Language
Khadiya is yet another group whose identity is known only to themselves and some other groups
in the neighbourhood. Many groups in the country have little knowledge about them including
the government and non-government organizations that are responsible for the area. The
Khadiyas are gripped in their own survival and had little time left to think and demonstrate their
distinct identity. Their language and culture needs to be enhanced with required support.
Although not doing much on their own, Khadiyas have acknowledged that their language and
culture needs to be retained and the aspects of their religion researched from their original
habitats.
Religion
Awareness program based on religion needs to be supported and promoted to retain their
religion. Documentation and exploration of their religion and the meaning of practices is
necessary. The economic deprivation had reluctantly changed the religion of many and is still se
in motion. Different interventions for economic growth could indirectly help them to retain their
identity.
Education
Participants of FGD strongly spelled out the need of schools and teaching in mother tongue of
Khadiya. Non-formal education in Khadiya language needs to be given to those who have not
gone to schools. Developing curriculum and books in Khadiya would be highly appreciable.
Need to develop teachers among the Khadiya. They feel that until scholarships are made
available and reservation policies are in place, the level of education of Khadiya may not change
very much. Education is the vehicle to bring change in their community, and therefore, is listed
as the top priority of the Khadiya.
In order of Priority:
1. Education
2. Transportation
3. Access to health services
4. Toilets
5. Organisation.
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Recommendations
 Organisation of Khadiya community is absolutely required to organize themselves and to
voice their concern.
 Poor economic condition is paramount among the Khadiya as they are trapped in the tea
garden for daily survival. Skills in different activities are a necessity to give breakthrough
for their enhanced livelihoods.
 Education especially in mother tongue is felt need for their betterment and their own
identity that is being endangered.
 Language and script development is needed to retain their identity and culture.
 Accessible health services are absolutely necessary including awareness programs to
inform them on the implications of poor health on their livelihood and poor economy.
 Provision of tube wells, water supply toilets and better sanitation is needed for the
community
 Transport service in the Khadiya village is needed, as they are not connected to anywhere
except by their bicycles.
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2.20. KISAN
Identity: History, Culture, Language and Religion
This report is based upon information collected by myself during my short field visits in
Dhulabari, Magarmodhi, Dhaijan, Shantinagar, Debibasti and Mechinagar Municipality in Jhapa
district.
The literal meaning of Kisan is agricultural farmer. They migrated to Nepal from India in search
of good forest and agricultural lands. Nobody knows when did they arrive in Nepal. But all of
them know that they came to Nepal many generations ago in search of good forests and
agricultural lands. According to the community leaders, the total population of Kisan is
estimated about 1500-1600, though the census report of 2001 shows their number less than 1100.
Kisan consider Mechinagar Municipality, Dhaijan and Bahundangi VDCs as their main
homelands. But they also live in Khuttedangi, Chilaunigaon, Itabhatti, Tokla bagan, Buttabari,
Nakalabri and Shantinagar VDCs of Jhapa district in various numbers. They have clustered
settlements. They have small houses with only two rooms that they use as family kitchen and
sleeping rooms.
Kisans are clan exogamous peoples, but many of them not know about their clan names. They
have their own distinct culture. They speak their own language called sadri language that is close
to Maithili language. But they do not have their own script of their language. In addition to their
own language, Kisans also speak Santhal, Meche, Maithili Rajbansi and Hindi languages. They
celebrate their own festival called chherta (maghi) and faguwa. Although they worship rivers,
forests, and their ancestral deities, they prefer to call themselves as Hindus. This is due to lack of
their ethnic and cultural consciousness. These days, the Kisan community leaders and other
village elites feel that their culture, language, festival and community religious practices are
gradually degrading due to poverty and external encroachment. The lack of education has further
exacerbated the degrading condition of their culture and language.
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Kisans are agricultural farmers. Once they were one of several land owning indigenous
communities of Jhapa. But they did not have land ownership certificates in their names. In 1964
many fake landowners, mainly from the Hindu Bahuns and Chhetris, appeared in their areas and
by all means they took away the lands of Kisan communities. The compulsory saving scheme of
the land reform program of 1964 also made Kisan landlessness, because, Kisan were forced to
either sell or mortgage their lands to money-lenders to pay their debt of the money lenders and
dues of the saving scheme of the government. All these situations made Kisans of Jhapa virtually
landless peoples. Yet if asked about their occupation, all Kisans say that they are agriculturalist
peoples though the majority of the them do not own any lands. At present, only about 25 percent
of the total Kisan households own marginal types of lands in their names ranging from one
kaththas to ten kaththas. Due to lack of irrigation, they depend upon monsoon rain for land
cultivation produce paddy, maize and some vegetables barely enough to support their family
even for 3 months. Many of the Kisan communities particularly women work in the chiya bagan
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(tea farms) of Borne, Tokla, Satighatta, Battabari as daily wage labourers and earn their family
breads. Others work as rickshaw pullers in Mechinagar, Bhadrapur and Birtamod Bazaars to
support their family livelihoods.
Status of Education and Health
The status of education and education among the Kisan communities is not satisfactory. The old
generations cannot read and write. The new generations have started to go to schools. But the
physical distance (at least 30 minute walk), the economic poverty and language problems are
major problems for them to have easy access to education. They need schools in their villages
and education in their own language, but schools in their village and education in their languages
are only their dream. According to our respondents, there are only two students in the entire
Kisan communities who have recently graduated from the High school. One of them is currently
pursuing his B. A. degree study in Mechi Campus and who worked as my field research assistant
for short time and another one has not yet joined the campus for his higher study.
Kisan does not very healthy peoples. Because they are very poor, they suffer from malnutrition.
Because of physical distance, economic poverty and health practitioners’ discriminatory
treatment to the poor peoples, Kisans do not have easy access to modern medical health services.
They depend upon their traditional health practitioners to cure their illness and diseases. They are
not conscious about their health and health related behaviours. Their sanitary practices are not
that healthy. According available information collected by my research assistant, 95 percent of
the family households do not have latrines in the studied villages. They children urinate in front
of the house and defecate at the roadside. The adults go behind their houses for urinal and in the
paddy field for defecation. Women find it very difficult for urinal and defecation during the
daytime. So they go to the paddy field for defecation before the dawn. They have no practice to
wash their hands after urination and defecation. They take bath and wash their clothes once a
week.
Status of Traditional Knowledge and Skills/Technology
Kisans possess a wide array of traditional knowledgeable in the field of agriculture. They are
among several other indigenous communities who established population settlements in malaria
prone densely forested areas of east Nepal. They cultivated the barren lands and made them very
productive with the help of their hoes. But they are the peoples who felt into the trap of high
caste Hindu Bahuns and Chhetris and lost all of their fertile agricultural lands and turned
themselves into the poorest of the poor. For them, the lost of land has meant the lost of their
traditional agricultural knowledge. They have had rich traditional knowledge related to the health
and health practices. They used a variety of herbs and plants to cure a variety of diseases and
illness. These days their traditional health related knowledge is limited only to certain senior
peoples. The transfer of traditional knowledge to the young generations looks no longer possible
due to their limited access to the forest and other natural resources.
Kisan female make patiya (mat) and odhani or icho (clothes) for family use. Kisan male prepare
cud and a variety agricultural tools. But due to lack of market facilities and unavailability of raw
materials, their traditional skill has gone under shadow. This has greatly affected their family
livelihoods.
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Status of Traditional and Modern Social Institutions
As stated earlier, Kisans are clan exogamous peoples. But they do not know their clan names.
The only clan name they know is teliya Kisan. They have their traditional social institution called
kutum headed by mahato. Mahato is assisted by okil (lawyer) and sipahi (police). The main
function of kutum is to resolve socio-political conflicts that arise within their community. The
other function of the kutum is to organize various types community activities and to assist the
community to perform various rituals.
At present, Kisan have modern type of community organization and it main function is to
preserve their culture, language and religion and to protect and promote their social. cultural,
economic and political rights.
Need Identification
National Identity
The ethnic identity of Kisan is at great risk. They have their own distinct culture, language,
customs, social norms and values. But they are gradually disappearing mainly due to economic
poverty and lack of modern education. The majority of Kisan family do not own any land. They
are very poor socially excluded and highly marginalized peoples. They greatly value their culture
and languages, but they are not capable to protect their culture and language by themselves. The
have been experiencing unbearable external encroachment from other Hindu communities, but
they cannot resist against their encroachment. They feel that their culture and language are
gradually degrading day by day which has threatened their ethnic identity. So they need
immediate socio-economic empowerment if they are to protect their culture and language for
their ethnic identity.
Need of Economic Conditions/Livelihood Strategies
Literally, Kisan means agricultural farmers. But these farmers are almost landless peoples. Only
about 25 percent of the Kisan family own various amount of marginal lands that ranges from 1
kaththa to 10 kaththa where Kisan produce food grains barely enough to support for 2-3 months.
Their traditional knowledge and skills are decaying due to lack of their access to lands, forest
and other natural resources. Very few of them own a few number of cattle for milk, manure and
draft services. They eat very poor quality of food and sleep in the floor almost without bed and
blanket. With the exception of poorly built houses in the marginal public lands, they do not have
any other material wealth. At present, working in tea farms as daily wage labourers and rickshaw
pullers are the only survival options of the majority of Kisan communities. They do not have any
other work opportunities in their areas. They also cannot work in other places, because they do
not have citizenship certificates, required qualification and work experience. On the top of that
the discriminatory state policies and practices restrict their access to employment opportunities in
other areas. Therefore, Kisan needs special measures to diversify their survival strategies, widen
their access to employment opportunities and thereby uplift their socio-economic condition.
Need of Education and Health
Kisan think that education is one of their primary needs. But many of their children cannot go to
school due to physical distance of school, economic poverty and language problem of the
education system. According to our informants, the school going-age children from Mechinagar
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Municipality-12 Itabhatta still do not go to school. Children from other villages go to school, but
they dropout of the school because the students do not understand their teachers who speak only
in Nepali khas language. The school lacks multi-cultural curriculum and multi-cultural
educational environment at school. This alienates Kisan children from the school. The drop out
rate is highest particularly among female students, as they need to work with their parents at
home. Formal education is their prior need. In order to send their children to school, Education
for all programs under MDG should provide education in mother language, multicultural
educational policies and programs and scholarship for economically poor students.
Similarly, health condition of Kisan people is very poor. Their access to health services is limited
as result of their poor economic condition and discriminatory policies and practices of the health
service providers. Such discriminatory health policy and programs should be avoided without
further delay.
Need of Traditional and Modern social Institutions
The kutum, the traditional social institution of Kisan, is still functional among Kisan
communities. Almost all socio-cultural activities of Kisan community are organized and carried
out by their traditional social institution. Various problems that arise in their community are also
resolved by their traditional social organization. But it does not have legal and political
recognition from the local government. As a result, Kisan have developed their new community
organization and it complements the works and activities of their traditional institution. Yet it is
not very active and effective in its works. It needs various support programs to strengthen its
institutional capacity and make it more active and effective in its works.
Need of Citizenship Certificate
Kisan are indigenous peoples of Nepal Terai. They have been living in this country for centuries.
But the irony is that they do not have their citizenship certificate. Whenever they approached for
their citizenship certificates, they are denied for getting citizenship certificates on the ground that
they do not have valid and strong evidence to prove them as citizen of Nepal. The valid and
strong evidence for citizenship certificate is landownership certificate, which the Kisan do not
have until now, because majority of them are landless peoples. In the absence of land ownership
certificate, they are denied for Nepali citizenship certificates and in the absence of citizenship
certificates, they are denied not only for political and fundamental rights, they are also denied for
having access to other socio-economic opportunities. Therefore in the case of Kisan and other
indigenous communities of Nepal Terai, land and citizenship certificate have symbiotic
relationships. They fall under the priority need of Kisan and other indigenous community of
Nepal Terai.
Other Development Needs
Until now there are no development programs that can benefit the highly marginalized
communities like Kisan. Kisan face economic, educational and employment problems, but none
of the development agencies including the government has started any development programs
targeting the highly marginalized indigenous peoples. The Biseshwor Program for the poor
raised hopes of the poor people like Kisan, but this program has not yet benefited them. It
teaches to form saving and credit association and skill development, but Kisan do not have
anything to save and they do not have time to go for skill development training. Thus Kisan need
133
income generating and skill development training for their economic development, health and
program, awareness raising and capacity building program.
Recommendations
Kisan are very poor landless peoples. They have distinct culture, language, tradition, and ways of
life. But the extreme poverty has pushed them to the status of highly marginalized community.
Because of poverty, they have no access to education and modern health service facilities. They
do not have citizenship certificates that bare them from their political rights and other socioeconomic opportunities. Poverty, Unemployment and illiteracy are their major problems. These
problems have made them very submissive to the other dominant caste and ethnic groups. In
order to empower Kisan community socially, economically and politically, the following
programs are strongly recommended.
1. Poverty is the major roadblock for the overall development of Kisan community. In order
to eradicate poverty Kisan needs skill development training such as motorbike and cycle
repairing mechanical training for men and cutting, knitting and weaving training for
women.
2. Kisan need financial support to raise goats and pigs to raise their family income. It will
be not possible to support at an individual level. It is recommended that the financial
support be provided to Kisan by forming various interest groups.
3. NEFIN, NFDIN and other ethnic organizations including the Kisan’s one should play an
active and effective role to implement the reservation policy of the government in all
field at all levels to provide Kisan and other highly marginalized indigenous communities
with an employment opportunities.
4. The government should adopt special measures to protect and promote the traditional
knowledge and skills of Kisan community.
5. Government should make a special policy to provide citizenship certificates to Kisan and
other indigenous peoples without bureaucratic hassles.
6. Kisan needs both formal and informal education program in their mother language.
Scholar teachers should be appointed from among those who can community language
and who are community sensitive. Curriculum should be revised to make more
community oriented.
7. The distribution of scholarship program has not reached to the needy students of Kisan
households due to defective distribution mechanism. Scholarships should be distributed
to all needy students and effective and transparent distribution mechanism should be
established by the concerned agencies. Kisan also need sanitary program to promote their
health
8. Kisan demand food preparing utensils and food serving dishes for their community. Their
community needs these items when they need during birth, marriage, death rituals and
other festive occasions. They can charge minimal fees for the use of these items and the
collected amount of the fees can go to the community funds that can be used for other
community activities.
9. Kisan have their own music, songs and dance. They use their own music group during
marriage and other auspicious occasions. Their traditional music, song and dance are
gradually disappearing from their community due to various reasons, such as influence of
modern Indian musical band. Kisan wants to preserve their traditional music, songs and
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dance, but they do not have their own musical instruments. Kisan themselves cannot
afford to buy those instruments. They need financial support to buy their traditional
musical instruments. If made available to them, these musical instruments will be helpful
to protect their culture. In addition, they will also be a source of community income as
individual family can rent them during marriage and other auspicious occasions.
Therefore financial support should be provided to Kisan to make and/or to purchase their
traditional musical instruments.
10. Kisan needs awareness-raising programs to protect and promote their culture, language,
and religion.
11. Women are equal partners of all walks of their socio-economic life. But they do not have
control over the family resource (economic wealth and family decision making processes.
In many cases they suffer from various kinds of exploitation and domination. Therefore,
women need special programs for their empowerment.
12. All socio-economic empowerment and development programs should be implemented in
consultation and full and effective participation of the concerned communities.
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2.21. KUSBADIYA
Introduction
The SFRA visited Phultekra settlement and Indrapur village in Bake district. A local NGO,
called Adibasi Janajati Vikas Samaj also provided information about the socio-economic status
of these groups.
Identity and Language
Little was known about Kusbadiya community until it was listed as one of the 59 indigenous
nationalities in Nepal by the government in 2003. With a population of about 550, Kusbadiya is
one of the smallest communities in Nepal. Kusbadiyas who are also known as Patherkatta are
found in Banke, Kapilbastu, Nawalparasi and Rupendehi districts of western Nepal. They have
unique tradition and culture different from that of other communities in the surrounding areas.
Because of their low social and economic status, they do not mix with the people of other
communities. Their main occupations are to make millstones, mortars and pestles and sell them
in towns and villages. They also make brooms from a kind of grass called kus and fine robes out
of jute for sale. Some believe they are called Kusbadiya since they make brooms and robes from
a grass called kus.
Regarding their history and place of their ethnic origin, they do not know the exact place where
they come from although they still have relatives in some parts of India. Some say they came
from Bihar, India more than a century ago. Kusbadiyas of Bake district have relatives in Baharaij
and Jamanahapur in Utterpradesh, India.
In Tribal Ethnography of Nepal, Rajesh Gautam and Asoke K. Thapa-Magar have compared
Kusbadiyas with Rautes of adjoining hilly regions on the basis of their nomadic behaviour and
settlement pattern. However, contrary to the definition of indigenous nationalities, Kusbadiyas
have been included in the list of Dalits as Patharkattas, which has raised question about their
ethnic/caste identity. Therefore, their identity issue should be resolved by NEFIN and (NFDIN)
soon so that Kusbadiyas find their proper place either in NEFIN or in Dalit Commission.
They speak in their own language called Kusbadiya language. Most of the Kusbadiyas use
Awadi to communicate with the people of other groups in the region. Some Kusbadiyas who
work as rickshaw pullers and labourers in towns can speak Nepali as well.
Though they are highly influenced by Hindu religion, they still practice ancestral worship like
other indigenous people. The main deities they worship are Masuniya, Dhamin and Thakurien.
Population Distribution
Kusbadiyas population is high in Banke and Kapilbastu and less in Nawalparasi and Bardiya
districts (Table 2.21.1).
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Table 2.21.1. Kusbadiya population by districts and VDCs/Municipalities
S.N.
Districts
VDCs/Municpalitities
Population
1
Banke District
1.1
Indrapur
148
1.2
Nepalgunj Municipality
65
2
Nawalparasi District
2.1
Ramgram Municipality
21
2.2
Rapauliya
14
2.3
Dawanne Devi
7
2.4
Jhada
6
3
Bardiya District
3.1
Mahamadpur
15
4
Kapilbastu District
4.1
Bahadurganj
60
4.2
Kapilbastu Municipality
55
4.3
Maharajgunj
25
4.4
Pakadi
19
Source: Population of Nepal: Caste/Ethnicity, Mother Tongue and Religion, CBS 2001
Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies
Most of the Kusbadiyas are below subsistence level and live on meagre amount they make
selling home made products. Traditionally they make robes, millstones, mortars and pestles and
sell these items in villages and towns. They also exchange their products with grains and
animals, mainly goats. They do not own lands for cultivation. Earlier they used to hunt and trap
animals in the forests to supplement their food but these days hunting in forest is prohibited.
They hunt fox and wild cats and catch rats in rice fields and collect tortoise in Rapti river for
consumption.
Growing use of plastic robes and grinding machines has affected the traditional occupation of
this community. The demand for jute robes drastically decreased since the use of synthetic
plastic robes began. Similarly, the demand for mortars and pestles decreased in towns with the
growing use of electric grinding machines. Therefore, traditional occupations of this ethnic
community have been hampered severely by modern technology, as they have no chance of
competing with the advanced technology.
Kusbadiyas also work as agriculture labourers in villages during planting and harvesting seasons.
Both men and women earn five kg of rice per day as agriculture labourers.
These days some young Kusbadiyas are opting for alternative occupations as construction
workers and rickshaw pullers. Some Kusbadiya men and women sell aluminium pots and
utensils in the villages.
Health and Education
Although they live in and around towns and district headquarters, they do not use health facilities
and services available in the areas. They prefer to use faith healers called “gurubai” and
traditional medicines when they fall sick. They hardly visit hospitals when they are ill. When
asked why they do not go to hospital when the are sick, the common answer is that they can not
afford to pay doctor’s fee and buy medicines. An interesting case to note relates to Harihar
Kusbadiya, who is also the tribal head of the Kusbadiya community in Phulthekra, Nepalgung.
137
About two years ago Harihar’s son was seriously ill but he did not take the child to the hospital.
He rather preferred the services of faith healers and called them from Indrapur VDC and
Baharaij, India to treat his son. But the condition of the child further deteriorated. Finally, his
neighbours convinced him to take his son to Nepalgunj hospital for treatment. Now, Harihar
realizes his son was saved because he listened to his neighbour's advice and took his son to the
hospital. He appreciates those who had advised him to take his son to the hospital for treatment.
Sanitation is also a problem in the Kusbadiya settlements. They neither have public nor private
toilets. They use open fields and riverbeds for toilet purpose. Even in towns like Phultekra, they
use open fields as toilet. Because of poor sanitation condition in the Kusbadiya settlements,
children often suffer from water born diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery and internal
parasites.
Most of the adult Kusbadiyas are illiterate. Even in towns only few Kusbadiya children go to
schools. In Phultekra, primary school is close to their settlement but only few children are
attending the school. When asked why they do not send their children to the schools, the
common answer is that they are poor; therefore, they do not send their children to the schools. It
is also true that children from the age of seven to eight start helping their parents in the
household works. Child marriage also plays a negative role for not attending schools. Child
marriage is common in Kusbadiya community.
Indigenous knowledge system
Kusbadiyas are well verse in using medicinal plants and herbs. They still use different plant
extractions as medicine. Traditionally, Kusbadiyas were known for making brooms from Kus, a
kind of grass and jute robes, which had high demand in villages and towns. They were well
known for making millstones, mortars and pestles from slate and stone, which were essential
items for every household. Now their traditional occupations are at risk as cheaper synthetic
plastic robes are substituting jute robes and grinding machines are substituting millstones. As
semi nomadic hunters, Kusbadiyas are well known for training dogs for hunting.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organization
Every Kusbadiya is a member of his or her traditional ethnic organization headed by Chaudhary,
Pradhan or Mukhiya in the settlement. Every Kusbadiya is required to follow the traditional rules
and custom, inherited from their forefathers. The Chaudhary, who is at the top of the social
hierarchy, is the main authority to settle disputes among Kusbadiyas. Pradhan and Mukhiya are
subordinate to the Chaudhary who also command power and prestige in the community.
Support from NGOs and INGOs
Although there are 248 local NGOs registered in CDO office in Nepalgunj, but none of them is
found working in Kusbadiya ethnic community in the district. So far, Kusbadiyas have not
received any support from NGOs and INGOs.
Needs and Priorities of the Community
Every ethnic community has its own needs and priority. However, all HMJs of Nepal have also
common problems related to poverty, identity, education and employment. Therefore, needs and
138
priorities of each ethnic community are categorized under five broad headings as given below.
The leaders or heads and members of the community identified the needs and priorities.
Ethnic Identity and Language Related Needs
Other caste groups treat Kusbadiyas as low caste Hindus and untouchables. Hence, there is a
need to launch educational and advocacy programmes and activities to promote self-esteem and
self-respect of the Kusbadiyas. Ethnic identity is usually connected with their traditional
occupations, religion and language. Thus, it was pointed out that training is necessary to preserve
and promote their traditional knowledge and social values. Kusbadiyas want to preserve their
language, religion and custom despite difficulties. They are also eager to learn about their history
and religion.
Economic and Livelihood Related Needs
Kusbadiyas believe any support from outside in the form of training would help enhance and
improve their traditional knowledge and skill. The major economic problem they face according
to them, is lack of capital to buy raw material, which are available in India. Depending on
availability of capital to buy raw materials on time, they can increase their production and also
improve the quality of their products. Skill oriented training could help them fine better
employment opportunities.
They also need support finding better and bigger market for their products. Such markets, if
found, would help them sustain their traditional occupation and increase their income. So far,
their products are sold only in surrounding villages and towns. Finding markets in towns and
cities can increase demand for their products
Some people including the government officials in DDC Banke said that Kusbadiyas could do
better job if they are given training in carpentry and carving marble to make statue. Introduction
of saving and credit schemes among Kusbadiyas can help to increase their income and sustain
their livelihood strategies.
Health and Education Related Needs
Programmes and activities to create awareness on health and sanitation are most essential in
Kusbadiya areas. Local NGOs must be involved in these activities.
Kusbadiyas have neither private nor public latrine. Construction of latrines in the Kusbadiya
settlements is essential to improve their health condition. Construction of tube well and other
supply of drinking water are also necessary to improve their health condition. There are only two
public tube wells for the whole community in Phultekra, Nepalgunj MUNICIPALITY. Some key
informants have stressed the need for launching of non-formal education for out of school
children and adults in Kusbadiya areas. They believe such programs will help them to enhance
their capabilities for self-development.
Due to extreme poverty and lack of awareness among parents only a few Kusbadiya children
attend schools. Provision of scholarships and school dress for Kusbadiya children can be
incentives for them to attend schools. During discussions with Kusbadiyas, it was revealed that
most Kusbadiya youth do not find jobs because they have no education and skills for available
139
jobs in towns. Vocational training for Kusbadiya youths can open venues for employment
opportunities.
Indigenous knowledge system related needs
Indigenous knowledge and skills of Kusbadiyas should be preserved and protected. Research
should be conducted for the development of indigenous knowledge and skills of Kusbadiya
ethnic community.
Traditional and Modern Ethnic Organizations
Kusbadiyas traditional ethnic organizations are still effective to keep the community members
together. Therefore, such traditional institutions should be encouraged to function for
community development. However, in order to address new problems and challenges, such
institutions should be strengthened and made transparent and accountable to Kusbadiya people
Recommendations
Ethnic Identity and Language Development:
 Kusbadiyas are victims of caste discriminations and oppressions. Therefore, advocacy
activities should be launched in the areas to promote their self-esteem and respect.
NEFIN/JEP should assist Kusbadiyas to launch such programmes.
 To preserve and promote Kusbadiya language, NEFIN/JEP should conduct research and
training programmes.
 As stated above, the identity of Kusbadiya as indigenous nationality has been questioned
due to their inclusion in the list of Dalits as Patharkatta. Hence, NEFIN and NFDIN
should commission a team of experts to investigate the issue and take appropriate actions
based on research findings.
Improvement of Economic Condition and Livelihood Strategies:
 NEFIN/JEP should provide training to enhance their traditional knowledge and skills to
enable them to produce better quality products, which can compete with the other
products in markets.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide funds to improve their tools and buy raw materials.
 NEFIN/JEP should provide support to explore better and bigger markets for their
products
 Other vocational training including driving auto rickshaw and car, plumbing can help
them to find alternative employment opportunities. Hence, NEFIN/JEP should provide
such training for Kusbadiya youths.
 The government should provide employment to Kusbadiya youths who have basic
qualification and training for employment.
Health and Education
 NEFIN/JEP should conduct health and sanitation related awareness activities in the
Kusbadiya settlements. Local NGOs should be mobilized in conducting such activities.
 NEFIN/JEP should support, through community organization or a local NGO, to
construct latrines in the Kusbadiya settlements.
140






NEFIN/JEP should assist to construct tube well and other means of appropriate drinking
water supply in Kusbadiya settlements.
NEFIN/JEP should support Kusbadiyas and local NGOs to immunize children
NEFIN/JEP should support ethnic organization or local NGOs to organize non-formal
education for out of school children and adults preferably in their mother tongue.
NEFIN/JEP should provide scholarship to Kusbadiya children attending schools and
colleges
NEFIN/JEP should assist for vocational education to Kusbadiya youths.
NEFIN/JEP should organize through local NGOs orientation and interactions for parents
and teachers in order to encourage parents to send their children to schools. Teachers also
should be oriented about the problems of children from minority group like Kusbadiya.
Indigenous Knowledge System
 Kusbadiyas are very rich in indigenous knowledge inherited through generations.
Therefore, research should be conducted to study indigenous knowledge system of
Kusbadiyas.
Establishment of Ethnic Organization
 NEFIN/JEP should encourage Kusbadiyas to establish modern ethnic organization to
address new problems and challenges.
Immediate Project Support
Most of the Kusbadiyas face shortage of clean drinking water. Therefore, as a confidence
building measure, NEFIN/JEP should assist Kusbadiyas to have at least one tube well in each
Kusbadiya settlements in Banke, Bardiya, Kapilbastu and Nawalparasi districts. However, for
further support, NEFIN/JEP should consult and share information, including findings of this
study with Dalit Empowerment Project funded by ESP/DFID, in order to minimize duplications.
In the mean time, NEFIN and NFDIN should review the identity status of Bankariyas as
recommended above.
141
2.22. MECHE
Introduction
The researcher and assistants came from the Meche community which, to some extent, helped to
overcome the problem of entry into the community but the mobility for the community and the
research team itself faced difficulties. There was undeclared curfew from 8 pm in the area and if
anybody is found moving the security forces and the Maoists beat them. Fieldwork was carried
out in Mechinagar Municipality, Upper and Lower Jorsimal villages, Ainabari, Kanchanshri,
Jalthal, Dudhuwa and Dhaijan.
Identity and Population of Meche
On of the seven groups of Highly Marginalized Janajatis of Jhapa are the Meches. Meches call
themselves ‘Bodo’ and were said to be descendants of one of the 4 Rai/Limbu brothers who were
on a journey. One of the brothers who had been left during their journey had since been the
inhabitant of Terai while others made their destination in the eastern hills of Nepal. They appear
to be similar to the Rai/Limbu and show affinity with them. Stories had it that long ago, Meches
were made to be water impure and Janga Bahadur Meche after giving girl to the ‘lords' were
made water pure and given the title of ‘Chaudahary’ along with 32-64 Bigha land as Birta. Since
then Meches feel shy to call themselves as Meche but use in the brackets in their citizenship.
Meches call Rajbanshi as Hasha, Dhimal as Haikho, Santhal as Dangrang, Kisan as Sauthal, and
other people as Malaihadi. This probably indicates that they have been living with the other
communities for long. The main settlements: Jalthal and Dhaijan are two of the densest
communities of Meches while they are found in the districts of Jhapa, Sunsari, Morang and
Saptari. Of these Jhapa has the most communities with Meches. The other settlements are
Jyamirgadhi, Bahundangi, Sanishcahre, Ainamai, Chakchaki, Shantinagar and Madheshpur.
Jalthal and Dhaijan with the predominance of Meches carry the character of Meches as other
communities are mixed with the landlords and Santhals. Characteristic of Meches is that they
live in houses built with bamboo plastered with mud in the walls or chitra/mat with plastic in
between with the thatch roof. Newer houses are being built with cement. Kitchen is separate and
is very simple with woodstove. The main occupation of Meches is brewing alcohol and raising
pigs that help to recycle the leftover of the fermented stock. Alcohol is brewed in a separate
room and pigs are kept at the backside of the houses. Water supply is limited to shallow tube
wells. Most houses also do not have toilets and they defecate in the open. That makes the Meche
communities unsanitary except Mechinagar and Jodhsimal. Most houses have Bathau their
shrine in front of the house. Bathau made out of two circles of bamboo sticks with a cactus in the
middle and trident that depicts their philosophy. Some houses also have a quarter where they
worship nature with water jar, fruit, crop harvest, earth, etc. Now the influence of Hinduism is
seen as the shrine have picture of Shiva.
Meches are distinguished with their dokhna the colourful dress that women wear with exposed
neck and shoulders and Oranai shawl/muffler that men wear, woven in the loom. The cotton
fabric is woven with thread bought from Kuchbihar in India.
142
Population size of the settlements varies as per different key people and is shown in the Table
2.22.1.
Table 2.22.1. Meche population in different settlements
VDCs
Total No.
Data received from Dil B. Meche
1
Jalthal
2500
2
Jyamirgadhi
200
3
Bahundangi
250
4
Dhaijan
1200
5
Sanishchare
150
6
Anarmani
60
7
Chakchaki
115
8
Shantinagar
25
9
Madheshpur
45
Total
4545
Out/Neighbour Jhapa
1
Morang
1500
2
Sunsari
65
3
Saptari
60
Total
1625
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
Data received from Santa Lal Meche
Jalthal
1100
Jyamirgadhi
300
Bahundangi
100
Dhaijan
700
Sanishchare
300
Anarmani
150
Chakchaki
200
Mechinagar
1000
Bhadrapur
40
Lakhanpur
100
Saranamati
100
Gherabari
20
Madheshpur
30
Total
4140
Out/Neighbour Jhapa
Morang
97
Kathmandu
21
Sunsari
179
Saptari
204
Total
501
Data received from Purna Meche
Jalthal
1200
Jyargadhi
150
Bahundangi
250
Male
Female
1200
90
120
250
65
25
20
10
20
1800
1300
110
130
950
85
35
95
15
25
2745
700
30
25
755
800
35
35
870
500
150
45
300
140
70
90
450
18
45
50
8
13
1879
600
150
55
400
160
80
110
550
22
55
50
12
17
2261
45
9
90
98
242
52
12
89
106
259
550
70
120
650
80
130
143
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
1
2
3
Dhaijan
Sanishchare
Anarmani
Chakchaki
Mechinagar
Bhadrapur
Haldibari
Madheshpur
Total
Out/Neighbour Jhapa
Morang
Kathmandu
Sunsari
Total
Data received from Meche
Jalthal
Jyargadhi
Bahundangi
Dhaijan
Sanishchare
Anarmani
Chakchaki
Mechinagar
Bhadrapur
Lakhanpur
Saranamati
Total
Out/Neighbour Jhapa
1
Morang
2
Kathmandu
3
Sunsari
4
Saptari
Total
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
800
60
60
150
700
60
50
20
3500
350
25
25
70
300
25
22
9
1566
450
35
35
80
400
35
28
11
1934
250
5
50
305
120
3
24
147
130
2
26
158
3500
400
500
2500
300
100
200
2500
70
150
65
10285
1700
175
225
1200
140
40
90
1200
35
70
30
4905
1800
225
275
1300
160
60
110
1300
35
80
35
5380
300
21
300
200
621
145
9
140
90
294
155
12
160
110
327
The 2001 census gives a population of 3763 in Jhapa, Sunsari and Saptari, but local Meches
estimate a population between 4100 and 12,000 distributed in 9 to 13 VDCs in Jhapa. The
estimate of women is about 20 percent higher than men. Including populations in Morang,
Sunsari, Saptari and Kathmandu the population should be about 5000.
Until few decades ago the economic condition of Meches was considerably good. Most
households have adequate land for farming and cultivated paddy, wheat, maize and some
vegetables as well. But today the situations of most Meche households have changed and the
land holding had declined among the Meches and now reduced to farming on others land on crop
shared basis and doing labour works. Many families have to build their house in the landlord’s
land, as most Meches are now landless. Only few families have adequate land for subsisting the
144
whole year. Those who have land also practices traditional style of farming that does not yield
high production
Citizenship
Discussions in six communities with the involvement of about 150 people led to the
understanding that about 80 percent of Meche have their citizenship with 10-20 percent not
having it (Table 2.22.2.). The reasons for not having the citizenship lies in: not being aware
about the process or having anyone to support in the process; not realizing the importance of it;
not having supporting documents like fathers citizenship, birth certificate; the discriminatory
behaviour of the authorities; lack of legal support or any support by state to help facilitate in the
process to access. As Meches are not well educated and not available in any government position
they feel they do not have support. Poor economic condition hinders in acquiring, as they cannot
pay other lawyers or those who can help in the process.
Table 2.22.2. Citizenship by settlements
Settlement
With
Citizenship
Lower Jorsimal, Mechinagar
Concerned VDC
1600
Neighbouring VDCs
2500
Other places
5000
Upper Jorsimal, Mechinagar
Concerned VDC
Neighbouring VDCs
Other places
Jalthal
Concerned VDC
Neighbouring VDCs
Other places
Kanchanshri
Concerned VDC
Neighbouring VDCs
Other places
Dadhuwa, Jalthal
Concerned VDC
Neighbouring VDCs
Other places
Dhaijan
Concerned VDC
Neighbouring VDCs
Other places
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
900
2500
6000
1200
200
3500
1250
300
4000
without
Reasons
for
not
having
Citizenship citizenship
No legal support, No awareness,
100
lack of support from State,
125
discriminatory behaviour of the
500
authorities, Meches not taking
interest
Lack of awareness, inadequate
150
evidences, do not understand the
500
importance of citizenship, too
1000
weak to approach for citizenship
Lack of awareness, father do not
100
have citizenship, economically
35
poor, etc
900
Poor economic condition, unable
200
to give supporting documents, no
100
one to help in the process or to
400
take initiative, not fully aware
about the importance of citizenship
1100
400
3000
300
100
500
650
3000
2500
250
800
600
Poor economic condition, unable
to give supporting documents, not
able to take initiative, not fully
aware about the process of
citizenship
Spouses from other countries, poor
economic condition, lack of
awareness, no Meche in key
position
145
Language
Meche have their spoken language. But the current trend indicates that they are gradually loosing
the ability to speak fluently. Discussions with the communities and the children indicated that
about 25 percent of the population speak fluently, 50 percent speak well and 25 percent cannot
speak. The reasons of the disappearing language ability are given as assimilation with other
groups in a mixed community and therefore prevalence of Nepali language, lack of awareness
about their identity and need to preserve culture through language, and education not given in
Meche language. Children speak Meche only at homes but in the school and locality they speak
in Nepali. So dominance of Nepali language had helped in loosing their language directly or
indirectly. State’s lack of attention in supporting and conserving the language including lack of
recognition of Meche language discouraged the community from developing the language. Aside
from the poor economic condition acted as the factor in the loss of language, meaning that the
race to meet the practical needs like food kept them away from attending to their strategic
interests like retaining language and investing in developing their own script, books and so on.
They were unable to develop books or magazines or write articles or media for communication.
Survey indicated that Meche language writing system and language development is yet to be
developed in all areas (Table 2.22.3). The other languages Meches speak are Rajbanshi, Santhal,
Dhimal, Hindi, Maithili and Bengali in the area depending on the neighbourhood.
Table 2.22.3. Meche writing system and its development
S.N.
Meche Writing System and its Development
Yes
No
1
1.1
Writing System
Phoneme Identification

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script - Sambhora Tibetan or Devnagari

1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development – In Devnagari

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development – In Devnagari

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
146
The community now wants to teach the children in Meche and develop the script as well.
Religion
Meches are nature-worshipping group of indigenous peoples. They follow and worship Bathou
very strongly as a symbol of their religion. They keep the Bathau in front of the house. Ninety
five to 99 % of the Meches follow Bathou their traditional religion. Yet some Meches feel that
they do not understand the importance their religion. In recent years some Meches have taken to
other religion like Christianity due to lack of awareness and being economically attracted. Their
low level of education and economic condition have affected where people have left their
religion. They wanted to develop temple of Bathou but poor economic condition and low
education levels have affected. Also observing the festivals had not been possible in some cases
due to their poor condition.
Bases of Livelihood
Most Meches presently thrive on alcohol production, pig raising followed by farming and wage
labour. The abundance of land they owned had been lost in the last few decades to non-Meche
and largely Bahun and Chhetri community. Now some Meches do not own any land and had
build their house in the present landowner for whom they work. Thus the economic base of the
Meche had become very poor. Even alcohol production had become every difficult for lack of
fuel wood which used to be abundant in the past. The community forestry program restricts their
access to fuel wood for making distilling alcohol. In order to get few extra rupees they take the
alcohol across the border to sell in India for IC Rs 8-10/bottle while they have to sell for NC
Rs.8-10 in Nepal.
Land provides 3-4 months of subsistence. With regards to land, less than 5 percent of Meches
have sufficient land to subsist. Although the degree of subsistence varies, about 40 percent have
land to subsist for about 3-6 months in a year and the rest of the year having to thrive on different
forms of livelihoods. Most Meches also practice adhiya or crop sharing system (Table 2.22.4).
Table 2.22.4. Food sufficiency by months
Duration in months
Percent
12
5
9 – 11
7
7–8
10
5-6
25
3-4
30
0–2
23
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
The land they owned also, most do not have ownership certificate, as they are not aware about
the process to acquire it. Those who have ownership are all with men and women do not have
control over the land resources. As such women just becomes a free labour without having the
rights to use the land or as they see fit or to use as collateral for the purpose of getting credit etc.
or handle money.
Traditional farming and lack of access to irrigation, fertilizer and improved seeds have resulted
low production. As Meches are not well educated or have access to decision-making levels or are
included in the groups formed for the delivery of services, mainstream programs bypass them.
Therefore most Meches become seasonal labours in others farms. Only in Mechinagar and
Jorsimal the Meches were a bit better off as the settlements were close to Dhulabari urban area,
they work in Marwaris’ shops as staff, and own tractors and workshops.
147
Women, on the other hand, used to have skills to weave Dokhna (Meche dress), Ganchha,
Oranai (shawl/muffler) in the loom to meet the community’s requirement. The women were
selling their product without any profit at all indicates that they lack entrepreneurial skills as
well. As cotton threads of their requirements are not easily available in Jhapa, they go as far as
Kuchbihar in Assam to get the thread. The skill is disappearing fast as is being practiced only by
two women. Others would like to learn but trainings to develop the skill is not available to
expand the skills. Competition from external market makes it difficult to thrive on the traditional
skills. They see the need to expand the skill among other members of the community as well
through trainings. Other income generating skills are also felt necessary to cope with the
livelihood requirements.
Support from Government NGOs/INGOs
Interaction at the District Development Office revealed that there were nearly a dozen projects
aimed to support the deprives communities, such as Garib Sanga Bisheswor, District Local
Governance Strengthening Program, Poverty alleviation, District Transport Management
Program, Rural Urban Partnership Program, British Nepal Medical Trust, Eastern Gramin Bank
and other Village Development Program, etc. But strangely enough, appraisals in the Meche
communities did not reflect that the Meches had been targeted from any of those programs.
Local Development Officer (in absence of locally elected Government) says that there is poor
coordination between the government and NGOs in out-reaching the deprived groups. The only
program they have is scholarship for the deprived groups under which Rs 50,000 were
distributed last year. The loss of revenue, this year from Rs. 10-20 million, and last year to 1-2
million, makes it impossible to focus on the deprived section as well as it is hardly adequate to
meet the operational cost of the DDC.
Education
Participants of the FGD share that the education level if Meche is much lower than they aspire.
To date there is only one person who had reached the level of bachelors (incidently the
researcher of this study). Apart from the economic reasons, the lower level of education is due to
teaching done only in Nepali language, which is not the language of the Meche and therefore
find it difficult to understand in the past. The teachers also come from other communities,
naturally as Meches do not meet the requisites of teaching. Schools are also not available in the
Meche community and students have to travel long distances. The discriminatory practices
against girls also contributed in low level of education among the girls. As Meche are not in any
key government position, they were not able to bring any change in the policy of education
including realization of ‘education for all’ as per Millennium Development Goal. Meches have
the access to only the government/public schools where the quality is often tend to be lower.
They cannot afford cost of private schools.
Discussions focused on the need of developing curriculum for education that emphasizes Meche
culture and to develop Meche teachers, who could teach in mother tongue.
The children present in FGD also revealed that some of them have to work at home and their
poverty stops them from joining schools or be regular in classes despite their willingness. Other
times they are discriminated and humiliated as Janajatis also. About the difficulty in the school,
148
they also pointed out the lack of toilets and games and sports to play. Poor economic condition
stands, as obstacles in paying for school dress, could not pay school fee in time. They have
expressed more problems for education to girls due to more urgency to help in the household
activities than to a boy of the same house.
Health
Lack of awareness on health and sanitation is certainly a problem among the Meches. The pig
raising and lack of toilets contributes in poor sanitation as well, needless to say. In communities
like Jalthal, people rely on bad sources of water that looks brown and there are no toilets. Again
poor economic condition is referred as a primary reason of poor health as they cannot afford to
improve the living conditions. While traditional beliefs acts as the barrier in reaching the
available health services, low levels of education and not having Meche in any key position of
decision level had excluded Meches from accessing services from health posts as these services
are away from the communities. To date there had not been any Meche doctor as they aspire for,
obviously due to lower education status. The government services are often poor and could not
be relied. However, the private health services available in the district or outside the district are
beyond the affordability of all the Meche. Meches have Roja or dhami/jhnakri the faith healer
and Phanthol who helps the healer. When people get sick Roja and Phanthol gives water with
basil leaves, process called jolgosha or pani uthaidine.
Traditional Skills
Weaving traditional patterns of cotton fabrics for Meche attire is the main skills available within
Meche, which is disappearing. They have been weaving and thriving the skills of making
Dokhna, Ganchha and Oranai, the colourful patterned fabrics used by the Meche. Market for the
products is limited and the entrepreneurial skills are also limited. They also have other
handicrafts, making brooms, and frills. In Mangalbari Bazaar for instance 50 % have handicraft
skills, 50 % make brooms, 30 % make frills and 50% have looms. The skills vary from
community to community.
Meches also resort to reading faith called Jokhna herne using jute leaves before (now use fibre of
coconut leaves. It is likely that they have other skills, which did not get spelled out in the
appraisal.
Access to Employment
Meche have no access to government jobs or opportunities to work abroad since a majority of
them have very little education and skill as per need requirements of employment. Lower levels
of education meant that Meches do not qualify to become teachers, doctors or in any position of
the government local or otherwise where they can voice their concerns and influence decisions
that concern them. They work as labours in others farms and households. Nowadays some
Meches have acquired tractors and work as drivers in Jhapa and others sork in the shops as staff.
Women are engaged in alcohol making, pig raising, and small vendors at local areas. In
Mechinagar for instance 90% produce alcohol, 15% have agriculture, 3 % resort to trading and
2% have service of some kind in the local area. The foreign labour migration too has been off
limits to Meche for lack of resources required to meet the cost of travel and visa as well as not
being aware about the information and process of going abroad.
149
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
Meche have established their organization called Meche Sibiary Affat to attend to their concerns
and voice them at the decision-making levels. They also tried to strengthen their organization
and provide training for marketing their products. But it could not succeed as the organization is
still weak and the opportunity cost for the people is high, as everyone needs to survive on daily
earnings. JEP have now instilled a lot of hope to strengthen their organization.
Other Problem
Meches face the problem of basic needs like water, lack of tube wells, farming services, access
to improved seeds, fertilizer and technical know how on improved farming. Several Meche
communities confront the problem of flooding which needs to be protected with gabion walls.
The respective VDCs and DDC do not recognize Meche’s needs for development or to include
them in the ongoing programs in the district. As such exclusion of the indigenous and voiceless
people prevails as a rule.
Priorities and Recommendations
Identity and Language
There is a general consensus that the identity of Meche needs to be enhanced. Although the
participants acknowledge that they lack awareness about their priorities, but they came out
clearly that their identity surmounts the list of their priorities. There is an apparent linkage in the
poor economic condition, lower education level, disappearing language and lower representation
in any decision-making levels among the Meche. Through language and culture development,
the Meche see them organizing together as a group for the discourse on development and their
collective claim for their rights.
Meches feel that their language will develop if the State recognizes the language and promotes it
in the spirit of national language. Help in developing the script and teaching in mother tongue
should be enforced and support and promotion in of use of Meche language in various forms of
media publication including awareness generation programs will contribute in retention and
promotion of Meche language. The role of the State would be prominent.
Religion
Awareness program based on religion needs to be supported and promoted to retain their
religion. Conversion of religion should be restricted so that Meches would not leave their
religion for lack of understanding and with economic attractions.
Education
Participants of FGD strongly spelled out the need of schools and teaching in mother tongue of
Meches and to develop the curriculum that focuses on the culture of Meche and being taught by
Meche and plausibly so. They feel that until scholarships are made available and reservation
policies are in place, the level of education of Meche is unlikely to improve dramatically yet
education is the crux of the problem which as the key to other problems. Education is listed as
the top priority of the Meche.
150
Employment and Income Generation
Meche community have not benefited from the numerous development interventions that provide
skills and trainings in income generation or entrepreneurship. Opportunities for employment
exist have they had access to trainings in skill development and income generation. They do not
benefit from the local government, district government or central government. Knowledge about
the Meche is limited among other community. Lack of higher level of education and
discriminatory behaviour of the dominant groups had limited their access to various
employments.
In order of Priority:
1. Education
2. Economic opportunities
3. Access to employment
4. Access to health services
5. Land ownership
Recommendations
 To strengthen the identity of the Meche, the community felt the need to enhance their
culture, dance and songs. As the group is not educated they feel their solidarity could be
developed through the vehicle of culture and dances where every body could understand
and will come together.
 Development of Meche language and curriculum for formal and informal teaching and
awareness generation is a necessity of Meche. Promotion and use of Meche language in
media and publication and developing the script is deemed necessary.
 State should support in the promotion and publicity of their religion with budgetary
allocations as well.
 Scholarship provision for Meche to come at par with other educated groups and to be
qualified for different key positions in the government decision-making levels.
 Free health services to be made available to Meche. Enhance the skills of Roja and
Phanthol in modern health service provisions as well.
 Trading and income generation skills for men and women including in traditional crafts
up gradation is necessary to get employment and change economic status. Even pig
raising require improved techniques.
Action Plan
Meche have a multitude of needs to be addressed to improve their living condition and economic
status. They are marginally surviving within their limited scope of livelihoods. To propose a
project for Rs. 10,000 – 30,000 is a difficult task as their needs have a wide range from meeting
drinking water, to education, curriculum and language development, skill development to flood
protection and so forth. As the communities are spread it makes even difficult to propose so that
everyone benefits. In view of coming with a strategic interest of the community, within the limits
of the budget the group came up with the proposition of dance and culture to promote their
identity. It is hoped that with a set of dance and culture troupe the Meche can stimulate getting
together and initiate a discourse on development while their identity is promoted. It requires a set
of outfit for 8 pairs (8 men and 8 women) troupe and musical instruments for the dance and
singing.
151
The items and costs are estimated to be:
Rs. 30,000 – Musical Instruments and dress for 16 (8x2 male+female) members.
 Dhol 5,000.
 Serja 2,000.
 Chhipung 500.
 Jotha 500.
 Dress for 16 @1,000 = 16,000.
 Aaathigalli 7,000.
 Dothra Baspatari,
 Chandrahar Mala,
 Enthi Ba Kholthop
The cost, by no means, is within Rs 30,000. But the shortcoming is to be covered by Meche
community.
152
2.23. MUNDA
Introduction
Munda is one of the Highly Marginalized Janajati that has recently been added in the list of the
Indigenous Peoples by NEFIN. However, they are yet to be recognized by the government as
Janajatis of Nepal. The rapid participatory appraisal of Munda was undertaken in the late
February 2005 amidst the difficult environment caused by the state of emergency and the
mobility restrictions imposed by the Maoists in various parts of the country. The 15 days bandh
imposed by the Maoists in Jhapa posed limitations in the mobility (except walking) of the study
team to the Munda communities. The researcher and assistants came from the Munda
community, which, to some extent, helped to overcome the problem of entry into the
community; but the mobility for the community and the research team itself faced difficulties.
There was undeclared curfew from 8 pm in the area and if anybody is found moving the security
forces and the Maoists beat them. Time available to discuss was limited. In spite of it, the report
is based entirely on primary data collected through focused group discussions with communities
and children in Jangaltol, Dangitol in Morang and Makardhoj Basti, Mechinagar Jhapa. The
research team observed the communities of their habitation, livelihood pattern and interacted on
the issues of identity, culture, language, access and control of resources and what needs to be
done to enhance their status. Apart from the community and its key people, the team also
interacted with authorities at the District headquarter and local centres like Bhadrapur, Jhapa
regarding their view on Munda and how district development addresses the community.
Identity and Population of Munda
Evidences show that Mundas have inhabited the eastern region for over 200 years. The homeland
of the Munda is Jharkhand, Ranchi and during the period of British rule in India these groups
have been moved as cheap labourers to different parts of India. Their displacement process
started around the same time. Munda came via Jogbani to inhabit in the forested areas in Eastern
Nepal, which are now in the Districts of Morang, Sunsari and Jhapa. The population in Morang,
Sunsari and Jhapa are 1,011, 889 and 672 respectively. In Morang and Sunsari Munda are known
as ‘Mudiyari’. Their habitation in the forest area is evidenced by the nomenclature of the
settlement - Jangaltol in Morang. They owned sufficient land in the past and over time had lost to
dominant groups after the latter's migration to Terai. As Matwalis, it is said that they engaged in
merry-making and drinking. During weddings in the past they will be enjoying for 10-15 days in
the celebration and the need for money had forced them to sell land on some occasions and on
other occasions they have been tricked into disposing their ownership. When relatives and
neighbours come to know of the wedding they will come to celebrate even during the period of a
month. The bride’s family had to be sent with the gift of pig head and thigh after the wedding.
There were ample stories about how different families lost land with the manipulations by
Bahuns: changing number in the land amount sold, e.g. 1 Bigha changed to 8 bigha; making
friends and sharing land initially and later displacing them; with court cases for cutting trees or
Munda’s cattle eating the crop of Pahadi (Hill groups) and were beaten and were humiliated etc.
Lack of awareness on laws and legal process had attributed in their loss of land. Now 95 -97
percent of Munda have no land to subsist on an annual basis and had been relegated to daily
labourers. Relegated to a state of landlessness, most Munda have entered an agreement to live on
others land in repayment for taking care of the owners land.
153
The worship of their clan deity - kul puja used to require many sacrifices of pigs, which were
done through selling of land. As they are dispossessed of land and other resources, the debate on
sacrifices had been high and have collectively agreed to substitute with flower believed that gods
may get angry without the sacrifices and now feel the gods have understood their reluctance and
are happy with flowers.
The settlements of Munda are clustered for security purpose. They live in very simple houses
made of mud and bamboo with thatched roof. The cost of thatch and straw to roof every 2-3
years, which they have to buy (Rs. 3,000/year) in the past had forced many to shift to tin roof
that last for over 15-20 years. Most houses have Patiya mat made out of processed Jute, which
are used for multi-purposes. Munda also make broom from local straw that is different from
amriso (see picture??). Munda have a special way of preserving paddy seed in straw plastered
with dung called ‘Mohri’ that keeps it safe from insects.
Munda consume parboiled paddy even today, which they think is good for their health. The
practice of drinking black tea in the morning is prevailing, as tea is available from working in tea
gardens as labourers. Working in tea garden is the main job of most Munda these days. Munda
also weaves net or chhitti jaal for fishing as supplementary diet. Munda are
Population of Munda
Information to date indicates that the 660 households of Munda are distributed in Maheshpur and
Sanischare VDCs of Jhapa (82%) and Prakashpur VDC of Sunsari (13%) and the remaining in
Morang. However, field appraisals with various people gave the population of 5628 in 771
households in Morang, Jhapa and Sunsari. Obviously their perceptions of the neighbouring areas
vary that gives 308 or 530 households in the three districts. It just verifies that farther from their
settlements the communities know in less accuracy. The exact size of the population will be
available after the Phase II household survey. Information about Munda population collected
from the field is shown in Table 2.23.1.
Table 2.23.1. Population of Munda in Morang, Jhapa and Sunsari
S.N.
VDCs
Total
Male
Female
Out/Neighbour Sunsari
1
Babiyabirta
801
598
203
2
Bahuni
42
22
20
3
Bhaudaha
474
237
237
4
Chandbela
317
149
168
5
Chhitaha
83
44
39
6
Dagtoli Thalaha
375
215
160
7
Dangatoli Thalaha 3
275
155
120
8
Dangatoli Thalaha 4
100
60
40
9
Jangaltol
432
217
215
10
Jangaltol Bhaudaha
592
297
295
11
Jhorahar Kutahari
90
44
46
12
Jhorahat
142
82
60
13
Jhoratol 3
100
54
46
14
Jorasamal
24
14
10
No. of HH
74
7
93
63
13
75
85
20
28
4
154
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
Jyamirgadhi
360
Keroun
140
Makardhoj Basti
108
Mechinagar
312
Nakalbanda
54
Phatahari
90
Satairajhoda
84
Satidhaha
60
Sitpur Bhaudaha
42
Sotpurtol 7
42
Takiya Thalaha
24
Thalaha
399
Tokla
66
Sub-Total
5628
Out/Neighbour Morang
Barayatijhad
1
Bahuni
42
Barchhawa
2
Chadbela
317
3
Bariyatijhat Bahuni
42
Bhawanipur
4
Satairjhoda
84
5
Chadbela
317
6
Chhitaha
83
7
Gohigada 1
233
Gohigada
8
Babiyabirta
233
9
Jyamirgadhi
360
10
Kalikoshi keron 3
150
11
Kalikoshi Keroun
140
12
Kamaljhoda 3
168
Kamaljhoda
13
Babiyabirta
168
14
Mechinagar
312
Nakalbanda
15
Mechinagar
150
16
Satairjhoda
84
Sub-Total
2883
Out/neighbour Jhapa
1
Morang
1368
2
Sunsari
450
3
Jhapa
560
Sub-Total
2378
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
185
80
60
138
29
44
40
35
20
20
14
229
36
3118
175
60
48
174
25
46
44
25
22
22
10
170
30
2510
60
25
18
52
9
20
14
10
7
20
22
168
22
149
20
44
168
39
120
40
149
44
113
120
175
80
80
78
113
185
70
60
90
46
60
78
174
90
138
28
52
80
44
1490
70
40
1393
14
308
370
227
290
887
998
223
270
1491
328
90
112
530
4
79
11
771
7
63
13
25
Citizenship
The number of people without citizenship varies from 10 to 30 percent from village to village
largely because they could not produce the supporting documents as they have lost the lands
155
from their possessions (Table 2.23.2.). Most of them do not know how to acquire citizenship and
others could not understand the implication of not having it and care less about obtaining it.
Table 2.23.2. Citizenship of Munda in Morang, Jhapa and Sunsari districts
Village/Ward
With
Without
No./VDC
citizenship citizenship
Jangaltol 1
Resident
300
50
Bhoudaha
Surrounding VDCs
600
200
Other district/areas
700
130
Jangaltol 1
Resident
300
50
Bhoudaha
Surrounding VDCs
600
200
Other district/areas
700
130
Jagtol 1 Bhoudaha
Resident
200
20
Surrounding VDCs
Other district/areas
Dangatoli 2
Resident
275
75
Thalaha
Surrounding VDCs
1000
100
Other district/areas
956
156
Makardhojbasti 11
Resident
200
50
Mechinagar
Surrounding VDCs
200
100
Other district/areas
50
20
Makardhojbasti 11
Resident
110
25
Mechinagar
Surrounding VDCs
150
25
Other district/areas
2500
500
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Reasons
No evidence
No evidence
No evidence
No evidence
No evidence
No evidence
no evidence
no evidence
no evidence
no evidence
No evidence, negligence
No evidence, negligence
No evidence, negligence
No evidence, negligence
No evidence, negligence
No evidence, negligence
Language
Munda have their spoken language. But challenges exist to retain their language as their
language is not used in the schools and in the communities other languages are more prevalent,
such as Sadri the common lingua franca in Jhapa. Discussions with the communities and the
children indicated that nearly all of them speak Munda language among themselves and they also
speak Sadri the common language, Rajbanshi, Maithili, Hindi, Bantar, Tharu and Nepali (Table
2.23.3 and Table 2.23.4). The main problem in retaining the language is that it is not used in the
schools, and there were no Munda teachers. The teachers at present are not aware about Munda
language. Besides, there is no book or reading material nor is the language used in any media or
communication.
Therefore to retain and develop the language, teaching curriculum needs to be developed in
Munda and teachers trained to teach in the language. Also to keep the language live, it needs to
be used in media and communications together with written materials.
Table 2.23.3. Language spoken by Munda in Morang district
Village/War
Not
d No./VDC
Total Speaking
Ability Speaking
Jangaltol 1
VDC
474
454
20
Bhoudaha
Surrounding VDC
1232
1200
32
Other Areas
1156
1136
20
Jangal tol 1
VDC
474
-
Reasons
156
Bhoudaha
50
-
1300
33
-
1156
1100
56
-
VDC
312
300
12
-
Surrounding VDC
300
285
15
-
Other Areas
Makerdhojb
VDC
asti 11
Surrounding VDC
Mechinagar
Other Areas
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
60
110
150
2500
55
90
125
2400
5
20
25
100
-
Dangatoli 2
Thalaha
Makerdhojb
asti 11
Mechinagar
Surrounding VDC
Other Areas
VDC
980
1084
375
1034
375
Surrounding VDC
1333
Other Areas
Table 2.23.4. Munda writing system and its development
S.N.
Munda Writing System and its Development
1
Writing System
Yes
Not involved in
society
not involved in
society
Separated from
their group
Separated from
their group
Separated from
their group
No
1.1
Phoneme Identification

1.2
Selection of Standard Language

1.3
Selection of Script - Sambhora Tibetan or Devnagari

1.4
Standardization

1.5
Vocabulary/ Dictionary

1.6
Grammar

2
Language Development
2.1
Syllabus Development (Primary/Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.2
Curriculum Development (Primary/ Lower Secondary/ Secondary)

2.3
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Adult) Development – In Devnagari

2.4
Basic Literacy Books (NFE Child) Development – In Devnagari

2.5
Folklore Publication

2.6
Newspapers Publication

2.7
Language use in electronic media (Radio / TV)

2.8
Song Album / Film / Video Magazine Production

2.9
School Opening in Own Ethnic Language

Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
157
Members of Munda community who have become aware about the importance of their language
and identity now wants to teach the children in Munda and use it in different forms of
communication.
Religion
Mundas now practice Hindu religion at least they think that is their traditional religion. However,
as one analyses their festivals and what they worship, Mundas begin to realize that they have
their own religion that is not Hindu. Their main festival is during Tihar and not Dashain. It
indicates that their religion had been eroded and influenced by other religion of the dominant
groups around. Influence on their religion is due to the economic factors and hatred against their
religion. As Munda’s economy degraded they cannot afford to maintain the festivals as in the
past. Also Christianity is also influencing a lot where deprivation is very high.
Bases of Livelihood
Most Mundas now work in other peoples farm after they have lost their land to other people.
They work in tea gardens and as daily wage earners. But it has become more and more difficult
to get wage labour works. For being lavish in consumption of food and drinks and being lazy, as
they claim they have lost their lands. And those that still hold the land also do not have
ownership certificate. They rely almost entirely on wage labour to survive. Their own land is
hardly enough to thrive 2 months in a year (Table 2.23.5).
Table 2.23.5. Percentage distribution of livelihood subsistence duration in months in Morang district
Village/Ward
12 Months
9-11
7-8 Months 5-6 Months 3-4 Months 0-2
No./VDC
Months
Months
Jangal Tol 1,
10
90
Bhaudaha
Jangal Tol 1,
10
90
Bhaudaha
Jangal Tol 2,
3
97
Thalaha
Jangal Tol 3,
3
97
Biratnagar
11, Mechinagar
3
5
10
20
30
33
Bishwodev
2
98
Munda Ghar 11,
Mechinagar
Source: Fieldwork, 2005.
Like among other groups in Jhapa, Munda also practice traditional farming and lack of access to
irrigation, fertilizer and improved seeds results in low production. Their poor education and
access to information on improving farming and support services had relegated the farming in
poor state. Besides, they also share that they are deprived of information regarding any services
or opportunities as they are not in the network and are being discriminated in access to informal
knowledge.
Mundas are also skilful people and they weave their own Patia the mat from the weeds grown in
the swamps, make a special kind of broom, preserve their seeds and food in straw covered in
cow dung to keep away form insects in Mohri (Munda).
158
Support from Government NGOs/INGOs
Interaction at the District Development Office revealed that there were nearly a dozen projects
aimed to support the deprived communities, such as Garib Sanga Bisheswor, District Local
Governance Strengthening Program, Poverty alleviation, District Transport Management
Program, Rural Urban Partnership Program, British Nepal Medical Trust, Eastern Gramin Bank
and other Village Development Program, etc. While there is poor coordination among the
program but Munda community is not known to be the beneficiary of these programs or the
scholarship program that the District facilitates scholarship targeting the deprived groups under
which Rs 50,000 were distributed last year.
Education
Education status of the Munda is poor. All the Participants of the FGD share that the education
level of Munda is much lower than they aspire. Education level is intrinsically related with their
income and economic status. As most of Munda need to thrive on daily labour works and earns
low wages, they cannot afford to send all children to schools forget about quality education.
Households that are very poor send their children to graze animals or as child labour. Others
cannot furnish stationary and books or other materials i.e. snacks, etc. to those that go to school
and are discouraged to attend class. Children also indicated that the poverty in the house affects
in the parental love and care for the children; and that also contributes to their attention in
education. Not having adequate clothing/uniforms or not getting food in time, all contribute to
the low attention in education among the Mundas.
Apart from the economic reasons, the lower level of education is due to teaching done only in
Nepali language and do not use Munda language. Use of Nepali and discouragement to speak in
Munda’s own language is indirectly discouraged. Children expressed difficulties in
understanding in the classes. Girls’ participation is still lower in schools. There were no girls in
schools before 1991 and is only increasing as slow pace. The teachers also come from other
communities, naturally as Mundas do not meet the requisites of teaching. As there were no books
or materials in Munda language nor is there any curriculum in Munda. Besides in the localities of
Munda due to small settlements of 80-90 households there are no schools and children need to
commute long distances. Due to lower level of education Mundas have not been able to acquire
positions at the decision levels except the researcher who was elected to the District Council. The
community sees him as a role model. As Mundas are not in any key government position, they
were not able to bring any change in the policy of education including realization of ‘education
for all’ as per Millennium Development Goal. Munda have the access to only the
government/public schools where the quality is often tend to be lower.
Overall reason of lower level of education is due to poverty and lack of employment
opportunities and instability of their livelihood and shelter. As sources of income are uncertain
coupled with low awareness on the importance of education had contributed in lower status of
education.
Focused group discussants emphasized on use of their language in schools and the need of
developing curriculum for education that emphasizes Munda culture and establish school that
159
can teach in Munda as well. Secondly importance is given in introducing skill trainings or
income generating activities that can lead to better employments to be able to afford education.
Health
Like education, the awareness on health is also low, again rooted to poor economic condition and
the reluctance to rely on traditional beliefs. Munda’s cannot afford private health service but
limits their access to government health posts, which often do not provide good services. As such
people die unduly as they wait till the last stage of the sicknesses. Mundas still rely, reluctantly,
the traditional healers. As they do not have their own people ‘afno manche’ ("own people") in
the health service and otherwise they feel the services is not for them and are discouraged from
approaching.
Traditional Skills
Although a small group, Munda is a self reliant community which produce all its needs by
themselves whether it relates to building homes, making mats to sleep on, baskets and nanglo for
food processing, making alcohol, parboiling rice for better digestion, drinking black tea in the
morning as health drink and making different kinds of nets for fishing as some examples. They
make special brooms from local grass and weeds. These indicate that Munda have a lot of
traditional knowledge and skills to meet their needs. However, due to depletion of forest
resources and decreasing g access to resources since the Community Forest Regulations were
introduced. As Mundas do not form the committee members in Community Forest User's Group
(CFUG), their needs and how they contribute in managing forests were not considered in the
management regulations. As such their skills of using resources for various purposes are also
depleting. In other cases, they have not found market for their handicraft products like mats and
dhaki or baskets and the like.
Access to Employment
Main problem in access to employment for Munda is lack of access to information regarding
services and opportunities that are available in the local area, district or elsewhere. In absence of
system to get information and knowledge, Munda and for that matter all other indigenous groups
or deprived communities, do not have access to information regarding service opportunities or
programs that have their skills as such they are forced to remain within the local labour market
where the wages are determined by the landlord and where they are made vulnerable. Secondly
as their education levels are lower they never meet the requirements of the organizations,
government, non-government or otherwise and thus their status never change from being local
labour. Mundas have expressed the need for information regarding jobs that they can do and
want to change their status through education.
Traditional and Modern Social Organizations
Munda group had established their organization called ‘Nepal Mudiyari (Munda) Utthan Samiti,
Bhaudaha Morang’. This indicates their concern over uplifting their situation as a group. They
have also joined NEFIN recently and realized the significance of being a part of the federation.
The process had helped them to feel solidarity with the indigenous peoples unlike being
vulnerable in the past. Besides, traditionally Munda have mutual self-help organization called
Paraha oe Pagri. They recon that as a small group of community spread in a number of
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settlements, they had not been included in the development programs carried out by NGOs or
other organization.
The researcher of this study, Bandhan Kumar Munda, by virtue of his being elected to the
District Development Council on his own right had helped to raise the consciousness of their
group to a certain extent and also influence the decisions to address Munda at the local
government level. However, the termination of the elected government came as an obstacle to
realize his aspirations for the group.
Other Problem
Mundas face the problem of basic needs like water, lack of tube wells, farming services, access
to improved seeds, fertilizer and technical know-how on improved farming etc. Basically
development had cheated them as a group and so their economic status is low for most Mundas.
Priorities and Recommendations
With regards to the priorities and suggestions for development and action plan, it becomes a big
challenge to identify when they support and intervention in all areas concerned with their
identity, language development, education, livelihood, health, services related to farming,
culture, skills for income generation and so on. As awareness among some Mundas increased on
the human rights violations and discriminatory practices prevailing and subjugation of the
Mundas in the mainstream development, the need of training or workshops to impart knowledge
on legal education is also identified. Health awareness trainings are another area that needs
support. Yet another intervention is development of integrated settlements for landless peoples
that attend to employment-oriented income generating programs through government support.
The bottom line is that they need to change their economic status through changes in policies that
helps to access better education, health services, and employment opportunities that frees them
from being insecure wage labours in the local areas. Detailed work out in each area require
further interaction to develop a plausible work plan but at present the following areas are
tentatively listed:
In order of Priority:
6. Education including in own language
7. Access to employment
8. Access to health services
9. Skills Training
For an immediate project within the cost of Rs. 10,000.0 - 30,000.0 to help the community
and their confidence building Mundas express that a set of musical instruments would be
useful that could be used by all community. The common instruments and its use are thought
to help bring the group together to further discuss their strategic needs and getting organized
around it. The list of instruments is separately submitted which is identical to the one
suggested by Meches as follows.
Rs. 30,000 – Musical Instruments and dress for 16 (8x2 male+female) members.
 Dhol 5,000.
 Serja 2,000.
 Chhipung 500.
 Jotha 500.
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 Aaathigalli 7,000.
 Dothra Baspatari,
 Chandrahar Mala,
 Enthi Ba Kholthop
The cost, by no means, is within Rs 30,000. But the shortcoming needs to be covered by
Munda community.
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2.24. SATAR/SANTHAL
Introduction
Information on Santhals comes from the field visit in Gailadubba, Haldibari, Anarmani and
Garamani from Jhapa and Bhati Gachha from Morang.
Identity of Santhals and the Present Status of Their Language
Santhals are known as Satars by other peoples. But they prefer to call themselves as Santhals.
They have their own language, history and religion (sarana). They live in Jhapa, Morang and
Sunsari districts of East Nepal.
According to the National Census report of 2001, the total population of Santhals has been
reported as 42,698. But the community leaders of Santhal told me that Central Bureau of
Statistics has under reported their population. They reported that their population is decreasing
due to forced displacement and involuntary migration to India and other parts of Nepal from
their homelands. Yet they claim that the number of Santhal is nearly about 100,000 and they are
distributed in three districts in the following proportion.
 40-50 thousand in Jhapa
 30-40 thousand in Morang, and
 5-10 thousand in Sunsari
Their main settlements are in Saranamti, Garamani, Ghailadubba, Surunga, Anarmani,
Chakchaki, Chandragadhi, Jalthal of Jhapa district and Hoklabari, Bhatigachha, Babiyabirta,
Siswanijahada, Amardaha and Bardanga of Moran district. In the census report, they are not
reported from Sunsari district, but the Santhal community leaders claim 5-10 thousand Santhals
from Sunsari district.
History of origin
Oral History of the Santhal community claims that Santhals are descendants of Pilsu Hadam and
Pilsu Budhi who came to Nepal from Hihidipipidi of New Zealand via Chamapagadh to
Mohanjodda and Hadappa to Choichampa to Nepal. They first settled in Santhal Praganna (now
Jharkhanda state) of Dumka District in India. From Santhal Praganna, they entered into Morang
then to Jhapa before the Sepoy mutiny in India in 1857.
Santhals are the first settlers of Morang and Jhapa who cleared the charkose jhadi (forests) for
their settlements. Later their lands were confiscated by the Hill Bahun and Chhetris by using all
means. The government's land registration policy and land reform program of 2024 B. S.
provided legal ground for the hill Bahun and Chhetris to register the agricultural lands of Jhapa
and Morang owned, controlled and used by the Santhals in their names. At present, majority of
Santhals are landless peoples who live either in government's public lands called ailani,
roadsides or lands owned by other communities.
The present Status of Language
Santhals are multilingual communities. In addition to their community language called Santhali,
the Santhals of Jhapa speak Rajbabangsi, Meche, Hindi, and Nepali languages. Similarly, the
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Santhals of Morang speak Santhali, Maithili, Hindi and Nepali. They claim that they are richer
than other Terai indigenous communities in terms of their cultures and languages. Santhals have
their not only their own language, they also have their own script called alchiki. Although all
Santhals cannot read and write in alchiki, all of them know about alchiki. Santhal language is a
common language that is spoken in Assam, Bhutan, Dumka district of Jharkhand and eastern
Pakistan as well. But the Santhal language of Urisa is little different. Maithili has a significant
influence on Santhal language of Morang, where as Bengali has great influence on the Santhal
language spoken in Jhapa. In other words, Santhal language of east of Kanaki river is Bengaliinfluenced and west of Kankai is Maithili-influenced.
Economic Conditions and/or Livelihood Situation
Once Santhals were very rich peoples of Jhapa and Morang. They are the one who first settled
down in Morang and Jhapa by clearing the char kose jhadi (dense forests) of east Terai. But they
could not become owners of their lands. They worked as tillers. The land reform program of
1967 (2024 B. S.) also did not favour them to become landowners. In stead, many fake
landowners puffed off and they drove them out of their lands. The Bahun and other tricky
peoples who were immigrants from outside of Jhapa and Morang indulged them in the false
charge of cow killing and tree cutting. They were also allegedly charged for their involvement in
the Jhapa kand. All these situations forced them to flee to Bihar, Bengal and other unknown
parts of Nepal from their lands and territories. Those who remained there, they gave their lands
to tricky peoples and they were reduced to the poorest of the poor. The economic condition of
the Santhal is worst in Jhapa than in Morang as the political suppression and economic
exploitation of Santhals in Jhapa were more severe than in Morang. By all means, mostly the
Bahuns confiscated their lands. At present, there are very few households in Jhapa and Morang,
which own lands just enough to support their families. I did a quick survey of 60 households in
Garamani and Ghailadubba and only 25 of the 60 households own small plot of lands that range
from 1 kattha to 6 kattha and they produce food grains just enough for their families for 2 to 3
months. Only one household owns 7 bighas of lands. Two households own up to one and half a
bighas, but the majority of Santhals do not own any lands. Similarly, 75 percent of the 250
households in Bhatigachha of Morang district do not own any lands. There are 5 to 6 households
in the entire Morang, which own up to 25 bighas of lands. Luxman Soren, the chairman pf
Santhal Samaj is one of them who own seven and a half bighas of lands. The rest of the Santhals
do not own any lands. Their settlements with small straw-thatched huts are scattered along the
roadsides, the marginal public lands and/or lands owned by their landlords.
If asked about the source of their livelihoods, all Santhals say that agriculture is their main
source of livelihood even though they do not own any lands and/or their farm production can
support their family only for 2 months. Unlike the Tharus or other poor communities of west
Terai, Santhals of Jhapa and Morang, however, do not work as bonded labourers. According to
my informants, 20 percent of the poor and landless household work as daily wage labourers in
the construction sites. The rest of them work as tillers, rickshaw pullers, fishermen and food
collectors and gatherers from forests.
Health and Education
Physically, Santhals, particularly women and children do not look very healthy. It looks like that
they have nutritional deficiency. The economic hardship has definitely affected their health
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condition negatively. They do not have easy access to modern medical facilities. The doctors are
not community sensitive. There are no female doctors. The medicines are expensive. Yet, they
report that their health condition is not very bad. The fertility rate is little bit higher than morality
rate. The infant morbidity and mortality rate has also decreased significantly for the last decade.
But they suffer from illness and various types of disease, such as fever, diarrhoea and vomiting.
They use their traditional healers and herbal medicine to cure their illness and diseases.
The sanitation condition of Santhal households is very impressive. The courtyards of their houses
are always kept clean where they cook their food. Their houses are built with woods and
thatched beautifully with straws. Very few Santhals households are thatched with corrugated iron
sheet. The walls are plastered and floors are smeared with black clay. The walls are decorated
with traditional arts of birds and animals. They have a common water tube or well either beside
or at the middle of their village where they take their periodic baths once a week.
The Santhals feel that they are much behind in education and due to lack of education they are
very backward in the society. They report that only about 30 percent of their total populations are
literate. However, in Haldibari of Jhapa almost all (except old generation) peoples can read and
write. There are only two students who have completed B.A. degree in social sciences from
among the entire Santhal communities. All students go to the public schools. Only about 2 to 4
students go to private boarding schools and about the same number have gone to India for their
education.
But they stop going to schools, as they need to work for foods. They do not have educational
materials and school uniform. They do not find friendly educational atmosphere in the schools.
Students from other communities do not make friendships with the students from Santhal
communities, as they treat them as black peoples. Language is another major barrier for Santhal
students to discontinue schooling. Schoolteachers are not from Santhal communities. All
teachers are from non-Santhals who are not sensitive to the Santhal language. They are not
equally treated in the schools on the basis of their ethnic background. There are no toilets for
female students. Moreover, the majority of the guardians of Santhal students are not educated.
They do not know the importance of education. They do not see immediate benefits from the
education. So they do not send their children to schools education. All these factors restrict
Santhal students from going to schools.
With the small support grant of VDC, Santhals had established community schools for Santhal
children in 1999 in Garamani and Kalimudha of Jhapa. They hired a teacher named Magal Hasda
with SLC degree from their own community. Mangal Hasda is considered to be knowledgeable
both in Santhal language and Santhal script alchiki, which they borrowed from India. He is a
popular teacher in Santhal language in Santhal areas. H brought textbooks in Santhal language
from Kolkota and taught Santhal children from 1999 to 2002. But the VDC stopped providing
financial support to Santhal schools. Instead of Santhal schools, they established Children
Development Centre (CDC) and appointed new non-Santhal teacher pretending that CDC is for
all children from all communities. But children from Santhal communities do not go to CDC due
to language barrier. Now Santhals are demanding their own schools for their children. In
response to their demand, the District Education Office has asked them to deposit NRS. 9000.0
for their new school and also to new Santhal teacher. But the villagers are not able to deposit the
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stipulated amount. As a result, the school has been closed since 2002 and their children play in
the dirt and dust from morning to evening. The critical economic condition of Santhals and the
government's non-supportive policy to community school as well as Nepali as a official medium
of education have deprived Santhal children from getting education both in Nepali as well as in
Santhal language. They reported me that education in mother language is one their prime and felt
needs for empowering their communities.
Status of Traditional Knowledge and Skill/Technology
Santhals are rich in their traditional knowledge and skill. They are the first cultivators of the
dense forestlands of Jhapa and Morang. They had developed shifting cultivation technology to
produce rice. They know the season and reason of shifting cultivation. Though the majority of
Santhals are landless, they have rich agricultural knowledge about how and when to prepare
agricultural farm lands, sow seeds, weed seedlings and harvest crops and store grains. Each
agricultural season is celebrated with some kinds of festive rituals. For example, Janthar is
celebrated during the time of sowing seeds in May/June and Barha is celebrated during the
period of hunting wild game in February/March. Their technology is very simple and cost
effective. They practice group hunting using bow and arrow. But these days, they no longer
practice hunting due to government's restriction for hunting and non-availability of wild games.
They know about how to protect themselves from malaria disease. They are very skilled in
thatching roofs, constructing and plastering walls with black clay. The men are expert in making
nahel (wooden plough), aran (yoke), barkam (cud made of rope and wooden leg), chairs and
fishing net. Their women are skilful in making patya galaam (straw mat) and broom, drawing
beautiful colour pictures on the walls, making a variety of clay woven and working as
midwifery.
The Status of Traditional and Modern Social Institutions
Santhals are divided into many exogamous clan groups. The major clan names are Hemram,
Murmu, Hasda, Mardi, Tisku, Soren, Tudu, Besra, Baske, Chade, Pauriya, Bidhya. They practice
clan exogamous marriage system, but they do not practice matrilineal cross-cousin marriage.
Political institution headed by majhihadam (village head) rule the Santhals. He is assisted by
jagmajhi (assistant village head), paranik (advisor) jagparanik (assistant advisor) and gudik
(messenger). Majhihadam is the powerful village authority who settles, in consultation with
other members of the assembly, all disputes, perform all religious rituals and makes community
decisions. If majhihadam cannot settle the dispute, he refers it to the praganna (majhihadam of
five villages) and if praganna fail to settle the disputes, they refer them to deshmajhi
(majhihadam from all Santhal areas). Deshmajhi functions as Supreme Court. Once the
deshamjhi fails to resolve the dispute, it is referred to daheri. Daheri is the final authority, who
uses his own discretion to resolve dispute. Daheri is an individual selected from among many
majhihadams. Like a special Supreme Court, he works as a special authority with special
authority to decide the unsettled case. His decision is final and it is acceptable to all.
Majhihadam is the legitimate institution recognized by the Santhal communities and it is still
working effectively in the Santhal communities of Nepal.
Apart from their traditional institution, Santhals have their national level social organization
called Nepal Santhal Adibasi Utthan Sangh. This organization has official affiliation with
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NEFIN. Its central office is located in Morang and district office is in Jhapa. It's main objective
is to protect and promote Santhal culture and language. But due to lack of resources, it has very
limited cultural activities.
Needs in order of Priority
National Identity, Language Problems and Needs
Santhals are well recognized by all in the east Terai. But other communities know them as
Satars. They have their own oral history, but it has been stored only in the memories of older
generation. The young generations do not remember their history. So in order to have their
distinct identity, their history should be documented. They follow their traditional religion called
sarana and they worship their ancestral deities in the Jaher temple located in the forest. But its
protection is in danger due to overexploitation of the forest resources.
Santhals do have their own language. Hundred percent Santhals speak their languages. Children
and old people do not understand Nepali Khas language. So they have a communication problem
with non-Santhals. They have also their own script. But Santhals of Jhapa and Morang cannot
read and write it. So they have started to teach Santhal children in their languages using Santhal
Alchiki script. For that they have their own teacher. But the schools have been closed due to lack
of financial resource. So the support for Santhal School has been one of their prime needs.
Needs of Economic Livelihoods
As stated earlier, Santhals are the poorest of the poor peoples. 75 percent Santhals are
landless peoples. Economically, they live a miserable life. Their sources of income are daily
wage labor in agriculture and construction fields. Employment and other economic
opportunities in other fields for them are almost non-existent. I met a young Santhal with
Bachelor degree in Jhapa. He is unemployed, because he does not have access to
employment opportunities. Children go to school until the age of 12-14. After 12-14, they
stopped going schools, as they need to work to supplement their family economy.
Needs for Health and Education
Although Santhals did not report specifically about their health services, they are deprived
from the modern medical health services. Hospitals are located in the distant places from
their reach and they do not have easy access. Traditionally, they consult local baidya (healer)
and dargin budahi (midwife) and use herbal medicine to cure their diseases and illness. In the
event that the local healers fail to cure illness and diseases, then only they go to the hospital
or local medical clinics for their health check-up.
Education is the prime felt need of Santhals. They say that they are deprived of education
both in their own languages and Nepali language due to economic poverty and language
problem. They cannot send their children even to public schools, because they do not have
money to buy books and school dress and pay admission fees. They had to shut their schools
down, because they did not have money to pay to their schoolteachers and buy kerosene and
other educational materials for their children. They know the value and need of education,
but they cannot afford it by themselves.
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Need for traditional and Modern Social Institutions
As stated earlier, Santhals do have their traditional socio-political institution headed by
majhihadam. It is still functioning effectively within their communities. But it needs juralpolitical power. They also have their community organization called Santhal Adibasi Utthan
Sangha to protect and promote Santhal Culture and languages. But it has not been very
effective due to various constraints.
Citizenship Certificate
Land is the principal need of Santhal communities. As stated earlier, the majority of Santhals
are landless. Because they are landless peoples, they have the problem of getting
citizenship certificates. The landless people do not get anyone to recommend him/her for
citizenship certificate. In the absence of citizenship certificates, the landless people cannot
admit their children in the public schools and deposit their earning in the bank for saving.
They are deprived of socio-political and fundamental rights.
Recommendations
The field study shows that Santhals are economically very poor, but culturally they are very
rich communities. Other communities know them as Satars. The government has recognized
their ethnic identity. All of their community members speak their mother language and they
have been trying to develop their own script achiki which they have borrowed from India.
They have their oral history of their origin religious beliefs and practices. Yet they are treated
like of black peoples of Europe and America on the basis of their colour. Economically, they
are the poor peoples. They do not have lands and other material assets. Various types of wage
labours are their only available means of their livelihoods. They are deprived off the basic
needs of health and education. They have rich traditional knowledge and skills, but they are
disappearing from their communities due to lack of raw materials and guaranteed markets.
Their traditional social institutions still work very effectively in their communities. But it
needs legal jural-political powers to empower their social institutions. They have also formed
modern social organization that needs technical and financial support to strengthen their
institutional capacity.
Work Plan
 History is one of the major components for ethnic identity and existence. Santhal do
have their oral history, but it needs to be documented. Santhals needs small support
grant to document their history.
 Language is another indicator of their ethnic identity. All Santhals do speak their
mother language. But they need to develop their script. For that purpose, they had
started community school to educate their children in their own language. Due to lack
of financial support, their community schools have been closed for the last year.
Santhals needs support to restart their community schools. The school will also help
Santhals to educate their children and thereby to increase their literacy rate.
 Santhals believe on Sarana religion. They erect small temple of their ancestral deities
called jaher and majahi in the forests. But the cutting of forest by timber contractors
and illegal loggers in an uncontrolled manner has created the problem of protection of
jaher and mjahi temples. So forest needs to be protected and Santhals and other
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indigenous community members should be represented in the forest management
committee.
Santhals do not own land to produce enough food for their families. They also do not
have access to employment and other job opportunities. As stated earlier, only
available sources of their livelihoods are wage labourers. So Santhals need skill
development training and other income generating programs. Women demands
knitting, cutting and weaving training to develop their skill and poultry firm, goat and
cattle raisings and vegetable firm to raise their family income. The males demand for
carpenter and mason training, cycle and motorcycle repair training.
The health services are not easily available. It is not accessible physically,
economically and socially. Hospitals and health posts are not located in their areas.
The medicines are expensive, doctors are not community sensitive and lack of female
doctors and other health practitioners make modern health services out of their reach.
This necessitates them to depend upon their traditional healers. This requires serious
attention of the government. NEFIN and indigenous peoples organizations should
approach the government to make health services community-oriented, easily
available and cost effective.
Education in Santhals language should be restart and small financial support be
provided to the Santhal communities for their education in Santhal language. Strict
monitoring arrangement should be made to ensure the implementation of
government's legal commitment for education in mother language. School curriculum
in mother languages should be developed that protect and promote the cultures of
indigenous peoples.
Knowledge and skill of Santhals are disappearing due to lack of raw materials and
guaranteed markets. They need to be documented for their protection and promotion.
Our field study shows that only 40 percent Santhals have their citizenship certificates.
In the absence of citizenship certificates, Santhals are deprived of socio-economic and
political rights. Easy and simple provision should be made to obtain citizenship
certificates from the district administration office.
Santhals do not have access to forest resources. The forests are not under their
control. They are owned and controlled by the government in the name the national
park and community forestry development programs. This restricts Santhals and other
forest depended communities from the collection of fodder, fuel-wood, timber and
other non-timber forest products from the community forests. Women are misbehaved by the forest guards and some members of the forest management
committee. They also do not have access to water resources. They are not allowed to
take their buffaloes to the nearby rivers and ponds for water feeding and swimming.
They also cannot use drinking water from public tube well easily and comfortably. If
they do it, they are humiliated and/or insulted publicly. This requires a strong
campaign against social discrimination and injustice.
Santhals are not aware of their rights and responsibilities. They use excessive quantity
if alcohol and become drunk. They need strong advocacy and awareness raising
programs to empower them and thereby to increase their participation in the decisionmaking bodies at all level.
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Many Santhals have converted into Christianity due to material incentives provided
by the Christian Missionaries. As a result, their culture is in danger. Needs material
support for them to retain their traditional culture.
Needs support to form saving and credit association in the Santhal villages.
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PART 3
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS
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172
3.1. Conclusion
Identification of Janjatis
Outsiders identify HMJs differently than by the insider themselves. Among the three
mountain HMJs, identification of Thudamba is easy but in the Shingsa community,
southerners (lower land) are known as ‘Lhomi’ or ‘Jimi’ and northerners (upper land) as
‘Naba’ but Nepalese outsiders refer them as ‘Bhote’ and Tibetans as ‘Shingsa’. Similarly,
The Siyars are known as ‘Lama’ or ‘Chumba.’ Thudams are known as Thudamba.
Among the Hill HMJs, Kusunda and Raute identify themselves as “Thakuris” to outsiders.
Outsiders refer ‘Baram’ as ‘Baramu,’ ‘Chepang’ as ‘Praja,’ ‘Lapcha’ and ‘Lepcha,’
‘Thangmi’ as ‘Thami.’ Chepangs claim that Bankarias belongs to Chepangs. Some consider
‘Surel’ as part of ‘Sunuwar’ and some as ‘Jirel’. Hayu have no identity problem.
There is no identity problem with Majhi, Bote, Danuar and Raji of the Inner Terai.
Among HMJs of Madhes, ‘Rajbansi Dhanuk’ is the one listed BY HMG-N as one of the 59
indigenous nationalities but other Dahnuks, including ‘Sirauha,’ ‘Dhudawa,’ ‘Maghaiya’ and
‘Sur Dhanuk’ belong to Dalit. Similarly, the National Dalit Commission has identified
‘Kusbadiya’ as ‘Pattharkatta’ belonging to the Dalits. Outsiders refer ‘Urau’ or ‘Kudukh’
meaning ‘us’ as Jhangad and ‘Santhal’ as ‘Sattar,’ ‘Jharkhandi Khadiya’ as ‘Khadiya.’
‘Khadiya’ and ‘Munda’ are not in the list of 59 indigenous nationalities identified and
recognized by HMG-N. Kisan is one of 59 indigenous nationalities identified and recognized
by HMG-N but many peoples and organizations, including the CBS, wrongly consider
“farmer” (‘Kisan’) as the indigenous nationality ‘Kisan.’
Implications of such confusion in identification of HMJs for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with
them are as follows:
 JEP-NEFIN may experience problem in proper identification and location of some
HMJs whose identification are contested.
 Although, insiders’ own identification should get priority over outsiders, but if their
identification does not match with the identification made by HMG-N, identification
by both insiders and outsiders should be considered as synonymous until ethnic and
linguistic survey is done on the groups in question.
 If JEP-NEFIN should form a task force together with the National Dalit Commission
to determine whether 'Dhanuk' and 'Kusbadiya' belong to indigenous nationalities or
Dalits. As they are considered as Dalits, it would be appropriate to work in
partnership with the National Dalit Commission and/or the Rastriya Utpidit, Dalit
tatha Pichhadiaya Bargako Utthan Bikas Samiti or DEIP of ESP-DFID while
implementing projects/programs for these two groups.
 Some Madhesis consider ‘Sattar’/’Santhal’ and ‘Jhangad’/’Dhangar/Urau’ as Dalits.
The Uppecchit, Utpidit tatha Dalit Barga Utthan Rastriya Samiti had listed them as
two of the 23 Dalits of Nepal. It implies that these two groups are further victimized
through practices of untouchability; hence, JEP-NEFIN needs to work on the
elimination
of
untouchability
against
‘Sattar’/’Santhal”
and
‘Jhangad’/’Dhangar/Urau.’
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JEP-NEFIN’s support to ‘Kisan’ should be confined to ‘Kisan’ indigenous nationality
of the Jhapa district only; not to Kisan ("farmer") listed by the Census of 2001 in
other districts.
Citizenship
Citizenship is one of the major issues raised by women’s rights movement and demanded
that mothers also should get right to give citizenship to their children. Similarly, Madhesi
movement have been raising citizenship rights to Madhesis as one of the most significant
issues in the last five decades. These two issues are of equal relevance to indigenous peoples
in general and HMJs in particular. Indigenous women, Madhesi indigenous nationalities are
deprived from citizenship certificates due to gender and regional discrimination. Many
indigenous peoples have not received their citizenship certificates because they do not own
land; and they do not own land because their lands were either nationalized or registered by
"outsiders." Those indigenous peoples who have been living in or close to forest are
generally deprived from both land and citizenship certificates. There are additional problems
related to citizenship. For example, some indigenous peoples of mountain, hill and Terai,
who have been sanskritized or influenced greatly by Hindu values, have changed to family
names identical with Hindu “high castes.” Increasing awareness about the “root” among the
younger generation and their effort to revive their indigenous names has created them a
problem in getting citizenship certificates.
Mountain HMJs’ face no problem in acquiring citizenship certificates. Among the Hill
HMJs, none of the Bankaria has citizenship certificate; many from Chepangs and some from
Lapcha and Baramu are facing problems in acquiring it. Similarly, among the Madhesi
HMJs, none of the Kisan has citizenship certificate, and many from other HMJs, including
Dhanuk, Munda, Meche, Jhangad/Dhangar/Urau etc. are facing problems in acquiring such
certificates.
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
 Focus should be to create an enabling environment of CDO Office and HMJs,
specially Bankaria of the Hill and Kisan of the Terai.
 Also, focus should to launch a campaign to apply for citizenship certificates by
HMJs,
such
as
Bankaria,
Chepangs,
Baramu,
Sattar/Santhal
and
Jhangad/Dhangad/Urau.
 Also, a campaign should be launched to increase sensitivity towards HMJs with no
citizenship certificates, in getting admission, jobs, training etc.
 JEP-NEFIN should launch a campaign to collect and/or create evidences such as
voter’s registration, birth certificate, school records, land registration certificates,
verification from local Ward and VDC leaders etc. and submit it collectively with
recommendation from the NFDIN to the concerned government authorities.
Language
Almost all of the mountain HMJs speak their respective languages and they can speak other
languages, namely, Tibetan and Khas-Nepali. Among the Hill HMJs, some HMJs, such as
Baramu, Hayu, Surel, Bote, Majhi, languages are gradually in a threat of extinction; peoples
of older generation speak their mother tongues but new generation are rapidly losing them.
174
Kusunda language is almost extinct. Bankaria speak Chepang language. Some HMJs such as
Lapcha are revitalizing their language. Among the Madhesi HMJs, they like other Madhesis
speak Maithil in the eastern Terai and Awadhi in the mid-western Terai. Some Madhesi
HMJs, such as Munda, Meche have their own languages. Those who have not yet lost their
mother tongue, young generation are losing ability to speak their mother tongue.
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
 Focus should be given on endangered languages such as Kusunda, Baramu, and
Meche in preparing glossary, dictionary, grammar, textbook, curriculum, and
literature in their respective mother tongues.
 Provide training to individuals who have good command in their respective mother
tongues to become language teachers.
 Younger generation needs to be target of language preservation programs.
 HMJs such as Bankaria, Kisan who speak other’s language, emphasis should be
given on research to find out and/or revive their mother tongues.
Religion
Siyar and Thudam are mostly Buddhists but have no organization. Younger generation is not
interested in traditional rituals. In every Shingsa village, there is at least one ‘Kyidug’ group
but many of them have converted to Christian religion. Some Hill HMJs such as Baramu
have been highly influenced by Hindu and more recently gradually influenced by Christian
religion. Lepcha have maintained Shamanism and Buddhism. Among the Madhesi HMJs,
Dahnuk, Munda are fully influenced by Hindu religion whereas Khadiya and Meche
continue their own respective religion, namely, ‘Sarna’ and ‘Bathau.’ A few of them have
turned to Christian religion.
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
 Audio and/or visual documentation of indigenous religious practices of each HMJ is
needed.
 For mountain and Hill HMJs, programs to reduce costs on rituals and income
generation are needed to preserve and promote their religions.
 Concerning the claim of Hindu religion by some Madhesi HMJs, such as Dhanuk,
Kisan and Munda, research on their indigenous/traditional religious practices should
be conducted and awareness should be raised to understand the significance of
revival of their own religion. JEP-NEFIN should encourage researchers to carry out
such research.
 In Christian influence areas, JEP-NEFIN should launch some programs to raise
awareness about their indigenous culture, language and religion.
 JEP-NEFIN need to provide financial and technical support to train some interested
members of HMJs in indigenous or Shamanic or Bon/Buddhist rituals, and
establishment of monastery (Gumba) or Bihar.
Livelihood
Socio-cultural and bio-diversity are interconnected. Indigenous nationalities, specially HMJs,
are not only dependent but have spiritual; relationship with natural resources, including
forest, land, water, pasture and mine. As the state had historical deprived indigenous peoples
175
from ownership to their forest, pasture, land and other natural resources, their livelihood has
become more problematic.
The mountain HMJs livelihood is affected by lack of pasture, deforestation, and lack of
veterinary services. The Shingsa are facing problems of land registration, lack of irrigation,
low productivity, and land slides due to floods.
Those Hill HMJs, namely, Raute, Bankaria, Chepang and Kusunda, who are mostly
dependent on forest are increasingly facing livelihood problem due to inaccessibility to forest
as these are controlled by either the state or community/individuals.
 Bankarias have problems such as food, land for cultivation, income generating
activities, skill development training, employment, livestock, education, awareness
raising activities and citizenship certificates.
 Majority of the Chepangs suffer severe food deficit. Studies have shown that very
high percent of Chepang infants and children below two years of age, suffer from
malnutrition. Furthermore, over 80 percent Chepangs, above 16 years of age, who are
eligible for citizenship certificates, do not have them. More importantly, almost half
of the households have been denied from receiving land registration certificates of the
land they have been cultivating for centuries.
 Most of the Kusundas do not possess land or property. They live in makeshift huts
built on wastelands near forest and seek employment as agriculture labourer in the
surrounding areas.
 Economically, the settled Raute do not look that worse. They produce some, but it is
not enough to support their livelihood.
Among those HILL HMJs, such as Baramu, Lapcha, Surel and Thami, who are not
dependent on agriculture or wage labour, but not on forest, also facing livelihood problem.
 Baramu are facing problems of low productivity in dearth of high yielding variety of
seeds, modern techniques of farming, and irrigation facilities, limited access to forest,
limited access to water during winter season and some working as carpentry and
masonry but lack training.
 Bote have to go outside to wage labour. Traditional occupation boating is stopped due
to Bandre, Karambot, Manthali and Seleghat Bridge in Tamakosi River.
 For Lapchas, there are possibilities for coffee and floriculture but there is no access to
technical support or marketing facilities.
 Only two Surel households have food sufficient for year and rest of all can only food
sufficient for 3-6 months. They have to go outside to carry load and wage labour.
 Most of Thami have sufficiency for 4-9 months. They have to go outside to wage
labour. Traditional occupation is no more surviving.
HMJs of Inner Terai are also having livelihood problems.
 Traditionally rivers were the sources for food and income for Botes. These days they
have no free access to forests and rivers, which were the chief sources for their
survival in the past. Botes go outside to wage labour.
 The main occupation of Danuwar people is agriculture and traditional one is net
weaving, fishing, bamboo products, and cloths weaving.
176

Raji do not own any land. They have also no job opportunities. Half of the time they
move from place to place to catch fish, hunt wild games and collect roots and fruits
and subsidy their foods. There is no problem about access and ownership of
farmland. Some of them are facing problems of land registration in absence of
Nepalese citizenship. Some other households have problems of pasture to graze their
livestock.
HMJs of Terai also are facing livelihood problem for additional reasons, that is, regional
discrimination against the Madhesis. This means many of them do not have citizenship
certificates, which deprives them from getting any benefits from the state.
 Only about 10 percent of Jhangad have adequate land and resource to thrive the
whole year and the 90 percent have difficulties to meet their daily requirements of
food and clothing the year around.
 Khadiya squarely subsists on working in the tea garden and working as labourers in
others farms. They have no alternatives to survive.
 Kisan did not have land ownership certificates in their names. In 1964 A.D. many
fake landowners, mainly from the Hindu Bahuns and Chhetris, appeared in their areas
and by all means they took away the lands of Kisan communities. They work in tea
garden and as rickshaw pullers.
 Kusbadiyas exchange their products with grains and animals, mainly goats. They do
not own lands for cultivation.
 Most Mundas now work in other people’s farm after they have lost their land to other
people. They work in tea gardens and as daily wage earners.
 Most Meches presently thrive on alcohol production, pig raising followed by farming
and wage labour. The abundance of land they owned had been lost in the last few
decades to non-Meche and largely Bahun and Chhetri community.
 Santhals said that agriculture is their main source of livelihood even though they do
not own any lands and/or their farm production can support their family only for 2
months.
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
 JEP-NEFIN should provide fast-income generating activities such as pig and goat
raising and agro-forestry programs to HMJs of the Hills, Inner Terai and Terai.
 JEP-NEFIN should intensify advocacy at the local and national level for citizenship
certificates and land registration.
 JEP-NEFIN in partnership with NFDIN should initiate dialogue with the Ministry of
Forest for collaborative forest management between the government and HMJs so
that HMJs could make livelihood from forest resources.
 A package program of livelihood of HMJs should be designed and the government,
international donors and (I)NGOs could be encouraged to work in areas inhabited by
HMJs.
 JEP-NEFIN should work together with CTVET to provide skill training to HMJs for
alternative employment.
177
Supports from (I)NGOs and other international donors
Lhomi-Shingsa and Chepangs are exceptional in terms of receiving projects from (I)NGOs.
(I)NGOs are running literacy, drinking water, savings and credit programs in Lhomi-Shingsa
community. SNV has been implementing Chepang mainstreaming program for Chepangs.
Neither (I)NGOs nor any donor has implemented programs for other HMJs. There are many
development programs run by international donors and INGOs in districts populated by
HMJs but they are not its direct beneficiaries.
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
 NEFIN should encourage international donors, government and (I)NGOs to
impalement programs for HMJs.
 JEP-NEFIN should prepare a manual or guidelines to (I)NGOs to implement
programs to improve livelihood of HMJs.
 JEP-NEFIN should help both HMJs' community organizations and (I)NGOs to work
in partnership by organizing annual interaction programs at the district level among
them.
Access to Health
All HMJs have no access to health services due to several factors, including lack of
government health services nearby, lack of awareness on health among HMJs, reliance on
traditional faith healers and poverty. In the mountains and the Hills, modern health services
are located in distant places. In inner Terai and Terai regions, government and private health
services are available nearby but poor HMJs cannot afford getting such services. Drinking
unsafe water and using open toilets are prevalent among HMJs, which indicates persisting
health problems of these peoples.
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
 JEP-NEFIN needs to implement awareness raising programs such as clean drinking
water, us of toilets to improve health condition, and get health services from the
government.
 JEP-NEFIN should encourage (I)NGOs to increase access to health services to HMJs.
Access to Education
Among HMJs, some have access to primary education but parents have no awareness to send
children to schools (such as Shingsa), some have no access to school beyond primary level
(such as Chepang, Lapcha), some face harassment in schools (such as Kusunda), problem in
Nepali language as a medium of instruction (all HMJs but more by Madhesi indigenous
nationalities such as Jhangad and Khadiya), unemployed SLC graduates (such as Baramu),
poverty (such as Hayu, Thami, Raji), high drop out (such as Surel, Bote) and irregularity in
attendance due to work (such as Danuwar, Majhi), and some lack of participation in
management of local schools (such as Bote). There is a Majhi proverb, which says, "padi
guni ke kam, halo jotyo khayo mam," meaning "There is no use of education; instead
ploughing provides food to eat."
Implications for JEP-NEFIN’s partnership with them are as follows:
178



JEP-NEFIN should launch programs to raise awareness of parents to send their
children to schools;
JEP-NEFIN should provide support to local organizations of indigenous peoples to
provide non-formal or informal or out of school program in mother tongues; if there
are no such organizations, local CBOs or NGOs could be considered for such support;
Career counselling or training should be provided to unemployed school/SLC
graduates to get employment;
3.2. Recommendation
Priority needs and recommendations for immediate and long-term projects for each HMJ are
discussed in respective reports. Given socio-cultural and regional diversity in Nepal, there
may be some variation in needs and priorities in communities other than visited by the Study
Team. With regards to all 24 HMJs, the Study Team recommends JEP-NEFIN to follow the
following steps:
Step-1: JEP-NEFIN should send its staffs (at least one from JEP and the other from NEFIN)
together to the core districts/VDCs/settlement areas of the respective HMJs (see
Annex-1-Table 1 and Annex-1-Table 2) and contact respective HMJ's ethnic
organization and/or local community members. In the case of those HMJs, who do
not yet have their own organizations, they should contact directly with the local
peoples of respective HMJs.
Step-2: JEP-NEFIN staffs should organise community meeting(s) at the local level.
Step-3: JEP-NEFIN, in consultation with the respective HMJ community, should identify
poorest of the poor families, with top preference to women, and women headed households.
Step-3: Identify at least one or more need(s) from Package A—Individual Family and/or
Community Needs and at least one or more need(s) from Package B— Organizational Needs
to give to a community. Package—A contains needs related to social and economic rights
and rights to development. Package—B contains needs related to political, collective and
indigenous peoples rights. Package—A needs to be treated as confidence building measures
to intensify activities from Package—B. It should be noted here that awarding
project(s)/program(s) from one package only will not yield desired effects/impacts; hence
both should go together.
Package A—Individual Family and/or Community Needs
Identify individual families and/or community needs relating to their livelihood of
each HMJ:
Possible needs in the following priority order:
1. Support projects that help to increase income and food production;
179
2. Support projects to eliminate and/or reduce violence against women and
other forms of gender discrimination;
3. Introduce small saving and credit groups;
4. Support to increase access to education, formal and/or non-formal;
5. Support to infrastructure/services related to trails and roads, bridges,
irrigation, health (such as health post and toilet), clean drinking water,
production, and marketing;
6. Support to community's efforts in building or maintenance of trails,
bridges (wooden or suspension), community buildings/halls and school
buildings;
7. Provide technical, vocational and skill development training with focus on
promoting indigenous skills/knowledge;
8. Support to programs that encourage children to go to and/or continue
education in schools;
9. Support programs to reduce and/or eliminate caste based untouchability
and other forms of caste based discrimination in the community;
10. Support programs for overcoming disability;
11. Support programs to increase marketing of products/commodities; and
12. Support for protection and promotion of indigenous/traditional knowledge
and skills.
Package B: Identify organizational need in the following priority order:
1. Support to begin and/or intensify local organization building and/or
capacity building, including formation of groups, local or central
adhoc/main committee;
2. Support to build these groups' linkage with central committees of
respective HMJ, NEFIN, National Indigenous Women's Federation
(NIWF)-Nepal, NFDIN and indigenous peoples' movement from district
to national levels;
3. Support for protection of mother tongues, such as preparation and
publication of glossary, dictionary, grammar, textbooks, and literature,
train teachers and run classes in mother tongues;
4. Support for protection of other tangible and intangible cultural heritages
such as documentation and publication of folk literature and indigenous
knowledge;
5. Support for capacity building for ethnic, linguistic and regional autonomy,
equal language and religious rights through organization building,
leadership development and advocacy;
6. Support for protection of religions and religious activities such as training
to young men and women to become indigenous religious priests of
respective HMJ;
7. Support for capacity building for right to development through external
linkages with local bodies such as Ward Committees, VDCs, Iilaka
Committees, DDCs, local offices of line agencies, (I)NGOs, and donor's
programs/projects;
180
8. Support to intensify advocacy for positive discrimination or reservation in
education, employment, political bodies, and political parties;
9. Support to capacity development for proportional representation in all
fields at all levels; and
10. Any other activities that protects and/or promotes indigenous peoples'
rights.
Step 4: Give money to groups; if there are no pre-existing groups, form groups first. JEPNEFIN should link these groups with HMJ's respective organizations;
Step 5: Provide support, financial and technical, to these groups to participate in the
activities, including general body meetings, of respective HMJ's district and national
level organizations.
Step 5: Provide some support to respective HMJs and/or NEFIN's District Coordination
Committee to monitor the project(s)/program(s) and send quarterly and annual report to
JEP-NEFIN.
181
182
PART – 4
ANNEXES
183
184
Annex-1. Training Schedule
Annex-1-Table 1. Schedule of training provided to Senior Field Research Assistants
Day: One
S.N.
Description
Time frame
Methods
Breakfast
8:00-8:30 AM
Participatory
Materials
Resource Persons
1.
Session:1 Registration and experience sharing
1.1
Registration & training material
distribution
8:30-9:00 AM
Participatory
-
1.2
Participants introduction
9:00-9:40 AM
Participatory
-
1.3
Welcome Remarks
9:40-9:50 AM
Short Speech
Team Leader
1.4
Expectation of participation
10:00-10:30 AM
Short Speech
Brown paper,
markers
Team Leader
1.5
Ground rule and Group formations
9:50-10:00 AM
Short Speech
Brown paper,
markers
Team Member
1.6
A brief outline of five days workshop
10:30-10:45 AM
Short Speech
Brown paper,
markers
Team Member
1.7
Overview & Importance of the
present research with short
introduction of JEP
10:45-11:15 AM
Short Speech
Brown paper,
markers
Dr. Om Gurung,
General Secretary,
NEFIN
1.8
JEP and fundamental use of Need
Assessment and Baseline survey
11:15-11:30 AM
Short Speech
Brown paper,
markers
Dr. Chaitanya
Subba, NPM
Tea Break
11:30-11:45 AM
Short lecture and
question and
answers
Brown paper,
markers
Team Member
Short lecture and
question and
answers
Brown paper,
markers
Team Leader
Short lecture and
question and
answers
Brown paper,
markers
Team Leader
2.
Session: 2 Introduction of Janajatis and Janajati organizations and NEFIN
2.1
Janajatis and NEFIN
 Key Concept
 Historical Movement
 Present Situation
11:45-01:00
Lunch Break
01:00-02:00 PM
3.
3.1
Session: 3 Key Demands of Janajati Movement

Key demands of Janajati
Movement
Tea Break
02:00-4:00
4:00-4:15
4.
Session: 4 Empowerment and disempowerment
4.1
Empowerment and disempowerment
 Key Concept
 Historical development
 Present Situation

04:15-5:30
Indicators & tools
185
Training Schedule
Day: 2
5.
Breakfast
8:00-8:30 AM
Session: 5 Review and Useful Tools and Technique for Rapid Appraisal
5.1
Review
5.2
6.
6.1
7.
7.1
How to Select Sites
Tea Break
Session: 6 Conceptual Clarity
Locate and Identify HMJ Groups/SubGroups/Communities
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Team
Member
9:30-11:30 PM
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Team
Member
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Jitpal /
Amrit
Short lecture,
experience sharing
Brown paper,
markers
Amrit
Short lecture,
experience sharing
Brown paper,
markers
Jitpal / Om
11:30-11:45 AM
11:45-01:00 PM
Lunch Break
01:00-2:00 PM
Session: 7 Conceptual Clarity Continued
Language
2:00-3:15 PM
Tea Break
8.
8.1
8:30-9:30 PM
4:00-4:15
Session: 8 Conceptual Clarity Continued
Identification of Problems / Constraints 4:30-5:30 PM
186
Training Schedule
Day: 3
9.
Breakfast
8:00-8:30 AM
Session: 9 Conceptual Clarity Continued
9.1
Review
Needs of HMJs and Its Prioritisation
10.
10.1
8:30-9:30 PM
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Team
Member
9:30-11:30 PM
Short lecture,
experience sharing,
Practical
Brown paper,
markers
Jitpal / Om
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Dr. Sumitra
/ Narendra
Short lecture
Experience Sharing
Short lecture
Experience Sharing
Brown paper,
markers
Brown paper &
markers
Team
Member
Team
Member
Short lecture
Experience Sharing
Participatory and
experience sharing
Brown paper &
markers
Brown papers
Team
Member
Dr. Sumitra
Tea Break
11:30-11:45 AM
Session: 10 Conceptual Clarity Continued
Livelihood Analysis
11:45-01:00 PM
11.
11.1
Lunch Break
01:00-2:00 PM
Session: 11 Conceptual Clarity Continued
Economic Viability
2:00-3:15 PM
11.2
Existing Organizations
12.
Tea Break
4:00-4:15 PM
Session: 12 Conceptual Clarity Continued
12.1
Course of Actions and Small Projects
3:30-4:30 PM
12.2
Mapping
4:30-5:30 PM
2:30-3:15 PM
187
Training Schedule
Day: 4
13.
Breakfast
8:00-8:30 AM
Session: 13 Rapid Appraisal Tools and Techniques
13.1
Review
13.2
14.
14.1
Field Work: Entering; Rapport
building; observing; interviewing;
listening; note taking/recording; exit
8:30-9:30 PM
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Team
Member
9:30-11:30 PM
Short lecture,
experience sharing,
Practical
Brown paper,
markers
Om
Practical
Brown paper,
markers
Team
Leader
Short lecture
Experience Sharing
Brown paper,
markers
Team
Leader
Short lecture
Experience Sharing,
Practical
Brown paper &
markers
Amrit
Tea Break
11:30-11:45 AM
Session: 14 Rapid Appraisal Tools and Techniques
Focus Group Discussion: Concepts and
Practical
11:45-01:00 PM
15.
15.1
Lunch Break
01:00-2:00 PM
Session: 15 Rapid Appraisal Tools and Techniques
FGD Practical Continued
2:00-4:00 PM
16.
Tea Break
4:00-4:15 PM
Session: 16 Rapid Appraisal Tools and Techniques
16.1
PRA Tools: Well-being ranking

Concept

Practical
4:15-5:30 PM
188
Training Schedule
Day: 5
17.
Breakfast
8:00-8:30 AM
Session: 17 Rapid Appraisal Tools and Techniques
3.2
Review
Preference Ranking of Needs

Concept

Practical
18.
8:30-9:30 PM
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Team
9:30-11:30 PM
Short lecture,
experience sharing,
Practical
Brown paper,
markers
Amrit
Short lecture &
Participatory
Brown paper,
markers
Om
Short lecture
Experience Sharing
Short lecture
Experience Sharing
Brown paper,
markers
Brown paper &
markers
Team
Members
Team
Members
Tea Break
11:30-11:45 AM
Session: 18 Rapid Appraisal Tools and Techniques
3.1
Key Informants Interviewing
and Case Study
11:45-01:00 PM
Lunch Break
Session: 19 Field discussion

Discussion about the Field area
01:00-2:00 PM
19.
7.1
7.2

3:00-4:00 PM
12.
Tea Break
4:00-4:15 PM
Session: 12 Discussion on Questionnaires
7.2

Field Researchers - grouping etc.
Closing Remarks and back to KTM
2:00-3:00 PM
4:15-5:00 PM
Short lecture
Team
Leader
189
Annex-2. Tables
Annex-2-Table 1. Population, household and concentration districts of HMJs
SN
I
1
2
3
II
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
III
13
14
HMJs
Pop.
Mountain HMJs
Lhomi-Shingsa
Siyar
Thudam
Hill HMJs
Banakariya
64
Baramu
7,383
Chepang
52,237
Hayu
1,821
Kusunda
164
Lapcha
3,660
Raute
658
Surel
Thami
22,999
Inner Terai HMJs
Bote
7,969
Danuwar
53,229
15
Majhi
16
IV
17
18
Raji
2,399
Terai (Madhesi) HMJs
Dhanuk
188,150
Jhangad/Dhang
41,764
ad/Urau
Khadiya
1,575
Kisan
2,876
Kusbadiya
552
Meche
3,763
Munda
660
Sattar/Santhal
42,698
19
20
21
22
23
24
72,614
Districts with 5% or more population
Sankhuwasava
Gorkha
Taplejung
Makwanpur
Gorkha (91%)
Chitawan (41%), Makwanpur (29%) and Dhading (21%)
Sindhuli (54%) and Ramechhap (38%)
Ramechhap (25%), Tanahu (9%), Gorkha (7%) and Baitadi (7%)
Ilam (69%) and Mustang (17%)
Dadeldhura (43%), Doti (10%), and Dhanusha (8%)
Dolakha
Dolakha (61%), Sindhupalchok (17%), and Ramechhap (7%)
Chitawan (32%), Nawalparasi (24%), Tanahu (18%)
Sindhuli (23%), Udaypur (14%), Siraha (13%), Sarlahi (12%) Kavre (11%),
Sindhupalchok (6%)
Sindhuli (13%), Morang (9%), Ramechhap (8%), Sindhupalchok (7%), Sarlahi
(7%), and Jhapa (6%)
Surkhet (34%), Bardiya (20%), Kailali (15%), and Baglung (7%)
Saptari (21%), Dhanusha (18%), Mahottari (18%), Siraha (12%) and Bara (8%)
Sunsari (54%) and Morang (32%)
Kapilbastu (78%), Jhapa (8%), Rupandehi (6%)
Jhapa (35%), Baglung (26%), Myagdi (18%), and Saptari (11%)
Kapilbasu (35%), Banke (34%), Nawalparasi (17%), Rupandehi (9%)
Jhapa (77%), Sunsari (7%), Saptari (5%)
Jhapa (82%) and Sunsari (13%)
Jhapa (54%) and Morang (38%)
190
Annex-2-Table 2. Population of HMJs by districts and VDCs
S.N. HMJs
Population Districts
I
Mountain HMJs
1
Lhomi-Shingsa
n.a. Sankhuwasava
2
Siyar
n.a. Gorkha
3
Thudam
n.a. Taplejung
II
Hill HMJs
4
Banakariya
n.a. Makwanpur
5
Baramu
7,383 Gorkha
6
Chepang
Lalitpur
52,237 Chitawan
Makwanpur
Dhading
7
8
Hayu
Kusunda
9
Lepcha
10
Raute
11
12
Surel
Thami
1,821 Sindhuli
Ramechhap
164 Gorkha
Tanahu
3,660 Ilam
658 Dadeldhura
Doti
n.a. Dolakha
22,999 Dolakha
VDCs
Population
Handigaon
Takukot
Thumi
Masel
Pandrung
Arua Arbang
Thuladurlung
Lothar
Kaule
Siddi
Korak
Shaktikhor
Piple
Darechok
Raksirang
Bhartapunyadevi
Sarikhet Palase
Kalikatar
Manahari
Dhussa
Jogimara
Pida
Mahadevsthan
Gajuri
Dadiguranshe
Ratanchura
Ramechhap
Prithvinarayan
Municipality
Raipur
Panchakanya
Phikal Bazaar
Samalbung
Santipur
Sri Antu
Jogbuda
Sirsa
Kalikasthan
64
816
731
583
455
427
12
3,258
3,155
2,827
2,634
2,575
1,401
1,058
2,211
1,581
1,205
1,120
1,069
2,517
2,326
2,109
1,857
1,050
257
102
176
12
Lapilang
Susmachhemawati
Alampu
2,354
2,239
1,642
14
271
326
266
161
155
104
180
66
191
Sindhupalchok
Ramechhap
III
13
Inner Terai HMJs
Bote
7,969 Chitawan
Nawalparasi
14
Danuwar
Tanahu
53,229 Sindhuli
Udaypur
15
Majhi
Sarlahi
72,614 Sindhuli
Morang
16
Raji
Sindhupalchok
2,399 Surkhet
Bardiya
Kailali
IV
17
Terai (Madhesi) HMJs
Dhanuk
188,150 Saptari
Babare
Kakingchok
Sundarwati
Ghuskun
Ghorthali
Fulpingkatti
Dadhuwa
1,568
1,516
1,111
555
317
361
1,278
Padampur
Ayodhyapuri
Patihani
Bagauda
Jagatpur
Sukranagar
Argyouli
Gaidakot
Dibyapuri
Pragatinagar
Devghat
Sirthouli
Harsahi
Hatpate
Nipane
Ranibas
Tiryoga
Municipality
Katari
Risku
Chandranagar
Mahadevsthan
Kalpabrikshya
Ranibas
Kapilakot
Kyaneshwor
Dadiguranshe
Sanischare
Bayarban
Bardanga
Katahari
Bhimtar
Chhinchu
Ghatgaon
Taranga
Sanashree
Chaumala
Patharia
Sadepani
386
267
250
183
156
147
459
253
148
134
463
2,804
1,872
1,450
1,145
918
3,473
Belhichapena
2,609
2,412
1,194
1,177
1,646
1,306
764
668
491
445
597
568
413
303
1,688
174
117
184
272
139
57
71
192
Siraha
Dhanusha
Bara
Parsa
Mahottari
18
Jhangad
41,764 Sunsari
Morang
19
Khadiya
1,575 Kapilbastu
Jhapa
20
Kisan
2,876 Jhapa
Bamangamakatti
Ko. Madhepura
Mahadeva
Luniya
Malekpur
Brahmapur
Boriya
Mauwaha
Nardho
Kalyanpur Jabadi
Lahan Municipality
Dubarikot
Lagmagadhaguthi
Bhutahipaterwa
Maithileshwornikas
Danauji
Itaharwa
Buniyad
Chatapipra
Basadilwa
Birgunj
Ekadarabela
Gonarpura
Khopi
Loharpatti
Bhokraha
Narshinhatappu
Paschim Kusaha
Santerjhora
Chitaha
Tanmuna
Dumraha
Purba Kusaha
Madhuvan
Babiyabirta
Matigagachha
Bhaudaha
Biratnagar
Municipality
Darbesha
Lakhantari
Mrigauliya
Sisbanibadahara
Pakadi
Mechinagar
Municipality
Mechinagar
Municipality
Dhaijan
2,547
1,844
1,711
1,516
1,325
1,084
1,031
1,021
1,019
2,235
1,215
2,717
1,618
1,588
1,464
1,428
1,000
2,280
1,450
1,006
1,480
1,097
1,189
1,717
1,295
2,090
1,940
1,764
1,719
1,636
1,555
1,147
990
981
1,624
880
872
698
1,078
615
575
580
376
99
607
117
193
21
Kusbadiya
552 Kapilbastu
Banke
22
Meche
23
Munda
24
Sattar (Santhal)
3,763 Jhapa
660 Jhapa
Sunsari
42,698 Jhapa
Morang
Bahundangi
Shantinagar
Bahadurgunj
Kapilbastu
Municipality
Indrapur
Sonapur
Jalthal
Mechinagar
Municipality
Jyamirgadhi
Bahundangi
Chakchaki
Sanischare
Mahespur
Sanischare
Shivganj
Jyamirgadgi
Prakashpur
Saranamati
Garamani
Jyamirgadhi
Jalthal
Ghailaduba
Surunga
Chandragadhi
Anarmani
Chakchaki
Darbesha
Hoklabari
Babiyabirta
Siswanijahada
Bardanga
Amardaha
Biratnagar
Municipality
Hasandaha
111
104
60
55
148
37
583
555
167
134
135
180
53
47
23
21
82
1,669
1,101
1,003
962
933
874
548
546
533
1,328
1,232
1,171
1,027
763
606
380
300
194