Prayer and Performance
Acts of belief as symbolic communication in
the late medieval and Renaissance period
An international, interdisciplinary colloquium examining the
nature of prayer as performance in late medieval and early
modern culture
Co-organised by the Department of Aesthetics and Communication and the Discipline for Medieval and Renaissance
Archaeology, Aarhus University, Denmark in conjunction with the School of English, Bangor University, Wales.
Aarhus University
Moesgaard Museum, Aarhus, Denmark
1
April 23-24, 2012
Prayer and Performance
acts of belief as symbolic communication in the late medieval and Renaissance period
*All plenaries are in the Main Auditorium
Programme
Monday, 23 April
9:30
Welcome and
coffee
10:00-10:50
Session 1
Plenary*
Armin Geertz
10:50-11:05
15 min coffee
break
11:05-12:30
Session 2:
Plenary
Panel*
Alison
Findlay
(Chair: Joseph Sterrett)
'Defining prayer as a performative act: applying new social and scientific
methods to our understanding of prayer in society'
Exterior and interior stages
(Chair: Helen Wilcox)
'Prayer , Performance and Community in Early Modern Drama'
How did acts of prayer work to create imagined communities between
members of households, cities, religious affiliations, audiences and actors?
This paper will explore ways in which the ceremonies of prayer are
represented on stage in examples of late medieval and early modern drama.
In particular, it will consider how the cultural trauma of the Reformation in
England changed the significance of ceremony and performance as aspects of
prayer.
Chloe
Preedy
'Grounded Messengers: Delivering Prayers in Early Modern Drama'
On the early modern stage, it is common for characters to be shown praying to
their gods. A related but less often explored phenomenon is the prevalence of
divine messenger figures: prophets, intermediary saints, and angels, as well as
the most famous of divine messengers, Hermes/Mercury. Perhaps in response
to the new Protestant emphasis on prayer as an intimate conversation with
God, however, from the late Elizabethan period Mercury in particular is
consistently represented as an absent, incompetent, or indifferent messenger.
This paper will focus on the way in which the divine messenger-figure
apparently expresses anxieties about the difficulties of communicating with
the gods, exploring the significance of the divine messenger in Elizabethan
drama through specific reference to the representation of Hermes/Mercury in
four plays of the 1590s: The Arraignment of Paris, Dido Queen of Carthage, Titus
Andronicus, and Troilus and Cressida.
1
Judi Loach
'Civic performance as communal prayer'
In seventeenth-century Lyons the town college’s patronal festival, Trinity
Sunday, constituted the official act of obedience and gratitude, ordained to be
enacted by the Jesuit schoolmasters towards the councillors as their
paymasters. But the Jesuits presented the series of acts (literally) performed –
mass followed by a tragedy interpolated with ballet – as a Christian form of
the Roman imperial vota, or communal vow to the city’s deity. They
incorporated their civic audience into this performed prayer of thanks for the
past and supplication for the future: citizens were unconsciously drawn into
participation in these acts which touched their outer senses and thus activated
their inner spirits. This paper examines the 1667 celebration in order to
demonstrate how such superficially secular performances as plays and ballets
could legitimately be considered to constitute prayer.
12:30-13:30
13:30-14:30
Lunch
Session 3:
Plenary
Panel*
Material evidence
(Chair: Holger Gräf)
Martin
Wangsgaard
Jürgensen
‘Motion as Meditation: The Role of Actions in Early Modern Praying’
Rainer
Atzbach
‘Between Representation and Eternity: Forms of Prayer in Archaeological
Contexts’
To pray is often considered purely a speech act, either voiced out loudly or
unspoken, solely expressed internally. However, from the early Middle Ages
and across the Reformation it was always debated whether or to what extent
the act of praying ought to include more than merely words. Even to
Protestants rejecting the idea that there was anything especially beneficial in
taking specific poses or combining prayer with certain actions, the kneeling
position was hard to explain away. Luther agreed that gestures performed
during prayer could be helpful to maintain a fervent state of mind. When
looking back into the Middle Ages, a wide register of performed actions are
discernible in combination with the act of praying. Taking its cue from such
considerations, this paper will discuss how spatial movements and prayer are
connected. I propose to analyse how gestures and movements in the material
space were believed to affect and shape the mind-set while praying. These
questions are to be analysed from a medieval perspective and ultimately
presented in their post-Reformation guises.
In archaeological contexts, the immaterial act of prayer becomes visible in
different ways. The well-known practice of putting magical or religious
objects into graves seems to come to continue until the 10th century even in
regions which have been converted to Christianity for some time. The specific
position of hands and arms in the graves also reflect changing bearings of
prayer becoming a kind of immortal prayer lasting until the day of Last
Judgment. It seems that as a consequence of the Reformation the practice of
placing grave goods returns in the 16th century consisting of clothing,
weapons and jewelry as well as prayer books and bibles. Staging the
"immortal prayer" again becomes a part of funeral performance of the "true
belief". Moreover excavations have brought to light a broad range of objects
either showing prayer, e.g. tile stoves, or being used for it, e.g. rosaries. This
paper will discuss the possibilities and problems of these sources.
2
14:30-14:45
14:45-16:00
Coffee break 15 min
Session 4:
Parallel
Session
Grave performances
(Chair: Morten Larsen)
Main
Holger Th.
Gräf
'The sepulchral politics of the landgraves of Hesse from late medieval
period to early 17th century'
Most important for Hesse dynastic identity during the middle ages was the
cult of their ancestor, the holy Elizabeth, especially as a means of conferring
legitimacy to landgraves. These medieval landgraves were buried in close
vicinity to her tomb in the Church of Saint Elizabeth. After the Reformation
and the death of Philip the Magnanimous in 1567, Hesse was divided. While
Calvinist Hesse-Kassel was oriented towards protestant powers like Sweden
and Brandenburg, the more Lutheran Hesse-Darmstadt aligned with catholic
powers and the Hapsburg emperor. This paper will compare the inscriptions,
programmes and architecture of tombs in Marburg, Darmstadt and Kassel in
order to trace the threefold split along dynastic, political and confessional
lines that resulted in distinct divergences in sepulchral politics as part of early
modern territorial state-building.
Claudia
Melisch
'Faith and religious practice: sepulchral culture in Berlin/Cölln (Germany)
from the Middle Ages to the Baroque era'
It is generally believed that the pre-Reformation Church in Berlin and the
Margraviate east of the Elbe did not have the same resplendent background as
the Church in western Germany and the important towns of the Holy Roman
Empire. The purpose of this paper is to examine whether this thesis is
represented in the graves from the cemeteries of St. Peter’s church and the
Dominican monastery, and to explore how the graves might allow further
conclusions to be drawn regarding contemporary religious practices. Two
archaeological excavations have unearthed more than 3,500 graves dating
from the medieval period through to the first quarter of the eighteenth
century. One of the sites is near the oldest cemetery in Cölln around the
former St. Peter's church which was in use since the beginning of the
thirteenth century and closed in 1717 when it was thought overfull. The other
is situated near the Dominican monastery built c.1300 which became a
theological college in the 15th century and a Hofkirche (court church) in the
16th.
Both cemeteries reflect, in their graves, the developments of sepulchral
culture and thus of the changes in religious culture of Cölln from the Middle
Ages to the Baroque era. At the same time, by analysing these exceptional
collections of skeletal remains, the composition and living conditions of the
population may be better understood. Similarly, patterns can be established in
the material cultures of the monastery, the members of the court, and the lay
population of Cölln revealing contemporary regional religious practices.
3
Juliane
Schenk
"Signs of faith–crosses, rosaries & pilgrims badges in postmedieval burials"
Archaeological finds of graves and crypts from the 16th to 20th century reflect
changes in morturary practice. Grave goods and the remains of garments are
increasingly found in burials from this period and seem to be associated with
the impact of the Reformation. The phenomenon is evident until the 19th
century in almost all regions, social ranks and religious denominations.
The purpose of this paper is to present an analysis of all modern grave
goods and finds in Lower, Middle and Upper Franconia as well as in Upper
Palatinate with regard to their appearance, distribution and usage,
particularly in matters of social, gender-specific, confessional and local
distinctions. Grave goods such as crosses, rosaries and pilgrims badges
provide basic notes on personal devotion and prayer practice and can be
understood through the detailed indexing and interpretation of objects from
120 find spots yielding approximately 2600 burials.
14:45-16:00
Shakespearean performances
(Chair: Per Sivefors)
Auditorium 5
Emma
Depledge
'Fighting with ‘Womens Weapons, Piety and Pray’rs’: Passive Obedience in
Nahum Tate’s The History of King Lear (1681)'
This paper will explore Nahum Tate’s 1681 alteration of Shakespeare’s Quarto
and Folio versions of King Lear into The History of King Lear. It will focus on the
character of Cordelia and the ways in which her reduced agency and frequent
use of prayer can be seen to reflect the policy of passive obedience advocated
in Tory propaganda of the late seventeenth century. Tate’s play, like nine
other Shakespeare alterations staged between 1678 and 1682, was produced in
response to a succession crisis known as the Exclusion Crisis. The Crisis,
which takes its name from a parliamentary bill designed to bar Charles II’s
Catholic heir, James, Duke of York, from the succession, led to heated debate
over the circumstances in which a monarch’s rule might be resisted or limited.
I wish to argue that Cordelia’s prayers and the numerous references to the
gods found in The History of King Lear are central to the play’s defence of
James’s (Divinely ordained) birth right, and legitimate rule more generally.
Sonia
Suman
‘Performing Prayer in Shakespeare’s Henry V’
This paper will examine the efficacy of prayer in William Shakespeare’s Henry
V. The play is saturated with instances of calling upon or praising God,
however the agency of prayer itself is called into question by the rhetorical
performances on offer throughout the play. The semblance of divine
intervention is created through Henry V’s oratorical skill. I will consider
Henry’s prayer in act four scene one in the context of early modern debates
about the efficacy of spontaneous versus prescribed prayer, public versus
private devotion and the efficacy of ‘habit’ or physical preparation for prayer.
The absence of ceremonial kingly dress at this crucial moment in the play also
bears on the perceived transformative power of this peculiar kind of speech.
Finally, this paper will explore how early modern audiences may have
responded to prayer performed on stage, taking into account the
contemporary anti-theatricalist view that the theatres preached false religion.
4
Annelis
Kuhlmann
’“O, what form of prayer can serve my turn?”: Claudius and the problem of
prayer’
In Act III, scene 3 of Hamlet Claudius asks, ‘O, what form of prayer / can serve
my turn?’ (51-52). The form of prayer in this tragedy is the point of departure
for this paper for prayer and its form has a particular function at this crucial
place in the middle of Hamlet – a moment that is deeply connected to the
genre of Shakespeare’s revenge tragedy. Prayer as rhetorical disguise protects
Claudius, but it also exposes him as potential victim of Hamlet's sword. The
use of prayer also provides an insight into more formal aesthetic sides of the
play, namely the notion of theatrum mundi. The very notion of theatricality in
Hamlet plays on the theme of the world as theatre. This can be seen in the
ways characters’ make spectators perceive the nature / theatricality of the
play. By asking ‘what form of prayer’ it could be argued that Claudius is
questioning the very nature of prayer on multiple levels. Is this prayer a
religious act, and the question contemptuous? Or is this an utterance of some
deep reflection? Or perhaps it refers to prayer as a theatricalised speech act.
The form of prayer can be perceived as a double-edged sword in the
composition of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. This paper examines the form of prayer
from the perspective of interpersonal speech as elaborated by Mikhail
Bakhtin. While Claudius’ prayer would seem to be addressed to God, Hamlet
hears the prayer and, as a Saviour, prevents the immediate sacrifice of the
criminal’s body, creating a dramatic tension that lasts until the end of the play.
It is my argument therefore, that Claudius’ monologue embeds a theatrical
heteroglot form of speech.
16:00-16:15
16:15-17:15
Coffee break 15 min
Session 5:
Plenary
Panel*
Textual and material traces of prayer
(Chair: Rainer Atzbach)
Roy Eriksen
'Varieties of Prayer: Marlowe's Mighty Line and Its Sources.'
Hauke
Kenzler
‘Funeral Rites in Catholic and Protestant Germany: Religion, Status, Taboo’
This paper will focus on the archaeologically tangible aspects of the burial
customs, which highlight the different treatment of the deceased in Protestant
and Catholic areas of Germany. Now for the first time, an attempt to compare
post-medieval burial customs over spatial and denominational boundaries
can be undertaken.
The presentation will deal with the differences in the organization of
cemeteries, the shape of the graves and the number and type of grave goods.
The analysis will show that people behaved quite conservatively concerning
funeral customs. It was not for a long time after the Reformation when
significant changes occurred. For example, in Protestant areas a strict
separation of church and burial ground is visible. The type of grave goods
(secular or religious) varies noticeably according to different beliefs. But not
only religious reasons were crucial for the application of new ideas. Partially a
number of profane reasons such as hygienic causes or a status-oriented way of
thinking stood behind the changes.
5
17:15
Adjourn to Aarhus for drinks and dinner
The bus leaves at 17:38 sharp.
Our three course dinner is at the ‘French inspired’ Sct. Oluf’s Restaurant at 19:30.
(See map included).
Meet in Cathedral Square by the water sculpture (which may be dry) in front of the
Cathedral at 19:15 to walk the short distance to the restaurant.
Tuesday, 24 April
9:30-10:45
Session 6:
Parallel
Session
17th century poetic prayers
(Chair: Mats Jørgensen)
Main
Nancy Zaice
'Prayer and (Sexual) Performance: The Role of Prayer in Lord Edward
Herbert of Chirbury’s Metaphysics'
While many have written about the performative aspects of George Herbert’s
prayerful poetry in The Temple, most scholars simply neglect or ignore the
poetry of his elder brother, the soldier, courtier and scholar, Lord Edward
Herbert of Chirbury. One reason for this may involve Edward’s reputation, in
his younger days, as a lady’s man, a “gay blade,” and as a caricature chivalric
knight. This reputation tends to cause scholars, if they notice his poetry at all,
to categorise his poetry as “cavalier.” Edward Herbert’s later reputation as an
atheist or “deist” has also deterred some scholars from seriously examining
the spiritual aspects of his poetry. This study of Edward Herbert’s
metaphysics, as explained in his philosophical treatise De Veritate, and of his
love poetry will reveal the spiritual nature of Herbert’s poetry and the role of
prayer within Herbert’s spirituality, particularly the sexual act as the highest
form of human prayer. This act or “performance” by male and female joins
the physical and the spiritual into a transcendent experience that provides
both with a momentary glimpse of the divine and an apprehension of the state
of, what Herbert terms, “eternal blessedness.”
6
Erik
Ankerberg
'Johann Gerhard, George Herbert, and the shimmering of chaos in early
modern prayer'
Contemporary scholars, as varied as the anthropologist Mary Douglass in her
Purity and Danger and the literary critic Gary Morson in his theory of
prosaics, have chronicled and interrogated humanity’s continual efforts to
impose the concept of order on its cultural artifacts and phenomena.
However, if the German Romantic poet Novalis is correct in his assertion that
in “a work of art, chaos must shimmer through the veil of order” then
attempts to overlay a system or order on a work of art, even if that work of art
is a form of prayer, are bound to meet with frustration, and potentially,
failure. In the their engagement with collections of religious meditative texts
such Johann Gerhard’s Sacred Meditations and George Herbert’s The Temple,
early modern readers are exposed to two levels of performance: The first
performance is the development and implementation of an over-arching
architecture to the collection of texts by the translator (in Gerhard’s case) or
the author (in Herbert’s case), and the second performance is the act of
reading, praying, or engaging the respective collection of texts. Contrasting
the performative acts we associate with these two collections of religious texts
clarifies alternatives paths of reaching Morson’s conclusion that life, art, and
in this case, prayer, always contain the “unfitting” of patterns and
assumptions of stability or control.
Jonathan
Nauman
“Vaughan’s Poetry of Prayer (a homily)”
Llansantffraed parish in Breconshire, Wales has become a destination for
Christian literary pilgrimage, a place “where prayer has been valid,” largely
because of Henry Vaughan’s gravesite in the parish yard and significant
awareness of local setting in his devotional poems. I shall here consider how
Vaughan’s verses of direct address to God interact with the natural imagery of
the Usk Valley, showing how the poet’s decisive turns toward the
transcendent strengthen rather than weaken his appreciative gestures toward
nature.
9:30-10:45
Memory, text, and gesture
(Chair: Hauke Kenzler)
Auditorium
2
Effie
Botonaki
'The Protestant Diary and the Act of Prayer'
As I have argued elsewhere,* the early modern diary owes its emergence and
development to the Protestant duty of self-examination which replaced the
Catholic confession. While examining the form and content the early modern
English diaries, I have found that a most powerful influence on them was the
scores of guides to private prayer published at the beginning of the
seventeenth century. While encouraging the unmediated, unprocessed contact
between the believer and God through extempore prayer, these guides
ultimately sought to control the believer’s act of prayer and mould it into
acceptable forms. This effort and its results are vividly seen in the Protestant
spiritual diaries which are an unruly mixture of the guidebooks’ prescriptions,
and the individual believer’s needs. This is why we encounter the repeated
recording of “improper” feelings and deeds, as well as the transformation of
these spiritual accounts into secular texts that do not meet the prescriptions of
the guidebooks to prayer.
7
Maria
Beatriz
Hernandez
'Framing vision through prayer: The Book of Margery Kempe'
Stina
Fallberg
Sundmark
Humiliter genu flectare - Bodily Expressions of Prayer in Late Medieval
Eucharistic Settings
Late medieval literary and artistic evidence, immersed in a culture of piety,
clearly refers the emergence of an individual dimension which had so far been
restrained or ignored. Among other possible causes, the spread of new
techniques of confession not only fostered such sense of individuality but also
contributed to stress the conversational quality of prayer itself. The degree of
intimacy between human pleaders and divine addressees is especially
apparent in the works of some female authors. Similarly, the portraits of the
female commissioners in religious books speak the proximity between these
believers and their divine counterparts in the sacred space depicted. This
paper will analyze the role of prayers in the layout of individual divine
visions in the The Book of Margery Kempe, an autobiographical work
conflating diverse performative and discursive techniques --among them,
prayer-- through which its protagonist tried to readjust herself into late
medieval congregational activities.
Late medieval Church life was in many senses concrete and had corporeal
dimensions. Late medieval prayer did not solely consist of different verbal
expressions but also included varied bodily ones. In this paper we will look
closer at prescribed body language and gestures for the layfolk in different
Eucharistic settings and contexts such as Mass itself and the Eucharistic
procession outside Mass when the priest went to sick and dying persons to
give them communion. Questions to be answered are: Which were these
bodily expressions? Which were their meanings? How were the bodily
expressions related to the verbal prayer? How could they be interpreted in
connection to the sacramentally present Christ in the Eucharist? To be able to
answer these questions different sources will be used, such as prescriptions in
synodal and provincial statutes from the Church province of Uppsala,
teaching and moralizing descriptions in handbooks for priests and in exempla
and visualizations through images (mostly German woodcuts).
10:45-11:00
11:00-12:15
Coffee break 15 min
Session 7:
Parallel
Session
Main
Symbolic prayer cultures
(Chair: Martin Wangsgaard Jürgensen)
8
Mirko
Gutjahr
‘Lead tablets and the materiality of popular belief in medieval Europe’
Recent archaeological finds of inscribed lead tablets from various locations in
middle Germany as well as rediscoveries in the archives at the State Museum
for Prehistory in Saxony-Anhalt, all dating from the 12th to 15th/16th century,
could help to shed a new light on the materiality of magical and religious
popular beliefs in medieval Europe. The Latin inscriptions consist of a
hotchpotch of prayers, scriptural quotations, holy names and invocations
against evil forces and personified illnesses. Densely folded and worn as
amulets, the inscribed leaden sheets were intended obviously not to be read
aloud but to work in secrecy. Although condemned by the church authorities,
textual amulets were authored apparently by members of the local lesser
clergy for the illiterate common folk. Since some of the lead tablets were
found in graves of children or young women their apparent purpose was to
protect those which were thought to be most vulnerable to demonic
influences.
Blandine
Wittkopp
‘Miscellaneous medieval burial rites in Brandenburg as a sign of religious
identity’
Many churchyards in Brandenburg include unusual medieval graves.
'Leitersärge' graves contain caskets with ladder bottoms, or others containing
mysterious burial objects such as sickles. While these might appear to be
pagan or superstitious in meaning they also occur in clearly Christian
churchyards such as the Dominican monastery of Strasberg. Other burial
objects like scallop shells (Jakobsmuscheln) and what appear to be
aspergillum are found alongside skeletal body postures which clearly express
devotion: hands together as if in prayer or arms crossed over the thorax.
“Leitersärge” from the 13th century are very common in southern
Brandenburg with scattered examples across the whole of Germany and
neighbouring areas. With the help of the graves in Schleswig, these are
thought to be connected to St Laurentius, whom tradition held was matyred
bound to a gridiron. The paper will present new findings for burials of this
type.
9
Tanja
Armbrüster
'The plate as a mirror of belief - On Christian symbols decorating dishware
and the impact of Protestantism on tableware, table-manners and tablegraces during the Renaissance and Baroque'
Among the many obvious and not-so-obvious changes brought about by the
Reformation, religious habits underwent by far the most thorough
transformations. The table prayer for instance was introduced only after the
Reformation. An idealistic post-Reformation concept of man saw the
individual as a collection of virtues, caritas and piety particularly prominent
ones among them. And Protestantism explicitly spiritualized the household,
inspiring the evolvement of the family prayer. As one result depictions of
families praying together became more and more frequent in mural
monuments and Dutch paintings through the late sixteenth and most of the
seventeenth century The Common Table Prayer as we know it occurred
during or after the Reformation. Some relate it to Martin Luther himself
though that is highly speculative. First published evidence does not precede
the mid-eighteenth century (the Moravian hymnal, 1753), but research
indicates that it occurred most likely at some point during the seventeenth
century. And while looking intently at the historical records we are nearly
missing the material evidence at hand: Ceramics of the early modern period
from central Germany are broadly comprised of so called "glazed utility
wares" including a considerable amount of decorated (painted) table wares.
Plates and bowls are common finds on site and while quantitative analysis
indicates that plates were less popular in most early modern households the
bowls of various shapes from shallow to high and conical forms were
dominant. Among those we have only recently identified some items
decorated with Christian symbols as for instance a three part interlocking fish
symbol that commonly symbolizes the Holy Trinity (Father, son and Holy
spirit). We assume that the occurrence of that particular symbol on utility
table wares may be related to the performance of post-Reformation period table
prayers and eating habits.
11:00-12:15
Authorship and Author
(Chair: Erik Ankerberg)
Auditorium
2
Viktor
Aldrin
'Prayer Practices among ordinary people in the Late Middle Ages'
In this paper I will present key findings of my concluded project on the prayer life of
peasant communities in late medieval Sweden, conducted at the University of
Gothenburg 2005–2010. The aim of the project has been to identify, explain and
delineate praying among peasant communities in late medieval Sweden. Four aspects
have been examined through the perspectives of ideals and practices, namely the
standards of prayer, devotional prayer, prayer in times of need and prayer cultures.
Focus in my paper will be practices of prayer, especially those occurring in connection
with the praying for miracles.
10
Per Sivefors
'Prayer and the Performance of Authorship in Thomas Nashe's Christ's
Teares Over Jerusalem'
This paper argues that the the frequent occurrences of prayers in Christs Teares
Over Jerusalem (1593) constitute an expression of Nashe's own liminal position
as a writer, specifically in the context of the hostile audience reactions that the
work provoked. Prayers for comfort from the Lord function as acts of
empowerment for the author and furnish a position of "mourning" from
which Nashe constructs his authorial persona. While the paper thus revisits
some of the more recent scholarship on Nashe and authorship, it provides a
new angle in exploring the specific role of post-reformation religious belief
and ritual in the development of authorial role models. Moreover, it
contributes to the ways in which Christs Teares can be understood as a central,
rather than marginal text in Nashe's oeuvre as a whole.
Micah Snell
'The Enchantment of Mercy: The Hopeful Ending of The Tempest'
The conclusion of The Tempest is not an epilogue but Prospero’s prayer. I will
argue that The Tempest is the consummation of Shakespeare’s creative vision,
and the consummation of that vision is a Christian prayer. Prospero, the priest
of the play, sets down his charms to be relieved only by “prayer / Which
pierces so that it assaults / Mercy itself and frees all faults.” Shakespeare’s
liturgical conclusion places the play, the audience, the theatrical space, and
even the playwright himself in a familiar religious construct. Shakespeare’s
intention is veritable enchantment that submits humanity to mercy and grace,
not magic.
12:15-14:30
14:30-15:45
Lunch, Moesgaard Grounds and Museum
(all delegates have free entry to the Museum)
Session 8:
Plenary
Panel*
Erica
Longfellow
Spontaneous performances: Milton on prayer
(Chair: Chloe Preedy)
'Inwardness Regained: Private Prayer in Milton’s Epic Poems'
In Eikonoklastes Milton is particularly concerned to attack what he sees as
Charles’s hypocrisy in printing his own prayers in Eikon Basilike: ‘he should
have shut the dore, and pray'd in secret, not heer in the High Street. Privat
praiers in publick, ask something of whom they ask not, and that shall be thir
reward’. This was a familiar argument about the hypocrisy of personal prayer
performed for an audience, but for English Calvinists before Milton this fear
of hypocrisy had been linked with an English cultural suspicion of secrecy
and solitude. Milton, by contrast, displayed a radical optimism about the
ability of the inward self to align itself to God in prayer. In Paradise Regained
the disciples and the Virgin Mary are redeemed persons who use prayer to
bring rational order to chaotic inner selves; and the divine person, Jesus,
proves capable of redeeming the whole of humankind through his perfect
subordination and inner self-ordering. It is Milton, not his puritan
predecessors, who truly makes the Protestant faith inward.
11
Gilles
Sambras
'“A fair show in the flesh”: Reconsidering Milton’s rejection of codes and
art in prayer.'
Milton is famous for his rejection of set forms, art and performance in prayer.
In his eyes, the only valid form of prayer seems to be both private and
spontaneous.
The point of this paper is to examine Milton’s grounds for this rejection of
both conventions and art in prayer and to question Milton’s theological and
artistic consistency on the subject of prayer.
I will try and establish Milton’s theological consistency in showing that his
rejection of set forms and rhetoric does not spring from a belief in man’s
ability to be spontaneously intelligible to God but, on the contrary, from an
awareness that prayer, for fallen man, can only be mute or mere sighs and that
any attempt at ‘performing’ otherwise implies a blasphemous denial of the
consequences of the Fall.
As a religious poet however, Milton cannot escape the contradictions
between truth and beauty, humility and vanity, that lie at the heart of most
Protestant devotional poetry and are best represented in a text by one of
Milton’s contemporary poets, Andrew Marvell’s 'The Coronet'.
Panagiota
Tsentourou
'In feign’d religion, smooth hypocrisie’: Milton and the antitheatrical
discourse'
In Eikonoklastes, Milton refers to Shakespeare’s Richard III as ‘a deep
dissembler of religion’, while in the same tract, Charles I’s prayers are
condemned as theatrical. This paper for the first time places Milton’s
apprehension of hypocritical worship amongst debates of
hypocrisy/hypocrites in early modern drama. In his condemnation of deceitful
behaviour, which for Milton is primarily located in the Church’s adherence to
an obsession with visual worship, the poet suggests that an individual’s inner
state could be shaped by external shows of religion. The paradox of rejecting
performance, while simultaneously acknowledging its transformative value,
is typical of the antitheatrical rhetoric of late sixteenth-early seventeenth
centuries. I argue that reading antitheatrical tracts alongside
Milton’s prose allows for a redefinition of the notion of performance through
prayer. Performing devotion is an idol to be demolished only when
accomplished by private intentions.
15:45-15:55
15:55-17:00
Coffee break
Session 9:
Plenary
Panel*
Christopher
Hodgkins
Hamlet 3.3
(Chair: Nancy Zaice)
'Playing at Prayer: The Spiritual Failure of Performance in Hamlet'
When King Claudius falls repentantly to his knees in Hamlet, it would seem to
be a victory for what Philip Sidney had called the “virtue-breeding” powers of
tragic poetry—after all, he has just seen the all-too-familiar “Murder of
Gonzago,” and he’s seemingly been cut to the heart. In fact, in a number of
Shakespeare’s plays, both comic and tragic, drama seems to take on quasi-
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salvific powers: for instance in A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Bottom is the
theatrical “weaver” whose visionary folly serves as the reconciling catalyst
between city and country, spiritual and material, fairy and mortal, husband
and wife, lad and lady, reason and love. Bottom essentially saves the world,
and then concludes with a Bergomask. Even amidst the darkness of King Lear,
Kent plays for a noble end, and Edgar’s heartbreaking impersonations save
his father’s life for a better death. So Hamlet’s advice to the players seems to
attribute great stakes to the actor’s craft, since unbeknown to the troupe,
they’re playing not merely for the entertainment, but for the conscience, of the
king.
But can they play for his soul? As Hamlet overhears the beginning of
Claudius’ remorseful prayer, he fears that his “Mousetrap” has worked only
too well, and resolves not to kill him while in a theatrically-induced state of
grace, lest he dispatch the lecherous villain to heaven. Yet, as events quickly
show, Hamlet needn’t have worried: if playing does indeed “hold the mirror
up to nature,” then it’s quite possible, as it is written in James 1: 23-24, to put
down the mirror, walk away, and forget everything. Art can move the
emotions, even convict the conscience, but Hamlet
casts profound doubt on the power of the stage to duplicate the
transformative power of the Spirit.
So this paper will explore Shakespeare’s portrayal of the players’
failure to convert the soul and the self. Along the way I will refer to Sidney’s
Defense of Poesy—which after all cannily doesn’t rise to matters of saving
divinity—as well as to some 16th-Century commentaries on James’ epistle,
and to the literary pedigree of the “mirror of the soul” tradition.
Joseph
Sterrett
'Poetic, public and private: re-reading early modern prayer as social act'
The purpose of this paper is to sketch out a theoretical framework for reading
prayer as a performance, as an act governed by social conventions with effects
in the social world. While this may seem straight forward, even obvious, it is
a move away from critical tendencies to evaluate prayer from within a
theological framework reading prayer in terms of theological correctness.
Instead, we should keep pace with current socio-anthropological studies of
religion that view prayer as act, text, and subject. Beginning with late 19th C
and early 20th C studies of prayer, Tylor and Heiler, I highlight the tenacity of
theological perspectives tied up as they are with notions of an interior,
unified, autonomous self before moving to more groundbreaking work by
Marcel Mauss where prayer is a social act, socially defined and policed. Then,
noting the 'whiff of determinism' in Mauss's socio-anthropological
conclusions I show how Hans Georg Gadamer's theory of play can be used to
understand prayer as an act defined by social processes while maintaining
limited room for individual self expression that resists totalised readings of
prayer as a deterministic practice. Finally, as an example, I offer Act 3, scene 3
in Hamlet to illustrate how critical readings have sought to evaluate the
quality of Claudius's prayer, in effect accepting his theological misgivings on
their own terms and ignoring the Prince's more literal recognition of prayer as
a meaningful--or potentially meaningful--act. I offer, in contrast, a reading
sensitive to the scene's presentation of the social tensions inherent in the act of
prayer.
17:05-17:15
Coffee break
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17:15-18:20
Plenary
Panel*
Poetic Performers
(Chair: Joseph Sterrett)
Graham
Parry
'Lancelot Andrewes and the Laudian Tradition of Prayer'
Helen
Wilcox
‘Your suit is granted’: performing prayer in early modern English poetry
This paper will examine the idea of prayer as performance by focussing on the
nature and role of the performers involved. In a reading of poems by, among
others, John Donne, Elizabeth Major, Henry Colman, Mary Carey and George
Herbert, I shall suggest that there are three main categories of those who are
seen to enact prayer in early modern English sacred poetry. First, there is the
collective performer, principally the Church whose ‘common’ prayer is
frequently echoed by the poets as they invoke the language of the Bible and
the performance of the liturgy in their own work. The second type of
performer is the individual believer whose spiritual experience is vividly
represented in devotional poetry; the single petitioning voice is the most
predominant rhetorical feature of the early modern religious lyric. The third
category of performers of prayer is not a human group or individual but the
imaginative construction of a divine presence. If prayer is dialogue, then the
anticipated or felt response of God is a vital part of the performative texture of
poetic devotion, expressed in the formal structures as well as the discourse of
the verse. As implied by my title quotation (from the last line of Herbert’s
‘Redemption’), poetic prayer is concerned with a double performance: the
communal or private ‘suit’ to God, and the hoped-for divine ‘granting’ of that
request.
Colloquium close
14
Prayer and Performance
Acts of belief as symbolic communication in the late medieval and Renaissance period
Participants
Viktor Aldrin
Dr Viktor Aldrin (D.Th. in Religious Studies with a special focus on the History of
Christianity) lectures in Theology and Higher Education Teacher Training at the
University of Gothenburg. His research has focused on religious practices among lay
people in the late Middle Ages and has recently published a monograph on the
subject: 'The Prayer Life of Peasant Communities in Late Medieval Sweden: A
Contrast of Ideals and Practices', with a foreword by Professor Stephan Borgehammar
(Lund University). Lewiston; Queenston; Lampeter: Edwin Mellen Press, 2011.
viktor.aldrin@gu.se
Erik Ankerberg ERIK ANKERBERG is Associate Professor of English at Wisconsin Lutheran College,
were he serves as Chair of the School of Modern Languages. He also holds the Gary
Greenfield Chair of Christian Leadership Studies and directs the college’s interdisciplinary honors program. His research interests include the intersection of
Reformation theology and early modern literature. He also serves an Associate Editor
of Scintilla, as well as the digital conference and journal APPOSITIONS: Studies in
Renaissance/Early Modern Literature & Culture
erik.ankerberg@wlc.edu
Tanja
Armbrüster
Tanya Armbruester, M. A., studied in Hanover, Goettingen, Berlin and Charlottesville/
Virginia. She graduated from Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany in 1999 and
spent several years excavating and doing archaeological researching in Africa and
Iberia. She has recently re-discovered the wealth of archaeological archives that can be
dug up in Germany and Central Europe, and is currently specialising in archaeology
of the Medieval and post-Medieval (Renaissance/ Baroque) periods.
tanya.armbruester@gmx.de
Rainer Atzbach Rainer Atzbach, Dr.phil. (Bamberg), is Assistant Professor of Renaissance Archaeology
at Aarhus University. His PhD thesis (2005) focused on leather and fur in the late
Middle Ages and early Post-medieval period. He was Curator for two exhibitions, "St.
Elizabeth of Thuringia and the Service for the Poor" (University Museum Marburg,
2007) and "Castles and Power" (German Historical Museum, Berlin 2010). His current
research focus is on everyday culture and building archaeology.
rainer.atzbach@hum.au.dk
Effie Botonaki
Effie Botonaki teaches European literature at the Hellenic Open University, and has
taught courses in English literature at Aristotle University for several years. Her
research and publications focus on early modern diaries and autobiographies, and
more recently, masques. Her book, Seventeenth-Century English Women's
Autobiographical Writings: Disclosing Enclosures, was published in 2004. Her latest
publication is an article on Elizabeth's presence in the Jacobean masque in the
collection Representations of Elizabeth I in Early Modern Culture, published by
Palgrave Macmillan in 2011.
ebotonaki@yahoo.com
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Emma
Depledge
Emma holds a BA and an MA from the University of Leicester, UK, and a PhD from
the University of Geneva, Switzerland. She's currently working on a book project
entitled 'Shakespeare in the Restoration', and has forthcoming articles in Philological
Quarterly and the 2011 World Shakespeare Conference Proceedings.
Emma.depledge@unige.ch
Roy T Eriksen
Roy Eriksen is Professor of English Renaissance Literature and Culture, University of
Agder. His research field is English and Italian Renaisance studies, particularly the
relationship between literature and the Arts. (www.uia.no/EMRG)
roy.eriksen@uia.no
Alison Findlay Alison Findlay is Professor of Renaissance Drama and Director of the Shakespeare
Programme at Lancaster University (UK). She is the author of Illegitimate Power
(1994), A Feminist Perspective on Renaissance Drama (1998), Women in Shakespeare
(2010) and, most recently, Much Ado About Nothing: a guide to the text and the play
in performance (2011). Alison was co-director of a research project on early women's
drama, producing a series of filmed performances and a co-authored book Women
and Dramatic Production 1550-1700 (2000). She went on to write a specialised study of
site-specific production, Playing Spaces in Early Women’s Drama (2006). She has
published essays on Shakespeare and his contemporaries and is currently a General
Editor of the Revels Plays (Manchester University Press). This February she organised
the 2012 British Shakespeare Association Conference in Lancaster, and is co-organising
'Capturing Witches' another conference to be held in August 2012 to commemorate the
400th anniversary of the 1612 Lancashire witch trials.
a.g.findlay@lancaster.ac.uk
Armin W.
Geertz
ARMIN W. GEERTZ, Dr.Phil., is Professor in the History of Religions at the
Department of Culture and Society, Section for the Study of Religion, Chair of the
Religion, Cognition and Culture Research Unit (RCC), and MINDLab Coordinator of
the Cognition and Culture Project at Aarhus University, Denmark. He is Senior CoEditor of the new Journal for the Cognitive Science of Religion (JCSR) and President
Elect of the International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion (IACSR).
His publications range from the cognitive science of religion to method and theory in
the study of religions and the religions of indigenous peoples. He has recently
published articles and chapters on evolutionary theory, atheism, the neurobiology of
prayer and introductions to the cognitive science of religion.
AWG@teo.au.dk
Holger Th. Gräf Holger Th. Gräf, Phd, Honorary Professor for Early Modern History at the University
of Marburg. He studied medieval and modern history, geography and prehistory at
the University in Giessen from 1982-1988, and (1986/87) at the Centre for Urban
History in Leicester. He earned his Phd in 1992 and was assistant at the Historical
Institute at the Humboldt-University, Berlin. Since April 1996 he has been
„Akademischer Oberrat“ at the „Hessisches Landesamt für geschichtliche
Landeskunde” in Marburg.
graef@staff.uni-marburg.de
Mirko Gutjahr Mirko Gutjahr received his Magister-degree in Protohistoric Archaeology and
Medieval History from the Albert-Ludwigs-University of Freiburg, Germany, in 2006.
In 2008/2009 he curated the State Exhibition Finding Luther – Archaeologists on
Martin Luther´s trail at the State Museum for Prehistory Halle and the ReissEngelhorn-Museum Mannheim. Currently, he works as a research associate at the
State Museum for Prehistory Halle and holds the position of a project leader for the
quadrennial project on archaeology of sites associated with the reformer Martin
Luther (Lutherarchäologie).
mgutjahr@lda.mk.sachsen-anhalt.de
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María Beatriz
Hernández
María Beatriz Hernández is an Associate Professor at the University of La Laguna
(Canary Isles), where she teaches and researches Medieval English Literature,
especially the Chaucerian tradition and the links between late medieval English and
Spanish authors. She is also interested in the construction of gender roles in AngloSaxon and late medieval English literature, and in any other aspects that might require
the study of medieval culture through the support of literary criticism.
bhernanp@gmail.com
Christopher
Hodgkins
Christopher Hodgkins is Professor of English at the University of North Carolina at
Greensboro, and works in the literature of the Renaissance. The winner of both
UNCG’s 2010-2011 Senior Research Excellence Award, and its 2003-2004 Senior
Teaching Excellence Award, he has particular interests in the early modern protestant
lover’s quarrel with beauty, art, play, and worldly power. He is author of Authority,
Church and Society in George Herbert: Return to the Middle Way (U. Missouri Press,
1993), and Reforming Empire: Protestant Colonialism and Conscience in British
Literature (U. Missouri Press, 2002). He is co-editor, with Daniel W. Doerksen, of
Centered on the Word: Literature, Scripture, and the Tudor-Stuart Middle Way (U.
Delaware Press, 2004); editor of George Herbert’s Pastoral: New Essays on the Poet
and Priest of Bemerton (U. Delaware Press, 2010); and editor of George Herbert’s
Travels: International Print and Cultural Legacies (U. Delaware Press, 2011). He also is
co-recipient of an 2010-2011 National Endowment for the Humanities Digital Scholarly
Editions Grant, with Robert Whalen of Northern Michigan University, for The Digital
Temple (U Virginia Press, 2012).
cthodgki@uncg.edu
Martin
Wangsgaard
Jürgensen
Martin Wangsgaard Jürgensen, mag.art, dr. theol. is a postdoctoral member of the
Department of Church History, University of Copenhagen.
mwj@teol.ku.dk
Hauke Kenzler Born 1969 in Cuxhaven (Germany), Hauke Kenzler studied Prehistoric Archaeology,
Geography and Social Anthropology at the University of Hamburg. In 1995 he gained
a Masters in medieval archaeology at Lübeck. From 1995 until 2004 he undertook
several large scale excavation projects for the Saxon Heritage Department (e.g. in
towns archaeology and rural environments). In 1999 he completed his doctoral thesis
about an excavation in Zwickau. Since 2004 he has been Assistant and Associate
Professor at the chair for medieval and post-medieval archaeology at the University of
Bamberg. In 2011 he began work on habilitation in landscape archaeology of the saxon
and bohemian Ore Mountains.
hauke.kenzler@uni-bamberg.de
Annelis
Kuhlmann
Annelis Kuhlmann is Associate Professor in Dramaturgy at Department of Aesthetics
and Communication at Aarhus University. Her PhD dissertation on Stanislavsky’s
theatre concepts (1997) was realised on the basis of studies at the Stanislavsky Archive
at Moscow Art Theatre. Her present research is about director’s professional
biographies in Denmark after World War II. She is the leader of Centre for Theatre
Laboratory Studies (CTLS), a research cooperation between Odin Teatret and
Dramaturgy, and she actively takes part in Network on Cultural Memory Studies. She
has published on relationships between ritual and art in plays and theatre
performances and installation art in Danish, English, Russian, and lately also in
Japanese. http://pure.au.dk/portal/en/dramak@hum.au.dk
dramak@hum.au.dk
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Judi Loach
Judi Loach studied architecture, history and theory of architecture, and French
literature, in London, Lyons and Cambridge, taking her PhD in architectural history
and theory at Cambridge, where she became a Research Fellowship, working on 17th
century French festivals. All this research has concerned early modern Jesuits, mainly
in SE France and Paris. She has held permanent university teaching/research posts at
Oxford Brookes and Cardiff, and a Research Professorship at an American Jesuit
institute, at Boston College. She currently holds a personal chair at Cardiff University.
loachj@Cardiff.ac.uk
Erica D
Longfellow
Erica Longfellow is Dean of Divinity, Chaplain and Fellow of New College, Oxford.
She is the author of Women and Religious Writing in Early Modern England (CUP
2004) and is editing Volume VII of the Oxford Edition of the Sermons of John Donne.
erica.longfellow@new.ox.ac.uk
Claudia Maria Claudia Melisch studied classical archaeology as well as medieval German language
and literature. Born in 1968, she has worked since 1995 in many archaeological
Melisch
excavations in Berlin and the Brandeburg area as well as Romania, Greece, Italy and
Russia. She has worked in Pompeii and is currently involved with the excavations of
the University of Michigan in Gabii, Italy.
cmelisch@web.de
Jonathan
Nauman
Jonathan Nauman, secretary of the Usk Valley Vaughan Association in the USA, is an
independent scholar from Beverly, Massachusetts. His most recently published article
appears in the Autumn 2011 issue of The Seventeenth Century: “Alternative Saints:
Eucherius, Paulinus of Nola, and Henry Vaughan’s Silex Scintillans.” He will speak at
this year’s UVVA Colloquium on “Death and the Dazzling: Henry Vaughan in
Madeleine L’Engle’s A Ring of Endless Light.
jonnauman@hotmail.com
Graham Parry
Graham Parry is Emeritus Professor of Renaissance Literature at the University of
York. He is interested in all aspects of ecclesiastical life in the 17th century and spends
much time visiting churches. His most recent book is Glory, Laud & Honour: the Arts of
the Anglican Counter-Reformation (Boydell & Brewer, 2006).
gp8@york.ac.uk
Chloe Preedy
Chloe Preedy currently teaches in the Faculty of English at the University of
Cambridge and is a Fellow of Lucy Cavendish College. Her research focuses on
religious themes in early modern drama. Her book 'Marlowe's Literary Scepticism:
Politic Religion and Post-Reformation Polemic' is forthcoming from Arden Early
Modern Drama later this year.
ckp21@cam.ac.uk
Gilles Sambras Gilles Sambras is senior lecturer at the University of Reims where he teaches English
literature. He wrote his thesis on Andrew Marvell and has published several articles
on Andrew Marvell and John Milton. He was president of the Andrew Marvell Society
in 2005-2006 and edited a collection of essays on Andrew Marvell.
gilles.sambras@neuf.fr
Juliane Schenk Juliane Schenk read Medieval Archaeology at the University of Bamberg, having an
M.A. conferred in 2008. Since 2008 she has been working on a phd project,
“Postmedieval burials in Franconia and Upper Palatine‐-the archaeological context”
(working title). She is a member of the university excavation teams and became a
freelance archaeologist in 2009.
juliane_schenk@web.de
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Per Sivefors
Per Sivefors is Senior Lecturer in English at Linnaeus University, Sweden. After
receiving his PhD in 2004, he has published on Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Nashe,
early modern dream narratives and urban culture. He is the editor of Urban
Preoccupations: Mental and Material Landscapes (Pisa, 2007).
per.sivefors@goteborg.bostream.se
Micah Snell
Fr Micah Snell is writing his PhD thesis on Shakespeare and theology at the University
of St Andrews' Institute for Theology, Imagination and the Arts. His research interests
include spiritual alchemy in Shakespeare and Renaissance theatre as religious
paroidos. He holds degrees from Biola University (BA), Nashotah House Theological
Seminary (MDiv) and the University of Dallas (MA).
Micah Snell <ms946@st-andrews.ac.uk>
Joseph Sterrett Joseph Sterrett, PhD (Cardiff), is Assistant Professor of Literature in English at Aarhus
University. His research interests are prayer in literature and as literature,
Shakespeare in his religious context, and early modern definitions of immunity. His
most recent book is The Unheard Prayer: Religious Toleration in Shakespeare's Drama
(Brill, 2012).
engjs@hum.au.dk
Sonia Suman
Sonia Suman is a Graduate Teaching Assistant in Renaissance Drama and Literature at
the University of Leicester (UK). Her research interests lie in late Elizabethan and
Jacobean literature, particularly performance texts including sermons and drama. She
is currently exploring the role of performance in preaching and playing in relation to
the senses of sight and sound, and their respective truth-telling powers.
sds8@leicester.ac.uk
Stina Fallberg
Sundmark
Stina Fallberg Sundmark, b. 1977, Dr Theol, MA (art history), is a researcher at the
Faculty of Theology, Uppsala University. In her research she investigates different
medieval expressions of piety, liturgy and theology, often in relation to the function
and meaning of images and liturgical vessels. She defended her doctoral dissertation
in 2008 on the visitation of the sick in Swedish medieval and reformation traditions. In
an ongoing project financed by the Swedish Research Council for three years she
investigates Summula by Laurentius of Vaksala, a handbook "for poor and simple
clergymen", from 14th century Sweden.
stina.fallberg-sundmark@teol.uu.se
Panagiota-Naya Panagiota-Naya Tsentourou is a PhD student in the University of Manchester. Her
thesis, Performing Piety in Milton's Poetry and Prose, seeks to place Milton within a
Tsentourou
tradition of works that dramatize prayer and to examine how the early modern subject
engaged in dialogue with the self and with God.
Panagiota.Tsentourou@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk
Helen Wilcox
Helen Wilcox is Professor of English at Bangor University and Director of the Institute
for Medieval and Early Modern Studies at the Universities of Aberystwyth and
Bangor. Her research interests are in early modern English devotional writing, drama,
and the work of women writers. Her annotated edition of the English Poems of
George Herbert came out in paperback from Cambridge University Press in 2011.
helen.wilcox@bangor.ac.uk
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Blandine
Wittkopp
Blandine Wittkopp is an archaeologist and has worked since 2009 on a research project
called "The late medieval land consolidation and the development of rural settlements
in Brandenburg " (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG) at the Brandenburg State
Office of Historic Monuments in Zossen-Wünsdorf. She studied pre- and early history
and medieval history at the Universities of Berlin and Bonn. Her research focuses on
the archeology and architectural history of churches and monasteries. She directed
inter alia excavations at the Cistercian monastery in Chorin. She is co-author of the
book Brandenburg Monastery at the University of Potsdam.
blandine.wittkopp@bldam-brandenburg.de
Nancy Zaice
Dr. Nancy Zaice is an Assistant Professor of English at Francis Marion University in
Florence, SC, where she teaches Composition and Literature classes. Dr. Zaice received
her Ph.D. from the University of South Carolina in Early Modern British Literature
with a minor in Early American Literary Studies. In addition to some side research in
Composition Studies, her primary research interests center around the life,
philosophy, works, context and legacy of Edward Lord Herbert of Chirbury. Herbert
of Chirbury has been and remains an endless source of fascination to her.
nzaice@yahoo.com
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Notes
The cover illustration is taken from an illustrated page of a Book of Hours showing the Virgin, the Sybil and the Emperor Augustus.
It is available in the public domain.
(http://historymedren.about.com/od/booksofhours/ig/Tr-s-Riches-Heures/Virgin--Sybil--Emperor.htm)
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