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Recently a student asked me “What makes a poem good?” It is an important question. Perhaps
an even more important question for a student writer is, “What makes a poem a poem?”
Just as a serious musician learns elements of musical theory before composing music, so must a
serious poet learn elements of poetic theory before composing poems.
We can all make music. We don’t have to follow rules of pitch, tone, rhythm, or phrasing. We
express ourselves using vocal music or an instrument. We can do what we like. If we want to sit
in our rooms and make music, let’s have as much fun as we can!
We’ve all seen American Idol. I’m happy for those kids who like to express themselves through
vocal music, whether they have learned rules of musical theory or not. However, if their goal is
to sing for an audience, then they will want to learn to produce a product others want to hear.
There is a general perception that poetry is a free form of self-expression that lacks science or
technique. Anyone can write poetry. We simply express ourselves on the page. We don’t have
to follow rules of grammar, punctuation, even spelling. We can do what we like. Well, if we
want to sit in our rooms and write poems, let’s have as much fun as we can!
However, if a student’s goal is to write poems for an audience (and if the student is enrolled in a
poetry workshop class, then that is the goal, since they clearly have signed up to have an
audience), then they will want to learn to produce a product others want to read.
Moreover, poetry students must learn what makes a poem a poem.
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Prose is defined as “the ordinary form of spoken or written language, without metrical structure,
as distinguished from poetry or verse.”
Think novels, textbooks, memoirs, newspaper articles, instructions for your MP3 player, emails,
websites, etc. Many student poems in workshop classes at the University are not poems, they are
prose with line breaks. They use expository techniques such as explanation and summary. They
tell instead of show. They say “I felt very lonely” or “I really, really, loved him.”
I have a friend who likes to pick up random pieces of prose and read it in “poetry voice.”
You’ve heard poetry voice, right? Exaggerated pauses and lilts. Very few poets actually read
that way, but when they do, it’s something to behold. So imagine my friend at the breakfast
table with this newspaper article about Arizona Diamondback Luis Gonzalez:
He loved playing here.
We loved
him back. And as he rose
to new heights
as a reborn National League slugger,
Gonzalez became a local treasure,
connecting his franchise
to the fan base
like few other athletes
in Arizona history.
My friend can break that article into lines, and read it with emphasis and feeling and drama. But
neither the line breaks nor the dramatic reading make this prose a poem.
Poetry is defined as “the art of rhythmical composition, written or spoken, for exciting pleasure
by beautiful, imaginative, or elevated thoughts.”
So how do poets achieve the art of beautiful, imaginative, or elevated thoughts? They master
poetic techniques that have been used for thousands of years: Imagery, Figurative Language, and
Musical Devices.
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Imagery
Poetry uses the language of the physical world to reveal the mysteries of the intangible one. A
poem becomes vibrant when illuminated by the radiance of the five senses: sight, sound, smell,
touch, taste. When we use the term Imagery in poetry, we are talking about concrete details that
represent abstract emotions. Poems should EVOKE emotion rather than EXPLAINING
emotion. Here are some examples of images and their possible corresponding emotions. The
writing in the left column would be appropriate for poetry. The writing in the right column
would be appropriate for prose.
Concrete Image--Poem
Abstract Emotion--Prose
Crawling roaches
Bells chiming
Licking the spoon clean
Tobacco stained walls
A single light shining
I’m miserable because I live in poverty.
I’m ecstatic about a victory.
I feel safe when I eat.
I’m sad that my father smokes so much.
I’m happy someone prepared for my arrival.
Poems show emotion through concrete images. If a poem lacks images entirely, it begs the
question, what makes it a poem? Why isn’t it written in prose?
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Figurative Language
The poet Marianne Moore once said, “Feeling at its deepest—as we all have reason to know—
tends to be inarticulate.” The more powerful an emotion, the harder it is to put into words, and
the less meaningful it sounds when we do. Think of how hollow the simple phrase “I love you”
sounds when uttered by a cheating spouse or an absent parent.
Poetry uses figurative language, also called figures of speech, to articulate the complex nature of
human emotion. Figurative language creates associations that use the subconscious mind instead
of the conscious mind. These delightful moments in poems allow for transcendence that is not
available in expository writing. Here is a list of several types of figurative language:
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metaphor—implied comparison between two unlike things
simile—expressed comparison between two unlike things
personification—giving the attributes of a human to an animal or object
apostrophe—addressing someone absent or dead
synecdoche—using the part for the whole
metonymy—use of something closely related for the actual thing
allegory—a narrative that has a second meaning beneath the surface
paradox—an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless true
allusion—reference to something in literature or history
When poets use this broad range of poetic techniques, the emotion in the poem is visceral,
tangible. Consider this sequence from Sylvia Plath’s famous poem “Lady Lazarus”:
Out of the ash
I rise with my red hair
And I eat men like air.
This one stanza uses 3 types of figurative language:
Out of the ash (synecdoche—ash is used for the poet’s body after a suicide)
I rise with my red hair (symbol—the red hair stands for a fiery, strong woman)
And I eat men like air. (simile—the poet compares men to air)
Look what happens to these lines if we write them as explanation:
After I commit suicide I’ll come back
A stronger woman than ever
And I’ll take revenge on men.
Poems use figurative language to evoke emotion. If a poem lacks figurative language entirely, it
begs the question, what makes it a poem? Why isn’t it written in prose?
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Musical Devices
Throughout history, poems have been used as an oratorical art form. They were written in strict
rhyme and meter so that they could be memorized and performed without being written down.
As technological advances produced the widespread use of paper, poetry became a written rather
than spoken art form and free verse was born. Poets began using the structure of the poem,
including line length and form, to create meaning. They strayed from strict rhyme and meter.
Even though most poetry written and published in the world today does not use strict rhyme and
meter, it still takes advantage of musical devices and dense language that is pleasing to the ear.
Poems often mimic their meaning in their form. Musical devices separate poetry from prose.
Here is a list of several types of musical devices:
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alliteration—the repetition of initial consonant sounds
assonance—repetition of vowel sounds
consonance—repetition of consonant sounds
internal rhyme—one or more rhyming words within the line
slant rhyme—words with similarity
Poems use musical devices to make meaning. If a poem lacks musical devices entirely, it begs
the question, what makes it a poem? Why isn’t it written in prose?
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I have been publishing poetry for 16 years. When strangers ask me what I do for a living I
answer, “I am a poet.” Usually, strangers then ask me “What type of poetry do you write?”
When I was younger I used to answer by giving intricate and jargon-laden descriptions of my
poems. In return, I got a lot of blank stares. And awkward silences.
Soon I learned it was better to reply, “Well, what type of poetry do you read?” About 95% of
strangers say, “Oh, I don’t read poetry.” At least then I know where the conversation is going.
Perhaps one reason people don’t read poetry is they are confused by its “types.” Poetry is not
separated into subgenres like romance, mystery, biography, etc., as is prose writing.
When we go to the bookstore and look at the poetry section, we see thin volumes catalogued
alphabetically. We can pick up a book from the “G’s” and it many be written in free verse or
formal meter, it may be lyric poetry or narrative poetry, it may be an ancient Greek poet or a 21st
century poet. Unless we have some knowledge of the author, how do we know if it’s good?
A poem is good if its images, figurative language, and musical devices are fresh, unique, and
interesting. As you read and write poetry, study those techniques, and look for the moments
when language gives you access to complex emotion.
And while you are workshopping student poetry in our class give constructive criticism that will
help our students master imagery, figurative language, and musical devices. The following
worksheet will help. Print it off and have it next to you as you respond.
Titles: How does the title relate to the poem? Is the title interesting? How could the title be improved?
First Line: Is the first line interesting? Does it stand on its own? Does it make you want to read on?
Last Line: Is the last line interesting? Does it stand on its own? Does it surprise and delight you?
Characters: Who is in the poem & what is the relationship to the speaker? How are they characterized?
Do they have meaning?
Setting: Where does the poem take place? What details of setting are missing? What description could
be added?
Theme: What types of conflict occur in the poem? What is the poem about?
Tone: What is the author’s attitude towards the subject? Is the tone appropriate? What if the tone were
changed? What would happen to the poem?
Structure: Is the poem in sections? Equal lines within stanzas? Consistent line length? How do line
breaks function? Is there a better structure for the poem?
Imagery: What are the concrete images in the poem (sights, sounds, smells, tastes, textures)? Are there
places where the poem explains emotions instead of evoking them? How can those places be revised so
that the poem is more poetic? What concrete images might help the poem evoke emotion instead of
explaining emotion?
Figurative Language: Mark the figurative language in the poem, using the following bulleted list as a
reference. How many types of figurative language does the poem employ? Could it use more? Which
figurative language works best in the poem?
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metaphor—implied comparison between two unlike things
simile—expressed comparison between two unlike things
personification—giving the attributes of a human to an animal or object
apostrophe—addressing someone absent or dead
synecdoche—using the part for the whole
metonymy—use of something closely related for the actual thing
allegory—a narrative that has a second meaning beneath the surface
paradox—an apparent contradiction that is nevertheless true
allusion—reference to something in literature or history
Musical Devices: How is the poem using musical devices? If the poem uses rhyme and meter, does it
follow the patterns it sets up for itself? Is the pattern too restrictive? If the poem is in free verse, do the
line breaks make sense? Do the lines work individually?
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alliteration—the repetition of initial consonant sounds
assonance—repetition of vowel sounds
consonance—repetition of consonant sounds
trite rhyme—rhyming with words that have been over-used
internal rhyme—one or more rhyming words within the line
slant rhyme—words with similarity
High Points vs. Low Points: What is the poem’s purpose? How fully has it been accomplished? How
important is this purpose? Is it fresh? Be honest. Is the poem too Sentimental? Too Didactic? Does it
earn its tone? Do you care about the speaker, the characters, the theme?