1
B4 analyse the structure and function of biological molecules in
living systems, including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic
acids.
demonstrate a knowledge of dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis as applied to organic
monomers and polymers
1. Decode the above learning outcome. What are dehydration synthesis(also called condensation synthesis)
and hydrolysis reactions? What does organic mean? What is a monomer? A Polymer? This is introduced
in Chapter 2.5, and illustrated in figure 2.18.
2. Label the diagram below. There are several correct answers for (a.) and (c.). Try to name them all.
recognize the following molecules in structural diagrams:
– adenosine triphosphate (ATP) – deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) – disaccharide
– glucose
– glycerol
– hemoglobin
– monosaccharide
– neutral fat
– phospholipid
– polysaccharide (starch, glycogen, and cellulose)
– ribose
– RNA
– saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
– steroids
2
3. Draw the structural diagram of each of the following:
Biological Molecule
1
Ex. Glucose
(monosaccharide)
2
Ribose
(monosaccharide)
Disaccharide
(MALTOSE)
Neutral fat: (Iipids)
or triglyceride
Glycerol
Unsaturated fatty
acids
Saturated fatty
acids
Steroid testosterone
adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)
deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid
nucleotide
Phospholipids
Polysaccharide –
starch
Polysaccharide –
glycogen
Polysaccharide –
cellulose
Protein:
Hemoglobin
Amino acid –
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
. 17.
18
Chemical Structure (writing out all the Chemical symbols/
structural diagram (just showing the basic shape
Chemical structure:
3
general
Dipeptide
19.
recognize the empirical formula of a monosaccharide as CnH2nOn
4. Use the empirical formula to find the chemical formula of the monosaccharide that has 5
carbons.
list the main functions of carbohydrates, proteins, neutral fats (lipids) and nucleic acids
(RNA and DNA).
5. Complete the table:
Structure
Main function for humans
Carbohydrates:
1
2
3
starch
Glycogen
Cellulose
Lipids
4
5
6.
Neutral fat (triglycerides)
(mono and unsaturated fats)
Phospholipids
Steroids
Nucleic Acids
7.
8.
DNA
RNA
9
10.
Protein (2 uses)
ATP
The Rest
differentiate among monosaccharides (e.g., glucose), disaccharides (e.g., maltose), and
polysaccharides
6. What is the difference between the above carbohydrates?
differentiate among starch, cellulose, and glycogen with respect to function, type of bonding, and
level of branching
Complete the chart:
Complex
Carbohydrate
(polysaccharide)
Starch
Function
Type of bonding
between glucose
molecules
(cis or trans?)
Level of Branching
4
Cellulose
glycogen
7. What are all the names of the carbohydrates that you have to be familiar with and recognize?
8. How can you tell the difference between the molecular diagrams of glycogen, starch and
cellulose?
describe the location, structure, and function of the following in the human body: neutral fats,
steroids, phospholipids
9. Complete the following chart:
Molecule
Location in body
Neutral Fat (lipid or
triglyceride)
Steroids
Phospholipids
Function(s)
Structure
compare saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in terms of molecular structure
10. How are they different? How could you see that on a molecular diagram?
draw a generalized amino acid and identify the amine, acid (carboxyl), and R-groups
11. Draw and name the three structural parts of an amino acid.
12. One of the functions of the liver is deamination. What does that mean?
identify the peptide bonds in dipeptides and polypeptides
13. Draw a dipeptide and a polypeptide. Label the peptide bonds.
14. What process creates those peptide bonds? What process will break them?
differentiate among the following levels of protein organization with respect to structure and
types of bonding: primary, secondary (alpha helix, beta pleated sheet), tertiary, quaternary (e.g.,
hemoglobin)
15. Describe in words what each of the levels of protein organization represent. Draw a diagram
to illustrate your description. (chapter 2.7, figure 2.27)
name the four nitrogenous bases in ribonucleic acid (RNA) and describe the structure of RNA
using the following terms:
– nucleotide (ribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base, adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine)
– linear, single stranded
– sugar-phosphate backbone
16. Do exactly as it says above!
name the four nitrogenous bases in DNA and describe the structure of DNA using the following
terms:
5
– nucleotide (deoxyribose, phosphate, nitrogenous base, adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine)
– complementary base pairing
– double helix
– hydrogen bonding
– sugar-phosphate backbone
17. Ditto!
compare the general structural composition of DNA and RNA
18. Make a chart and compare DNA and RNA for the following factors: type of sugar, # of
strands, Names of nucleotides, Function.
relate the general structure of the ATP molecule to its role as the “energy currency” of cells
19. Where is the energy stored in the ATP molecule?
20. Where is this molecule “re-made” after we use its stored energy?
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C1: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM:
analyse the functional inter-relationships of the structures of the digestive system
identify and give a function for each of the following:
–mouth
– tongue
– pharynx
– epiglottis
– stomach
– pyloric sphincter
– gall bladder
– pancreas
– large intestine (colon)
– teeth
– esophagus
– duodenum
– small intestine
– rectum
– salivary glands
– cardiac sphincter
– liver
– appendix
– anus
1. Create a Structure/Function Chart for the above structures of the digestive system. Search the
text – chapter 12.1, 12.2 to find the function of each structure.
Letter(s)
on
diagram
Structure
mouth
Tongue
Teeth
Salivary Glands (there are 3
but you don’t need to know
all the different names)
Pharynx
Epiglottis
Esophagus
Cardiac Sphincter
Stomach
Pyloric sphincter
Duodenum
Liver
Gall bladder
Bile duct
Pancreas
Spleen (not shown well on
diagram )
Small intestine (2 more
parts outside the
duodenum, but you don’t
need to know the names of
the other 2)
Appendix
Large intestine (colon) (4
parts – don’t need to know
Function
7
all the names)
Rectum
anus
2. Label the diagram of the digestive system. I suggest that you don’t write directly ON the
diagram, but use the table above to match the letter on the diagram to the structure’s name.
That way, you can use the diagram over again to quiz yourself when studying for the test.
3. You just finished the structure/function chart. Go through the diagram. How many parts and
their functions can your remember? (do a quick self quiz!)
4. List the two functions of the stomach and describe how the structure of the stomach is
specially designed to do those two things while still protecting itself from the chemicals it uses.
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5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Recommended words to use in the explanation: sphincters, “elasticity” (folds), muscle layers,
mucosal lining, glands, pepsin, HCl.
Describe what happens if you have a gastric ulcer, and what is the ultimate cause of the
condition. What makes the chances of you getting an ulcer much higher? Why does an ulcer
hurt so much?
What is the only “nutrient” that is absorbed right through the thick stomach wall?
What condition will you get if your cardiac sphincter is not working properly?
What are the symptoms of this condition?
Referring to the specialized structure of the stomach lining, explain why you would experience
the above symptoms.
describe swallowing and peristalsis
10. How do the teeth , saliva and the tongue work together to prepare for swallowing?
11. Where does swallowing occur?
12. What structure moves up when you swallow? (you can feel this on your throat!)
13. What is the name of the hole that is the beginning of the trachea?
14. What will cover over that “hole” when you swallow?
15. To get a better understanding of the process of swallowing watch the animation at the website:
http://www.hopkins-gi.org/GDL_Disease.aspx?CurrentUDV=31&GDL_Cat_ID=BB532D8A43CB-416C-9FD2-A07AC6426961&GDL_Disease_ID=0E11DE8C-7FB7-47AE-BC76-766AC830F7BA
If you find a better animation for this process while you are looking online, please send the link
my way. Warning: try to stick to the medical/science sites! The other sites might show something
less appropriate for you to be watching! 
16. What is peristalsis? Where does this occur in the body (there’s a few places!)
17. What is the Adam’s Apple?
18. Can you see the epiglottis when you look in your mouth in the mirror? Is it that fleshy
structure dangling at the back? If not, what is that?

identify the pancreas as the source gland for insulin, and describe the function of insulin in
maintaining blood sugar levels
19. Read Chapter 20.5: Pancreas Produces two Hormones.
20. Describe the difference between an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland.
21. The pancreas is BOTH an exocrine and an endocrine gland. Describe its function as each type.
22. What is insulin, what does it do, and where is it produced, (specifically).
23. What is glucagons. How is it related to insulin?
24. Fill in the chart diagram regarding blood glucose homeostasis. WHAT IS HOMEOSTASIS? (I
borrowed this from the internet, so you can find the answers there, but try to do it on your
own first to get maximum learning benefit.
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25.
26. Look at the Figure 20.15 on page 380 of the text. Using that information, explain why
nutritionists today are blaming high-fructose corn syrup and our over consumption of highly
refined carbohydrates on our continent’s obesity problem. Use the internet to get more
background on “glycemic index” to help you answer this question.
27. Explain the difference between Type I and Type II diabetes mellitus.
28. The textbook explains that the symptoms of diabetes occur because sugar is not being
metabolized by the cells.
a. what does “metabolized” mean?
b. why are the cells not metabolizing sugar if you have diabetes mellitus?
29. If your blood sugar became too high, what will happen to your cells. You should use
“osmosis” high/low concentrations and the proper words for the phenomenon in your
answer.
30. What will your kidneys do to try to alleviate the problem that occurs above? (hence one of the
symptoms of diabetes mellitus!)
31. If a diabetic takes the regular shot of insulin, but then skips a meal, what happens? What
symptoms might present?
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list at least six major functions of the liver
32. There are MANY more functions of the liver than 6. Section 12.2 discusses at least 7 major
functions of the liver – list them here.
33. Under what circumstances does the liver produce ammonia, and then have to convert that
ammonia to urea?
34. Write the simplified equation for the metabolic pathway that the liver uses to convert
ammonia to urea.
35. Why does a person turn “yellow” when they are jaun diced? What is wrong with them?
36. When the liver is damaged, what is it able to do that most other organs cannot?
explain the role of bile in the emulsification of fats
37. What is bile? Colour? Produced by? Produced from? Function?
38. Find a simple diagram of bile emulsifying a fat(lipid) molecule. Draw it here.
39. Why is it helpful for digestion to emulsify the fat that we eat?
40. Since we are talking about fat: What are the building blocks of a neutral fat (lipid) molecule?
Draw a skeleton diagram of a triglyceride, and a phospholipids for comparison.
41. What reaction does our body use when we are synthesizing fat from excess glucose? What is
the name of the reaction that our body uses when we digest fat to get more glucose to release
the energy stored there? Add these reactions (with a reversible arrow!) to your skeleton
diagram above.)
42. Take a look at the diagram below. Which sample has more total surface area? How does this
relate to our enzyme catalyzed reaction that breaks down fats? Explain.
43. What are gallstones? What are they made of? What must be done if gallstones are too
numerous and cannot be passed through the bile duct? If this happens, how is the digestion of
fat affected? (they mention some of this briefly on page 211 – you will have to look for it! The
rest you can figure out yourself. )

describe how the small intestine is specialized for chemical and physical digestion and
absorption
44. Why is the small intestine named “small”? What is small about it?
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45. List the two main functions of the small intestine.
46. What is the name of the first section of the SI? What happens in this first section that doesn’t
happen elsewhere?
47. What digestion occurs in the small intestine. Be specific. Find the names of the enzymes that
are released into the small intestine, and what substances they digest.
48. How is the SI specially designed to absorb nutrients? Describe the structure of the lining of the
stomach for contrast/comparison.
49. Find an image of the inside of the stomach and the inside of the small intestine. A picture from
an endoscope often shows the best detail. Sometimes you will be able to find a video of an
endoscope procedure. Seeing the insides of the different structures truly shows how the SI has
a unique structure for its function. If you find a particularly good set of images or a video that
illustrates this well, please send the link my way so I can show the rest of the class.
50. What process causes food to move through the small intestine?
51. Although our text doesn’t mention them, there are additional movements of the SI called
SEGMENTATION movements. These movements cause the chyme to move forward and back
as it is pushed along by the process mentioned above. Suggest a reason for having these
movements as well.
52. The appendix is a VESTIGIAL structure. What does that mean? What does the appendix do?
53. Take a look at the location of the appendix on Figure 12.1 and 12.8. The appendix is infamous
for one thing – suggest a reason why this problem can happen.
describe the structure of the villus, including mircovilli, and explain the functions of the
capillaries and lacteals within it
54. Figure 12.6 in the text is an excellent visual to see the structure of the villus. Draw a labeled
diagram of one villus and describe the function of the lacteal with regards to the DIGESTIVE
system. (find that answer in section 12.3 – keep looking, it IS there)
55. Suggest a reason for the above function.
56. On your diagram above, where are the microvilli? As on Figure 12.6, take another small
section of the villi and expand it to illustrate the microvilli “brush border”. Take a look on the
internet for an image that will show this, and while you are there, look at some of the electron
micrographs and SEM images of the brush border. It really does look like “velvet”.
57. What is the function of the microvilli?
58. Back to the villus. Search the text to find the name of the blood vessel that feeds the arterioles
of the small intestine. The name of this artery seems to have nothing to do with what it
services, but more with where it is.
59. Now find the name of the vein that the venules of the villi will attach to. You might be able to
figure that out from Figure 12.11.
60. The above vein is a VERY unique vein. It moves blood from one organ to another organ before
having the blood return to the heart. There is no other place in the body where this happens.
(there isn’t enough blood pressure for blood to go through more than one tissue before
returning to the heart.) Why does our body make an exception here?
describe the functions of anaerobic bacteria in the colon
61. What are the main functions of the colon (large intestine)? (remember that there are several
parts to the LI – include all the functions!).
62. What are the functions of the anaerobic (what does that mean?) bacteria in the colon?
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63. Over-prescribing antibiotics has got quite a bit of media attention in the past while. Aside from
the fact that we may be encouraging the evolution of a “super bug” that will wipe us all off
the face of the planet, what other reason do we have to try to limit our use of antibiotics? (our
intestinal health?)
64. Although it does not get full status as a true nutrient, what food substance can you eat to help
you alleviate troubles with BOTH diarrhea and constipation? Explain how this food substance
helps.
65. Compare and contrast different types of laxatives encourage the bowels to “move”.
66. What is the first most serious concern to a persons health if that person has chronic diarrhea?
67. What are the most common causes of diarrhea? Of constipation?
demonstrate the correct use of the dissection microscope to examine the various structures of the
digestive system
We will cover this when we do the dissection of the fetal pig!
68. Go to the internet and find some on-line quizzes on the digestive system. Try a few. Even if
they are not the right level, ANY review is good review.
C2 describe the components, pH, and digestive actions of
salivary, gastric, pancreatic, and intestinal juices
 relate the following digestive enzymes to their glandular sources and describe the digestive
reactions they promote: salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase, proteases (pepsinogen, pepsin,
trypsin), lipase, peptidase, maltase, nuclease
69. Complete the following table to summarize the digestive enzymes.
Enzyme
Glandular Site of
source
Action
Optimal Substrate
pH
Salivary
Amylase
Pepsin
Pancreatic
Amylase
Trypsin
Lipase
Peptidases
Maltase
Nuclease
70. What is pepsinogen? How is the release of HCl related to it?
71. Complete the following table:
Product(s)
13
Substrate
Enzyme
that will
Hydrolyse
it
1
2
3
4
5.
6.
Nuclease
(2 answers
here)
Product
14
7.
8.
9.
(2 answers
here)
10.
peptidase
72. Follow the path of a molecule of starch from the moment it enters the mouth to the moment
its building blocks are absorbed into the blood. Name ALL structures that it passes in its
travels, and all the enzymes it will encounter along the way. Describe how the starch molecule
changes as it moves though the system.
73. You should be prepared to do this for all 4 of the biological molecules that we consume. What
would change from what you wrote above?
74. Figure 12.12 shows the results of an experiment. Explain these results.
 describe the importance of the pH level in various regions of the digestive tract
75. Draw a graph that illustrates the how the rate of the enzyme catalyzed reaction of protein by
pepsin is affected by pH. On the same graph, show how trypsin is affected.
76. Draw a diagram that shows how the rate of reactions of all the digestive enzymes are affected
by temperature.
 describe the role of water as a component of digestive juices
77. Why is water included in the digestive juices? What is it used for?
 describe the role of sodium bicarbonate in pancreatic juice
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78. What is the chemical formula for sodium bicarbonate? What is the common name for sodium
bicarbonate?
79. What general chemical category does sodium bicarbonate fall under?
80. What do we use sodium bicarbonate for in the digestive system? What releases it? Where does
it get released?
81. What would happen (physically and chemically) if you did not release sodium bicarbonate
during the digestive process?
 describe the role of hydrochloric acid (HCl) and mucus in gastric juice
82. What is the function of the HCl released in the digestive system?
83. What special features does the stomach and duodenum have to protect it against the acid?