A104: Social Organization, Page 1
Dr. Ken Barger
IUPUI, Anthropology
© 2003
A104 Cultural Anthropology
Class Notes on
SOCIAL ORGANIZATION
1. Social Organization: The behavioral patterns and structures in a group
that regulate how its members relate to each other
A major focus of many anthropological studies
Humans are social animals - we need each other
Vast majority of our behavior is social in nature
2. Kinship
a. Kinship: The relationships between people who have blood and marriage ties with each other
Also a universal component in human cultures
Emphasized in anthropological research
Usually very important in social behavior and relationships
Much moreso than we experience (re ethnocentric "blindness")
Involves complex means of social organization
Particular kinship systems vary
Kinship is particularly important in human relations
Primary relations in life
Most intense relations are with family and kinsmen
Make us the happiest and saddest
!
Kinship involves cultural organization of biological relations
!
Kin relations are usually morally binding rights and obligations
Reciprocal obligations/responsibilities and rights/benefits
The greatest ties and investments
Also involve the greatest social problems - because are so close
(1) Genealogical Diagrams:
EGO
(male)  =  (female)
|
___________ _______________ (line of decent)
|
|
|
 (1 Son)
 (2 Daughter)  (3 Son) =  (Daughter-in-law)
(2) Types of Relatives
Sanguine (blood): Related by genetic descent lines
Affinal: Related by marriage
Fictive: Relationships that incur kinship roles
Often ceremonial
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b. Marriage
Marriage:
Socially recognized sexual cohabitation as a life association
A universal social bond in all cultures
(1) Marriage Boundaries
Inclusive/exclusive rules for regulating marriage partners
Universal prohibitions against incest in basic reproductive unit
Nuclear family
Additional prohibitions vary with the particular culture
Also preferred/ideal views in selecting a spouse
!
Individual choice in selection of spouse varies
Individual preference important where monogamy and nuclear family
Arranged marriages common - mostly for socioeconomic ties
But strong preference pro/con usually seriously considered
Future of families' investments can be jeopardized
Most arranged marriages work well
!
Most societies allow options - a safety valve
Elopement - often an option
Divorce - socially recognized severing of marriage bonds
(2) Types of Marriage Systems
Monogamy: Only one spouse permitted (24% of societies)
Polygamy: Multiple spouses permitted (45% of societies)
Polygyny: Multiple wives permitted for a man
Where permitted usually not frequent
Polyandry: Multiple husbands permitted for a woman
Serial: More than one spouse permitted but only one at a time
!
Status of females
Matrilineal groups
Patrilineal peasant agricultural groups
Industrializing groups
Industrialized groups
(3) Residence Patterns
Living arrangements for newly married couple vary widely
Couple established own household (neolocal)
Couple can live with one of spouse's [extended] families
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c.
Family and Household
Family: A married couple and close relations who share a household
A universal basic social unit in all cultures
Involves important social functions and investments
Household: Those who share a dwelling and living arrangements
Normally will use interchangeably with "family"
Two overlapping units:
Family of origin - unit into which a person is born
Family of procreation - unit established for own children
Types of families:
Nuclear: Spouses and their offspring
Extended: Spouses, their children, and other close relations - usually overlapping nuclear families
Composite: Polygynous groups where are separate households for each wife and her children
d. Descent Rules
Descent: Tracing consanguineal/blood relations across generations
Very important in how people relate to others
Involves obligations and expectations
Patterns for identifying relatives:
Types of descent systems:
Bilateral: Tracing descent through both Fa and Mo genealogical lines
Unilineal: Tracing descent through one genealogical line (80% cults)
Emphasis on responsibility to corporate group
Individual strongly identifies self in terms of group
Patrilineal: Tracing descent through Fa/male genealogical line
Matrilineal: Tracing descent through Mo/female genealogical line
Strong ties between F relatives, Mo and Bro, Mo and Son
Fa's obligations often economic/teacher/friend
MoBr responsible for discipline and ritual incorporation
Double Descent has also been posed for some groups
Not a common form - actual structures are still debated
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e. Kinship Units
Kinship can be structured at different levels
Kindred: All of a person's kinship relations
Can vary from individual to individual
Family: A married couple and close relations who share a household
Unilineal units can include ever-widening sets of kinsmen:
Lineage: Unilineal group of descendants of a known ancestor
Usually a corporate group with shared subsistence functions
Clan: A unilineal group of all descendants of an ancient ancestor
Usually related lineages, exogamous, dispersed throughout society
Often includes membership based on mythical/totemic ancestor
Not Scottish or other political "clans" - local political units
MultiClan units
Moiety: A unilineage of related clans composing half a society
Usually involves exogamy and specific societal functions
Phratry - 3 or more multi-clan groupings (same as moiety idea)
Usually involves societal functions
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3. Social Structure
Social relations are important in human behavior
How do people organize their relations?
Have looked at kinship - closest relations
Will now look at broaden social factors that influence behavior
a. Social Structure
Social Structure: The distribution of roles and groupings that directs how people interact with each other
Includes the social categories, positions, and roles in a group
All groups must organize its members so can interact productively
Social structure is affected by demographic factors
Population SIZE/DENSITY challenge a society's internal cohesion
Complexity of social interactions
b. Social Roles
Social Role:
A behavioral category defined by a social system which directs how a person interacts with
others
(1) Role Characteristics
Role aspects: the rights and obligations associated with a role
The privileges a person can assume in interacting with others
The responsibilities a person has towards others
Role attributes: the behavior appropriate for particular roles
(2) Types of social roles:
Ascribed: roles that are pre-defined for the individual
Achieved: roles that are assumed on the individual's initiative
Professional training - socialization
Roles may have aspects of both
Social roles are based on a variety cultural criteria
Sex and age roles are universals in human societies
Aspects are often similar - M=heavy labor vs. F=domestic
Primary characteristics - pregnancy and nursing keep local
But attributes of roles can vary widely
Others include roles based on kinship, ethnicity, occupation, etc.
Everyone incorporates many social roles
c.
Associations (Organizations)
Associations: A formally defined social grouping with shared roles and functions
Members identified as a distinct group with specific purpose
Look at Textbook
A104: Social Organization, Page 6
d. Social Status
Status: The relative influence/privilege assigned to social roles
Types of status:
Prestige: social honor/esteem
Wealth: accumulated material resources
Power: the persuasive ability to influence others' behavior
Authority: legitimate coercive power invested in designated roles
Status is an important influence in human behavior
Is based on many different ethnic principles
Relative emphasis and types of status vary from group to group
Be able to identify examples of prestige, wealth, power/authority
And to assign aspect names (matching questions)
e. Social Stratification
Social stratification: the hierarchal distribution of prestige, wealth, and power in groups within a society
Stratification of societies:
Egalitarian societies: all members are considered of equal worth
Social distinctions based on nontransferable individual achievement
Most H/G societies
Stratified societies: structured status differences between groups
Class societies: open status ranking of social groups
Ranked social roles - individuals achieve role (in theory)
Social mobility is open
Subcultural behavioral patterns associated with classes
Caste societies: endogamous groups with hereditary status
Often partially occupational status
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f.
Social Pluralism
Social pluralism:
Multiple ethnic/social groupings within a society
Every nation in the world
"MultiCulturalism" and "Cultural Diversity" a major issue
Education, Nursing, Social Work, Business (diverse work force)
The "melting pot" is a false concept
"Stew" is a better concept
Incorporation of diverse ethnic groups within a society:
Lateral: each group ideally equal
Hierarchal: dominance of some groups by others
Most nations have both
Anthropology has a long record of addressing social diversity (since 1800s)
Basic concepts of culture and ethnocentrism developed in the context of pluralism
Diversity is ?
Why is diversity adaptive ??
Issue: Discrimination
Denies people fulfilling their potentials
For them and for us all
Examples of how ethnic groups have contributed to all Americans ?
The challenge:
How to maintain adaptive diversity
And also achieve social cohesiveness
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g. Political Structure
Political Structure: The distribution of power and authority in the governing of a society's activities and
relations
Types of Political Structures:
Also see text
Band: a small, mobile, and independent group where activities and relations are based on egalitarian
values and mutually supportive social bonds
Mostly H/G subsistence
Extended family as the basic social unit
Egalitarian norms
Informal achieved leadership
Consensus decision-making process
Informal sanctions
Tribe: a territorial and egalitarian group with formal but decentralized regulation of group affairs
Horticultural and pastoral subsistence
Unilineal descent
Multicentric/diffuse authority
Representative governing council - kin/religious leaders, etc.
Informal sanctions
Chiefdom: a territorial, stratified group with centralized authority figures who manage group affairs
Pastoral and agricultural subsistence
Economic surpluses concentrated by few/rich
Lineages/families basic social unit
Ranked social system - rich, castes (chiefs, commoners)
Centralized authority invested in few - "chiefs"
State: a territorial, stratified group with a complex government which maintains and manages a
concentrated population
Territorial subunits - cities/provinces
Intensive agricultural and industrial subsistence
Extensive trade and market exchange
Socioeconomic specialization
Socioeconomic stratification - rich, classes/castes
Centralized authority - including coercive power
Bureaucratic government - compartmentalized management/authority
See text - theories on the rise of state societies
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h. Political Processes
Every group has to make decisions in directing group activities
Mobilize support and direct use of power
(1) Leadership
All societies have leaders who help direct the social process
Basis upon which leaders can act:
Persuasive power - influence based on proven ability, prestige
Coercive authority - influence based on ability to force others
Principles for designating leaders:
Achieved - power grows with proven ability
Ascribed - power inherent in social role
(2) Types of decision-making processes:
Consensus: informal consideration until all members agree
In arenas of egalitarian values
Discussion where all positions are expressed
Exists in all societies
Regulation: a formal rule issued by a legitimate authority
Enforcement often based on coercive power (within sphere of authority)
Exists in stratified societies
Legislation: a formal rule collectively issued by representatives of society's members
Ideals of egalitarianism but complex social structures
Exists in tribal and state societies
Leadership and decision-making are associated with subsistence
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i.
Social Control
Social Control: The regulation of individual/group conduct
All societies have to effectively maintain stability and cohesiveness
(1) Norms: rules of conduct
Standards that members of a group have to follow
Boundaries of acceptable behavior
Positive - have to do
Negative - cannot do
Law: A formalized norm enforced by legitimate coercive authority
In addition to more informal norms
(2) Deviancy: Violation of norms
Judgement - determination of guilt
Popular opinion - gossip, avoidance, etc.
Supernatural trial - including divination (signs), ordeals (poison, etc), oaths (perjury)
Secular court - evidence, judge (including chief, etc.)
(3) Sanctions: Controls imposed to regulate behavior
Can include positive rewards and negative punishments
Goals vary with cultural emphases
Types of Sanctions:
Internal: individual self-regulation
The basic process in every culture - internalization of values and norms in socialization
Positive standards of behavior and learned needs
Guilt - condemning self for having done wrong
Social: collective pressure of group on deviant
Also a basic means of social control in all societies - praise, gossip, ridicule, avoidance, etc.
Shame - impact of views of others with whom have intense relations and bonds
Supernatural: favors/punishment by spiritual forces
Principles vary with religious beliefs
Not in all societies - but most
Legal: legitimate secular authority
Based on formal laws/norms and coercive authority
More in stratified societies - though usually not found/invoked in face-to-face settings
Retaliation: institutionalized revenge
Usually by close kinsmen of victim
Means of social control are related to the scale of a society
Complexity of social sphere calls for different considerations
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4. Functions of Social Organization
Biological?
Ecological?
Economic?
Social?
Psychological?
All societies face the challenge of effectively coordination of affairs
Support the well-being of its members
Maintaining cohesion among its members/subgroups
Maintaining a socioeconomic balance with other societies
re Adaptation ?
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SUMMARY of Social Organization
Social Organization
Kinship
Types of relatives?
Marriage
Boundary rules
Types of marriage?
Residence patterns
Family/household
Types of family?
Descent rules
Kin units
Social structure
Social roles
Characteristics?
Types?
Associations
Status?
Prestige
Wealth
Power
Authority
Social stratification
Social pluralism
Diversity is? Why?
Challenge?
Types of political structures:?
Leadership
Types of decision-making process
Social Control
Social norms
Laws
Deviancy
Judgement
Sanctions
Types of sanctions
Conflict resolution
Functions of social organization?
Culture is an? Integrated whole
Adapt by? Culture
There is a tremendous range for being human - potentials great
The cultural context selects and molds certain behaviors
From among all those possible
Many valid ways of being human
Awareness of others can help us better understand ourselves