The Influence of Socioeconomic Class on Views of Child Abuse
By
Amanda Burkard
Albright College
Research Methods
Prepared for:
Charles Brown, PhD
Albright College
Reading, PA
cbrown@alb.edu
610-921-7865
I. Summary Sheet
A. Research Question:
Are there social class differences in perceptions of child abuse?
B. Hypothesis:
The higher a family’s socioeconomic class, the more likely they will view child abuse as
inappropriate.
C. Type of Research:
This will be an explanatory research project.
D. Qualitative or Quantitative Study
This will be a quantitative study.
E. Methods Utilized to Conduct Study
I will utilize surveys and content analysis to conduct this study.
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Abstract
Several factors influence the prevalence of child abuse, including social perceptions. As
these perceptions are often a product of one’s environment, it is important to determine the effect
of aspects of this environment. This study seeks to discover the influence of socioeconomic
class on views of child abuse. This will be accomplished through a stratified random sample of
forty individuals separated by social class. The adult residents of Berks County, Pennsylvania
will be utilized as the sampling frame. First an accurate list of these residents will be obtained
and divided based upon pre-determined class categories. Each group’s percentage of the total
population will be calculated to determine the number of necessary elements from each category.
Class groups will be assigned a letter to ensure both confidentiality and a representative sample.
The elements will then be randomly selected in the appropriate category by a computer program
and mailed a survey. Non-response will prompt another random selection from the appropriate
category. Survey questions include both demographic questions and questions based on
indicators of child abuse. Indicator question responses will be assigned a number value. These
numbers will be tabulated to determine a score, which will correspond to a previously developed
ordinal category based upon a scale of views on child abuse. These scores will then be related
back to the socioeconomic class through a cross tabulation table, where any correlation can be
observed. Potential third variables will be controlled for with additional cross tabulation tables.
I hypothesize that a higher socioeconomic class will correspond with a more negative view on
child abuse. It is important to determine class differences with regard to views on child abuse to
more accurately distribute resources for both investigations and prevention programs. An
understanding of factors that contribute to occurrences of child abuse can aide in the
development of prevention and detection programs as well as possible therapy and intervention
techniques to prevent escalation and future instances of child abuse.
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Introduction
Child abuse is a substantial social problem, with over 25,000 cases reported in 2009 by
the Department of Public Welfare for the state of Pennsylvania alone (2009). This abuse has
implications for the child, the family, and society itself. While personal and familial costs are
more obvious, social expenses are potentially more detrimental. The child welfare system
requires vast amounts of time and money to identify, substantiate, and prosecute cases of abuse.
Additional funding is required to remove and provide placements for abused children.
Pennsylvania reports $46.68 million required to investigate cases of child abuse of the total $1.5
billion budget of the child welfare system in 2009 (PADPW 2009). Research has shown that
there are a variety of factors that contribute to child abuse, including social characteristics,
parental attitudes, and beliefs about discipline and abuse. Determining the relevance of these
factors and their relationship to each other is an important step in discovering the causes of child
abuse.
The focus of this research will be the detection of differences in views on child abuse that
are held by members of different social classes. The subcultural theory of sociology cites the
differences between subcultures and the larger culture as the cause of deviant behavior. Every
culture has its own norms and values that govern behavior. Subcultures, which exist within a
larger culture, often have norms that conflict with those of the larger culture, usually without the
subculture itself being labeled as deviant. The disorganization, isolation, and anonymousness of
urban areas foster the creation of these subcultures in lower class populations. The lower class
subcultures have values that are the product of their separate experiences and goals and thus
deviate from the typical middle-class standards of behavior. An impoverished upbringing with
scarce resources will yield different results than one in which every opportunity is available.
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Disparities in education, employment, and even social circles can serve to create different
beliefs. Actions and attitudes that are considered deviant by the middle class might be accepted
as normal by the lower class. For example, in lower class families, children are often viewed
either in the role of a small adults or as a costly liability. Children are seen in terms of their
contribution, or lack thereof, to the family. This alternate view of children can lead to increased
frustration when the children act outside of their expected roles. Individuals from lower class
backgrounds often use violence as a tool to resolve conflicts. The combination of these factors
cultivates an environment in which child abuse can be explained and almost accepted. These
beliefs are then transmitted down to future generations, perpetuating both the subculture and its
norms. Determining the extent of these differences will be beneficial for many reasons. Those
responsible for identification and reporting of child abuse should be aware of preconceptions and
viewpoints in order to make better decisions. Programs and policies can be designed to be
sensitive to these differences and can thus be tailored to the appropriate group ensuring higher
rates of detection and prevention.
The remainder of this document outlines and evaluates the methods and procedures that
will be used to develop the research study. The relevant literature is reviewed, concentrating on
its relationship to the current study and the areas in need of further study. The research methods
are presented and analyzed in terms of both usage and definition. A final analysis and
conclusion will further summarize the relevance of the study. In addition, a tentative budget and
time schedule will be provided, along with a sample survey, categorical scale, and cover letter
for review.
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Literature Review
A considerable amount of research has been conducted on various aspects of child abuse.
Two major areas of study are the prevalence and the causes of this form of abuse. Many also
include discussions of differences based on various social factors, including race, gender, and
social class. Another pertinent area of research is the relationship of social class to parenting
styles and beliefs about children, especially regarding disciplinary practices. Research in these
areas provides a picture of some basic aspects of child abuse, however, there areas of
inconsistency and a lack of a fully comprehensive picture.
While research has shown higher incidents of child abuse among the lower classes, it has
also shown that this may in fact be due to reporting practices. According to Milner and Murphy
(1995), several social factors influence the amount of reported cases that are then substantiated
by intake caseworkers and other professionals, including the interviewer’s gender and personal
beliefs. In addition, abuse was found to be more likely to be reported in poorer families. In fact,
Herman reported a minimum of a 24 percent error rate between substantiated and actual cases of
abuse (2005). Both studies suggested improved training and standard procedures as methods to
reduce reporting problems. Baumrind suggests that low income families are subject to increased
scrutiny by the public and therefore the child welfare system, making the detection of abuse
more likely (1994). She also cites definitions of abuse based upon middle class values as a cause
of differences in abuse rates. While an act may technically be considered abuse, a lower class
culture might view the act differently, as in a form of discipline.
Other research blamed abuse reporting disparity on the physical location of the child.
Urban areas with unstable populations and low income households were shown to be more likely
to have higher crime and abuse rates, while rural areas with similar characteristics had lower
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rates. The social environment was shown to affect reporting and prosecution rates. Rural
cultural was found to have a general mistrust of the government, value isolationism, and use
informal social measures as a form of social control, which influenced the amount of reported
and prosecuted cases (Ménard and Ruback 2003). The numbers of reported and substantiated
cases of child abuse do not necessarily reflect the actual number of occurrences, therefore
affecting the accuracy of research studies.
Studies that do focus on poverty and class as indicators of child abuse cite several
underlying causes as major contributors including stress, lack of resources, and an inadequate
family or community support system. Baumrind describes the connection as, “abuse is a
response to stress and a sense of powerlessness; neglect is a reaction of helplessness to the
inability to provide,” and blames societal abuse and neglect of the parent as the true problem
(1994). Research by Thompson, et al. also focused on parent’s attitudes, economic stressors,
social factors, and critical events as triggers for abuse (1993). Even in middle class
environments, violence is associated with typically lower class issues, such as personal trauma or
social stressors (Stewart, et al. 1987). Gerris, Deković, and Janssens cite increased information
sources and education as vital resources that are absent for lower class parents (1997). However,
social class alone cannot fully account for child abuse, as it does occur across all classes.
Other research has determined race, ethnicity, and culture to be more significant than
class as a determinate of child abuse. Kruttschnitt, McLeod, and Dornfeld found that while the
persistence of poverty was found to be correlated with an increase in the severity of abuse, when
the third variable of race was controlled for, this association diminished (1994). However, racial
differences in methods of abuse, such as physical types and use of a weapon, did affect the
findings. Garbarino and Ebata (1983) claim that ethnicity, not class is the determinate factor that
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influences the prevalence of child abuse, as a lack of economic resources does not always
translate to a lack of social resources. They claim different cultures have distinct definitions and
interpretations of child abuse, somewhat based on evolutionary history. Perceptions and
responses to child behaviors are one area, for example what one culture views negatively as
hyperactive behavior, another might consider merely energetic. However, these beliefs are not
constant across all groups of a particular culture and do not always produce consistent actions;
therefore other social factors must also provide influence.
Parental values and styles were also a focus of study. Gerris, Deković, and Janssens
(1997) found a relationship between parental perspective and social class, with lower class
parents exhibiting more a controlling and less supportive parenting style. Traits such as
conformity and obedience are valued. Baumrind (1994) proposes social class differences as
influential in child rearing. Lower class parents are more likely to have a negative opinion of
children and utilize and authoritarian style that does not encourage independence. However, the
research fails to determine how these beliefs and parenting styles are developed and transmitted.
Marital conflict also affects parenting ability, as it leads to decreased parental involvement,
increased discipline, and a lack of consistency (Krishnakumar and Buchler 2000). Focus on
personal conflict creates a lack of focus on child rearing, increasing the potential for harsh
disciplinary practices, if not abuse. In addition, low income parents perceive more behaviors as
problematic and have more difficulty with problem solving skills, which can reduce the gap
between punishment and abuse (Thompson, et al. 1993).
While there is a wealth of information available on child abuse, there is a general lack of
connection between the previously conducted research studies. Incidents of abuse can be related
to social class. Potential causes of abuse can be identified, based upon social factors. While
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some studies claim race or ethnicity to be the determinate cause, these studies are inconclusive.
Economic resources and social class can be related to both abuse and parenting styles. However,
there is little information linking social class and attitudes toward abuse. Therefore, this study
seeks to determine whether such a relationship exists. Based upon both the complied research
and sociological theory, it is hypothesized that a higher socioeconomic class will correspond to a
view of child abuse as a more serious problem.
Methods
For the purposes of this study, data collection will be accomplished through the use of a
survey given to a stratified random sample of 40 elements. These elements will be divided based
upon socioeconomic class, into lower class, middle class, upper middle class, and upper class,
which will be defined in reference to amount of income. The survey will be administered
through the mail and will also be accompanied by a cover letter explaining the survey’s basic
purpose and content along with a self-addressed envelope to ensure completion. Random
sampling will increase the possibility of generalizing the findings to the population. As the
purpose is to discern views on child abuse and their variance as to social class, it is necessary to
obtain data from each of these classes. Also, a stratified sample will more clearly represent the
population than a simple random sample, especially in terms of the prevalence of each
socioeconomic class.
The sample frame utilized will be the adult residents of Berks County, Pennsylvania.
Based upon data obtained from the 2000 census, there are 141,609 families in Berks County.
These families can be sorted into classes based upon their income. Lower class was determined
to be from $0 to $24,999, middle class from $25,000 to $74,999, upper middle class from
$75,000 to 149,999, and upper class as $150,000 and above. Corresponding percentages were
calculated to be: lower class, 26%, middle class, 53%, upper middle class, 19%, and upper class
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3%. As the sample size is 40 elements, the exact numbers will be as follows: lower class – 10,
middle class – 21, upper middle class – 7, and upper class – 2. Names of all Berks County
residents, along with their income, will be obtained from tax offices and township records. This
will potentially create sampling error, as these records only include those who are taxed and
report their residences, which in reality might not include all individuals. The residents will then
be categorized into a social class based upon this income and the pre-determined categories.
Each group will be assigned a letter; for example, lower class will be represented as “A,” middle
class as “B,” and so on. Individuals in their categories will be entered into an Excel spreadsheet,
which will randomly select the necessary number of elements to be surveyed. Surveys will then
be appropriately lettered and mailed to the selected respondents, who will be given a six week
time period in which to complete the survey. After three weeks, a reminder post card will be
mailed, encouraging participation in the survey. A non-response after the six weeks will prompt
another random selection from the corresponding social class. Lettering the surveys will ensure
that there will be the correct number of respondents from each category, while preserving the
confidentiality of the individual. Demographic questions listed in the survey will ensure the
accuracy of the class assignment. An incorrect assignment can be corrected by discarding the
incorrect survey and sending another survey to a different random element.
Survey questions will be derived from predetermined indicators of child abuse.
Perceptions, and thus definitions, of child abuse vary from individual to individual. Actions that
are viewed by one as normal or acceptable might be considered abuse by another. Legally, child
abuse is divided into four categories. Physical abuse, which results in physical injury, includes
such acts as hitting, slapping, kicking, and punching. While sometimes a deliberate act, it is also
often the product of out of control anger or frustration. This creates potential difficulties in
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determining where to draw the line between punishment and abuse. Sexual abuse, which
includes any physical contact that results in sexual gratification for the perpetrator, is typically
easier to identify as abuse. Neglect, or the failure to provide necessary food, clothing, shelter,
and education, and emotional abuse, which includes berating, harshly criticizing, and threatening
are potentially difficult to identify, as there are often no physical signs. Frequently, more than
one action or type of action is exercised. The wide range of behaviors that can potentially
constitute abuse creates differences in the way that abuse is defined and perceived. This study
will focus on physical and emotional abuse and neglect, as sexual abuse represents a potentially
separate area of study.
From these conceptual definitions, several factors can be identified and used to
operationally define child abuse. These include obvious acts such as slapping, hitting, and
choking along with, the more difficult to define malnourishment, neglect, and abandonment.
Even simply berating or threatening a child can be defined as verbal abuse. These specific
indicators will be used to develop eight survey questions to gage respondents’ views on child
abuse. The inclusion of a variety of different behaviors will ensure that a more accurate and
complete perspective of the individual is measured. Actions will be listed with the possible
responses of: (a) always, (b) if necessary, (c) only for discipline, (d) as a last resort, and (e) never
to indicate when such actions are appropriate for use with children. Each letter response will be
assigned a point value, with a = 4, b = 3, c = 2, d = 1, e = 0; therefore the possible scores will
range from 0 to 32.
Views on child abuse will then be measured according to an ordinal scale of classifications.
The point scores will correspond to four categories: child abuse is a very serious problem (0-8
points), child abuse is a serious problem (9-17 points), child abuse is a somewhat serious (18-26
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points), and child abuse is not a serious problem (27-32 points). The higher the score, the less
likely an individual is to view actions as abuse, and therefore a serious problem. Categories can
then be cross tabulated with socioeconomic class to determine whether a correlation between
class and viewpoint on child abuse exists. Spuriousness can be controlled for by cross tabulating
for other demographic potential third variables including gender, race, and level of education to
determine if these variables have any effect on the view of child abuse. Time order is not a
factor, as income is a relatively stable characteristic and should remain stable over the time
period of the study. Controlling for these extraneous factors should determine if there is a
relationship between higher social classes and an increased awareness of actions that constitute
child abuse, therefore supporting the research hypothesis.
Conclusions
The prevalence of child abuse and its social consequences make it an area worthy of
greater study. While there is no lack of research on the subject, there is a need to expand
relevant information and strengthen the connections between the various previous studies. This
is especially true concerning the relationship between social class and views on child abuse. The
current study will utilize a survey administered to a stratified random sample of forty Berks
County, Pennsylvania residents, divided on the basis of social class. Responses to indicator
questions will be graded on a point scale and assigned to a corresponding ordinal category. A
cross tabulation table will be used to display correlations. Further tables will control for
demographic third variables. This study should establish the relationship between social class
and views on child abuse, with higher social class associated with a more serious view on child
abuse. Determining this relationship between social class and views of child abuse will provide
valuable information for both detection and prevention of future abuse. Professionals with a
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greater understanding behind the contributing factors of abuse will have a more comprehensive
picture and thus be able to develop more accurate detection methods. This will help to reduce
the number of falsely substantiated reports. In addition, more effective therapy and treatment
programs for both offenders and victims can be developed. Assessing the contributing causes of
child abuse will lead to a more economical distribution of valuable resources.
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References
Milner, Joel S. and William D. Murphy. 1995. “Assessment of Child Physical and Sexual Abuse
Offenders.” Family Relations. 44 (4) 478-488.
Herman, Steve. 2005. “Improving Decision Making in Forensic Child Sexual Abuse
Investigations.” Law and Human Behavior. 29 (1) 87-120.
Ménard, Kim S. and R. Barry Ruback. 2003. “Prevalence and Processing of Child Sexual Abuse:
a Multi-Data-Set Analysis of Urban and Rural Counties.” Law and Human Behavior. 27
(4) 385-402.
Baumrind, Diana. 1994. “The Social Context of Child Maltreatment.” Family Relations. 43 (4)
360-368.
Kruttschnitt, Candace, Jane D. McLeod and Maude Dornfeld. 1994. “The Economic
Environment of Child Abuse.” Social Problems. 49 (2) 299-315.
Stewart, Cyrus, Mary Margaret Senger, David Kallen, and Susan Scheurer. 1987. “Family
Violence in Stable Middle-Class Homes.” Social Work. 32 (6) 529-531.
Garbarino, James and Aaron Ebata. 1983. “The Significance of Ethnic and Cultural
Differences in Child Maltreatment.” Journal of Marriage and Family. 45 (4) 773-784.
Gerris, Jan R. M., Maja Deković and Jan M. A. M. Janssens. 1997. “The Relationship
between Social Class and Childrearing Behaviors: Parents' Perspective Taking and Value
Orientations.” Journal of Marriage and Family. 59 (4) 834-847.
Krishnakumar, Ambika and Cheryl Buehler. 2000. “Interparental Conflict and Parenting
Behaviors: A Meta-Analytic Review.” Family Relations. 49 (1) 29-44.
Thompson, Ronald W., Crystal R. Grow, Penney R. Ruma, Daniel L. Daly and Raymond V.
Burke. 1993. “Evaluation of a Practical Parenting Program with Middle- and LowIncome Families.” Family Relations. 42 (1) 21-25.
Pennsylvania Department of Public Welfare. 2009. “2009 Child Abuse Report.”
www.dpw.state.pa.us
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Appendix A: Schedule
June 3, 2010 – June 21, 2010
 Design survey
 Conduct literature analysis
 Develop and outline methods
June 22, 2010 – June 27, 2010
 Copy surveys and cover labels
 Print mailing labels
 Assemble mailings
June 28, 2010

Mail surveys
June 29, 2010 – August 13, 2010


Analyze returned surveys
Re-mail any inaccurate / incomplete responses
July 19, 2010

Mail reminder postcards
August 14, 2010 – September 6, 2010

Final survey analysis
September 7, 2010 – September 16, 2010



Compile cross tabulation tables
Develop conclusions
Write-up final report
Estimated time schedule – 15 weeks
15
Appendix B: Budget
Mailings







Survey - 40 mailed + 20 extra ($.20 per copy)
Cover Letter – 40 mailed + 20 extra ($.10 per copy)
Envelopes – 1 box of 100
Reminder Postcards – 1 box of 100
Mailing Labels – 1 box of 300
Black Ink – 1 cartridge
Stamps – 160 mailed + 40 extra ($.44)
Total
$12.00
$ 6.00
$ 6.50
$ 40.00
$ 12.50
$ 15.00
$ 88.00
$ 180.00
All supplies purchased on-line – no travel expenses
All work and analysis conducted by researcher – no salary expenses
Total Expenses
$ 180.00
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Appendix C: Cover Letter
Amanda Burkard
Albright College
 Dear Berks County Resident
Dear Sir or Madam:
My name is Amanda Burkard. As part of my studies at Albright College, I am required to
conduct a research study. I have chosen to focus on views of child abuse. I have included a
short survey, along with a self-addressed, stamped envelope. Participation is both completely
voluntary and confidential. Please fill out the survey as completely and honestly as possible and
return it in the enclosed envelope. Any questions can be directed to Professor Charles Brown,
PhD, Albright College, Reading, Pennsylvania (610-921-7865). Thank you in advance for your
participation.
Sincerely,
Amanda Burkard
Albright College
610-370-3999
aburkardd@gmail.com
6/21/2010
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Appendix D: Survey
The purpose of this research project is to determine if there is a correlation between income,
level of education, or race on one’s level of depression. By completing this survey you
acknowledge that you are participating voluntarily, that you are at least 18 years of age, and that
you can quit the survey at any time. Furthermore, you provide consent to the researcher to use
your responses as data for the research project. Thank you for participating in this study.
Please respond to the questions below to the best of your knowledge
1. What age group do you fit into?
(a) 18-25
(b) 26-39
(c) 40-55
(d) 56-70
(e) 71 or above
2. What is your gender?
(a) Male
(b) Female
(c) Other
3. How would you categorize your race?
(a) Caucasian
(b) African American
(c) Hispanic
(d) Native American
(e) Asian American
(f) Other
8. What is your highest level of education
achieved?
(a) High School or less
(b) Associates Degree
(c) Bachelors Degree
(d) Degree beyond a Bachelor’s Degree
9. On average, how many hours do you
work a week?
(a) More than 40 hours per week
(b) 40 hours per week
(c) less than 40 hours per week
(d) I do not work
4. Are you:
(a) Married
(b) Divorced
(c) Widowed
(d) Single
5. Do you have children?
(a) Yes
(b) No
6. What is your yearly individual income?
(a) 0-29,999
(b) 30,000-59,999
(c) 60,000- or above
7. What is your yearly FAMILY income?
(d) 0-29,999
(e) 30,000-59,999
(f) 60,000- or above
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In your opinion, when is it appropriate to exercise the following methods with children?
10. Belittling
14. Leaving alone
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
11. Threatening
15. Slapping
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
12. Withholding food
16. Hitting
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
13. Ignoring
17. Choking
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
(a) always
(b) if necessary
(c) only for discipline
(d) as a last resort
(e) never
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Appendix E: Scale
Point Values:
a=0
b=1
c=2
d=3
e=4
Possible score range: 0-32
Ordinal Categories (Views of child abuse):
0-7 points – Child abuse is a very appropriate
8-15 points – Child abuse is appropriate
16-23 points – Child abuse is a somewhat serious problem
24-32 points – Child abuse is not appropriate
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