CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Sociolinguistic
There are some definitions about sociolinguistics given by sociologists.
Pride and Holmes in Susanto define sociolinguistics as the study of language as
part of culture and society. The word “as part” in this definition implies that
language is not independent (language and culture) but it is a part of culture
(language in culture). It automatically gives implication on the language users
who communicate with other people.1
Sociolinguistic is study of characteristics of language varieties, the
characteristics of their functions, and characteristics of their speakers as these
three constantly interact, change and change one another with in a speech
community. J. A. Fishman in Susanto.2
Sociolinguistic is one of branches of sociolinguistic study: according to
PWJ. Nababan, sociolinguistics is a study of language that deals with language
usage as social members.3 Sociolinguistic is the study of the ways people use
language in social interaction.4 Further sociolinguistic is concerned with
apparently trivial matters, with the talk on street corners as well as in classroom,
Susanto, Sociolinguistic, A Description of Relation Between Language and Society… page 1
Abdul Chaer dan Leonie Agustina, Sosiolinguistik Perkenalan Awal, (Jakarta. PT RINEKA
CIPTA, 1995). Hlm. 4-5
3
PWJ. Nababan, Sociolinguistic Suatu Pengantar, (Jakarta: PT.Gramedia, 1986) page. 2
4
Elaine Chaika, Language the Social Mirror, (Massachuset New Burny House Publisher, INC,
1982), page. 2
1
2
9
10
the thing than the people do when they are listening. 5 Another definition says that
sociolinguistic is the study of characteristic of language varieties, the
characteristic of their function and the characteristic of their speaker as these three
constantly interact change and change one another with a speech community. 6
Nancy Parrot Hickerson in Abdul Chaer says that sociolinguistic is developing
subfield of sociolinguistic is a developing subfield of linguistic which takes
speech variation as it’s focus, viewing variation of social factors and linguistic
variation.7 Mean while Dell Hymes states in Sumarsono states that sociolinguistic
could be taken to refer to use of linguistics data and data analysis in other
discipline concerned with social life and conversely, to use of social data and
analysis in linguistic.8 Sociolinguistic also seek to determine the symbolic value
of language varieties for their speaker, that language varieties come to have
symbolic or symptomatic value, in and of them selves, is an inevitable can
sequence of their functional differentiation.9 So sociolinguistic is one
phenomenon of language deal with the society.
Sociolinguistic is combination sociology and linguistics, therefore, in
order to know sociolinguistic, it is important to discuss about sociology and
linguistic. Sociology is the study of man and his environment in relation to each
5
6
Ibid.,
Joshua A. Fishman, Sociolinguistic a Brief Introduction, (Newbury House Publisher, 1975),
page
7
Abdul Chaer Sociolinguistic Perkenalan Awal, (Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2004), page 4
Sumarsono, Sociolinguistic ……….., (Malang: Pustaka Pelajar, tt), page 3
9
Joshua A. Fishman, Sociolinguistic a Brief Introduction, (Newbury House Publisher, 1975),
8
page 3
11
other, such as relationship between people and culture, people and social
structure, and people and ecology. Sociology is the study relation with the
society, group of social and the function of social.10 Sociology is learning of
groups of the society like family, clans, ethnic and nations.11 By studying social
structure and social problems in society, we will know how interaction with their
environment. Sociology is an objective research about people in the society, about
people in the society about departments, and about social process in the society.12
Linguistic is the study of language, on the scientific study of the language.
Another definition state that linguistic is the academic discipline that deals the
structure of human language.13 Besides linguistic is the study that to teach about
language, especially about the elements of language.14
Chaika says, hat language and society are intertwined that is impossible to
understand one with out the other. There is no human society that does not
depend on, is not shaped by, and does not itself shape language. Every social
institution is maintained by language. Law, religion, government education, the
family-all is carried on with language. Individually, we use language to “carry
on” love and to “carry out”. We use language to reveal or conceal our personal
identity, our character, and our background. Almost all of our contact with family
and friends, and much of hat speaking strongly governed by rules, rules that
10
PWJ. Nababan, Sociolinguistic Suatu Pengantar, (Jakarta: PT.Gramedia, 1986) page. 2
Sumarsono, Sociolinguistic ……….., (Malang: Pustaka Pelajar, tt), page 3
12
Abdul Chaer Sociolinguistic Perkenalan Awal, (Jakarta: PT. Rineka Cipta, 2004), page 2
13
Elaine Chaika, Language the Social Mirror, (Massachuset New Burny House Publisher, INC,
1982), page. 2
14
PWJ. Nababan, Sociolinguistic Suatu Pengantar, (Jakarta: PT.Gramedia, 1986) page. 2
11
12
dictate not only what we should say, but also how we say it. We manipulate
others with language and they manipulate us, of then without either party being at
all aware of the manipulation.15
As the object of sociolinguistic, language is not discussed as language it
self but it is discussed as interaction and communication instrument used by
people in their society. Fishman clarifies “sociolinguistic is the study of
characteristic of language varieties, the characteristic of their function, and the
characteristic of their speaker these three constantly interact, change and change
one other within speech community”.16 From Fishman’s definition it can be
concluded that sociolinguistic is one branch of linguistic study that has
interdisciplinary to sociology with research object among languages and social
factors in speech community. Furthermore, Fishman says, that regardless of
mastery of the language varieties involved in the verbal repertoire of the speech
community (occupational, social class, regional etc.) and regardless of the
interaction between them (for initially regional dialect may come to represent
social varieties as well) sociolinguistic seek to describe their linguistic and
functional characteristic. However, sociolinguistic also seeks to do much more. It
seeks to determine how much of the entire speech community’s verbal repertoire
controlled by sub group within that community. Sociolinguistic seeks to trace the
15
Elaina Chaika , Language the Social Mirror, (Massachuset New Burny House Publisher,
INC, 1982), page. 1 and 2
16
Joshua A. Fishman, Sociolinguistic a Brief Introduction, (Newbury House Publisher, 1975),
page 4
13
linguistics influences of the fortunes and interactions of networks of speakers
after the range (complexity) of their verbal repertoires. All in all, sociolinguistic
seeks to discover the societal rules on norms that explain and constrain language
behavior and the behavior forward language in speech communities.
Sociolinguistic also seeks to determine the symbolic of language varieties for
their speakers. That language variety come to have symbolic or symptomatic
value, in and of them, is an inevitable consequence of their functional
differentiation. If certain verities are indicative of certain interest, of certain
background or certain origins, they come to represent the varieties and
aspirations, the limitation and the opportunities with these interests background,
and origins, in turn are associated. Language varieties rise and fall in symbolic
value as the states of their most characteristic or marked function rises and falls.
Varieties come to represent educated status or national identification as a result of
the attainments associated with their use and their users and as a result of heir
utilization in situations and relationships that pert an to formal learning or to
particulate ideologists. However, these functions are capable of change (and being
consciously changed), just as the linguistic features of the varieties themselves
may change (and may be consciously changed), and just as the demographic
distribution of users of variety within a particular speech community may
change.17 Sociolinguistic is a field of study deals with language within its
speakers that is why varieties of language become the focus in sociolinguistic
17
Ibid.,
14
study. The emphasizing on language variety is driven by the fact that language
behavior is really influenced by the social attitude.18 Such everyday matter a
highly revealing, showing how a given society in stratified. That is, what groups
cast light on the condition, values, and belief that have helped shape the groups.
Conversely, it also shows how social situations determine what kinds of speech
will be used and how speech develops to meet social needs. Perhaps most
important, sociology of language dell us what message we are really giving when
we speak, messages that are not necessarily put into actual words, it shows hw
and why e fell uncomfortable even hostile, to some people, especially those who
do not share the rules to speech behavior that we abide by rules o thoroughly
learned what we are not ever a ware of them.19 Otherwise, Hymes et al tended to
focus their study on what so called ethogrophy of speaking, which elaborate such
pattern of language usage and dialect in a certain culture which include any forms
of phenomenology speech, available selection on the appropriate word usage, the
topic and surrounding circumstances.20
In addition, in this case Kartomiharjo in Maimunah through his
presentation entitles “Peranan Sosiolinguistik dalam Pengajaran Bahasa” states
18
Annajat Maimunah, Suatu Kajian Sociolinguistik, (Malang: Thesis Mpd University of
Malang, 1997), Page. 14
19
Elaine Chaika ….. page 2
20
Ibid.,
15
that anything available to study on linguistic field are language variety, language
phenomenon, speech act, and bilingualism.21
By studying sociolinguistic we know how to communicate with other
people, what kinds of language that must be used when we communicate with
certain people. If we are sons in one family, for example we must differentiate
code when we communicate with our father, mother, etc. the sociolinguistic is
concerned with the stuff of everyday life: how you talk to your friends, family, on
teacher, as well as to store keepers and stranger, every one meet in the course ofand why you talk as you do and they talk as they do.22 Most People find that an
academic course in the sociology of language is interesting and exciting, a true
consciousness, raising experience. Students become more aware of their own
behaviors, how they are responding to other people, and how others behave and
respond. Above all, students of sociolinguistic going new respect for all people
more than any numbers of lecturers on brotherhood or sisterhood could ever give
them. This is because sociology of language shows the true genius involved in all
language activities, even those that do not depend book learning or that is carried
in speech carried out in speech considered incorrect or vulgar, before delving into
the fascinating topics of sociolinguistic proper it is necessary to consider what
language itself is.23
Maimunah Annajat, Suatu Kajian ………… page 15
Elaina ….. page 2
23
Ibid.,
21
22
16
B. Language Switching
Language switching is one sociolinguistics phenomena. Language
switching plays significant role when people are settled in bilingual or multi
lingual speech community. Hence the languages of the members comprise more
than one choice and they are motivated to utilize more than one language. Choice
of language is part of a speaker’s presentation of self.24 The people can choice the
language used in the communication process, appropriate with the speech
community. They can choice the language to make effective communication with
others. In bilingual or multilingual speech community, where the language of its
members comprises more than one choice, they are facilitated to switch from the
use of one language to another. Language switching may be strategy of the
members of society when they interact the others to maintain good interaction
with their companions in order to convey their conversation purpose. According
to Chaika, language switching is the counter part of dialect and style switching,
with the difference that bilinguals have the resources of another language in their
repertoire.25
Any speech community of even moderate complexity reveals several
varieties of language, all of which are functionally differentiated from each other.
In some cases the varieties may represent occupational or interest specializations
24
Suzanne Romain, Language in Society, an Introduction to Sociolinguistic, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1994), page 148
25
Elaine Chaika, Language the Social Mirror, (Newbury: House Publisher INC, 1982), Page.
239
17
and therefore, contain vocabulary pronunciations and phonology which are not
generally used or ever know throughout the broader speech community. As a
result, the speakers of specialized varieties may not always employ them. Not
only must they switch to other varieties of language when they interact in less
specialized (or differently specialized) network within the broader speech
community of which they are a part, but most of them do not even use their
specialized variety to one another. On some occasions, interlocutors who can
speak a particular specialized variety to one nevertheless do not do so, but instead
switch to different variety of language which is either in wider use or which is
indicative of quite a different set of
quite a different set of interest and
relationship than is associated with their specialized variety. This type of
switching represent the raw data of sociolinguistics, the discipline that seeks to
determine (amour other things) who speaks what variety of what language to
whom, when, and concerning what.26
The varieties of language that exist within a speech community not need
all represent occupational or interest specialization. Some varieties may represent
social class (economic, educational, and ethnic) distinction within territorial
populations. Brooklyn’s and Cockney English within New York and London,
respectively, do not connote foreignness or even a particular section of the city so
much as a lower status in term of income, education, or ethnicity. Nevertheless,
26
Joshua A, Fishman, Sociolinguistics, A Brief Introduction, (Rowly Massachusetts: New Burry
House Publisher INC, 1975). Page. 1-2
18
many individuals who have left lower class status behind and do switch back and
forth between Brooklyn’s and more regionally standard New York English when
speaking to each other, depending on their feelings forward each other, the topic
under discussion, where they happen to when they are conversing, and several
other factors all of which can exhibit variation, and as a result, can be signaled by
switching from one variety of English to another.27
Recent studies of switching have tended to focus attention on different
aspect of it. With one approach the emphasis has been on trying to account for the
grammatical constraints on where in utterances switching may occur. The other
approach has investigated speaker’s reasons for switching on assumption that the
motivation for switching is basically stylistic and that switch is to be treated as a
discourse phenomenon which can not satisfactorily handled in terms of the
internal structure of sentences.28 A speech community that has a variable to it
several varieties of language may be said to process a verbal repertoire. Such
repertoire may not only consist of different specialized varieties and different
social-class varieties, but may also reveal different regional varieties (Boston
English, Southern English, Midwestern English and other widely, and roughly
designated dialect of American English are regional varieties), if the speech
community is sufficiently large so that enclaves came to arise with in it on
geographic basis alone, furthermore multilingual speech communities may
27
28
Ibid., 2-3
Suzanne, Romaine, Language in Society …., page 58
19
employ, for the purpose of intra group communication, all of the above types or
varieties of language within each of the codes that the community recognizes as
distinct languages.
Various grammatical principles have been proposed for switching such as
the one called the equivalence constraint. This predicts that code switching will
tend to occur at points where the position of element from the two languages does
not violate syntactic rule of either language. That is, switching should occur at
points where the surface structures of the two languages map on to each other.
This means that a language switching ought to take place only at boundaries
common to both languages and switching should not occur between any two
sentence elements unless they are normally ordered in the same way. From a
cross-linguistics perspective, this means that the more two languages are
structurally, the more switching sites they should permit.29
1. Types of Language Switching
Language switching occurs in condition of change, where the group
boundaries were diffused, norms and where the speaker. Thee many types of
language switching viewed from different aspects, the linguists have different
opinion related to the types of language switching. Here, it is proposed some
types of language-switching from classification.
The first, according to Suwito in Sociolinguistics A description of
Relation between Language and Society, the Indonesian sociolinguist, puts
29
Ibid.,
20
types of language-switching based on the relationship among the language
participated in the process. He distinguished intern language-switching from
extern language-switching.30
a. Intern Language-switching
For this type, it is participated two or more regional languages in
one national language, or two or more dialects in one regional language.
Even different style in one variant. For example, language-switching
between Bahasa Sunda and Indonesia, or Bahasa Sunda and Bahasa
Madura.
b. Extern Language-switching
This type of language-switching participate mother tongue
language of speakers and foreign language. For example, languageswitching between Bahasa Indonesia and English, Arabic and English and
so forth.
Meanwhile, Hudson proposes that great sociolinguistics propose that
language-switching can be done by using two languages at once or changing
totality from one language to another.31
a. Language-switching by using two or more language at once
In this type of language-switching, people may operated the
process by using two language or more, or two variants of languages in
30
Susanto, Sociolinguistic, A Description of Relation Between Language and Society…… page
31
Ibid., page 9
8
21
one single sentence and may even do so many times. For example in
preaching we often hear the statement of advise “Manusia adalah makhluk
Allah yang dijadikan sebagai Kholifatullah fil ardhi, maka diwajibkan
untuk meningkatkan habelum minallah dan habelum minannaas”.
b. Language-switching by changing completely from one language to
another.
This type of the process is done by using language for one
expression, then, changing to another language in uttering the other
expression. Hudson points out that language-switching may be achieved
by uttering one expression in one variety, and the next in the other.32
2. The Causal Factors of Language-Switching
Language-switching would not exist if there are not some crucial
factors motivating the process. Chaika proposes that the bilingual (also
multilingual) speaker’s use of two languages is strongly motivated by social
situation and type of conversation, as well as the very real need to identity
with his compatriot.33 Hence, it gives sense that there are different motivators
of the distribution of language switching.
32
33
239
Ibid., page 9
Elaine Chaika, Language the Social Mirror, (Newbury: House Publisher INC, 1982), Page.
22
The motivators can be played as the causal factors of language
switching.
Systematically, According to Suwito in Susanto Sociolinguistics A
description of Relation Between Language and Society classifies the factors
into six point.34
a. The Speakers
Having position as speakers may motivate the members of
social interaction to convey his crucial personal purpose. This can be
cooperated with Chaika’s statement saying that in all interaction, each
person means what or she says and is speaking with purpose.35
b. The Interlocutors
The presence of interlocutors may motivate speakers as the
members of social interaction to change from their use of one language to
the language used by interlocutors. In fact, when people are settled in
social interaction which participate the use of language they should feel
more intelligible and comfortable to speak same language.
From this point, the interlocutors may be categorized into two
grays. (a).
the interlocutors who come from same ethnic and have
identical habitual use of language with the speakers, (b). the interlocutors
34
35
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page.6-8
Elaine Chaika, Language the Social Mirror……… page 71
23
who come from different ethnic and have different habitual use of
language from speakers.
However, in the interaction with the first group of interlocutors
language-switching may be by participating the use of variants of one
language. It may be dealt with what Gumperz Propose that in monolingual
speech community the linguistic repertoire of particular social class
varieties and regional varieties, or social class, regional and occupational
varieties.
c. The Presence of the Participants
Sometimes, two speakers who participate in speech interaction
have to change their language, for the reason of the presence of
participants who come from different language group. This can be
assumed as the effort of the speakers to bring the participants into their
interaction.
For instance, in one occasion two Javanese students who interact
by using Bahasa Jawa aspired to switch their language into Bahasa
Indonesia when their Madurese friend whose habitual use of language in
Bahasa Madura participates in their conversation. Another occasion may
happen in the shop or market where the sellers and the buyers have
different ethnic or language.
24
d. The Topic Discussion
The topic discussion can be included as the dominant aspect
motivating people to proceed language-switching. Topic discussion
comprises formal and informal topics. Formal topics are often expressed
by formal style, mean while, informal topics are closed to informal
language. People have to initiate to change their use of one language when
they change the topic of their discussion. It may be operated by changing
from one language into another or from one style of language into another.
For example, in the classroom when she or he was a student, he
or she may speaks in Bahasa Jawa.
e. Humorous Usage
Language-switching may also applicable when people have
initiated to convey humorous expression. It can be shown from the
language-switching operated by clown, jokers, or when a presenter in
seminar is aspiring to keep the participants of the seminar from Goredom
by uttering humorous expression for example, when there is a seminar in
English, then the presenter makes a joke in Bahasa Indonesia or in Bahasa
Jawa.
f. Prestigious Usage
Language-switching is merely not used for conveying humor,
moreover, it also applied for conveying prestige. Naturally, some
members of social community want to be regarded as intellectual people,
25
high class group. They tend to show their identification by operating
language-switching which is done by changing from common language to
scientific language though it just term.
C. Code Switching
Code-Switching
refers
to
changes
over
phrases
or
sentences
(intersentential). It involves the alternate use of two language or linguist varieties
within the same utterance of during the some conversation. The most general
description of code-switching is that it involves the alternate use of two languages
or linguistic varieties with in the same utterance or during the same
conversation.36 According to Gumpers Ronald Wardhaugh says that:
Code switching occur in conditions of change, where boundaries are diffuse,
norms and standars of evaluation vary, and where speaker’s ethnic identities
and social backgrounds are not matters of coomon agreement. Yet, if it is
true that code-switching styles serve as functioning communitive systems, if
members can agree on interpretations of switching in context and on
categorizing others on the basis of their switching, there must be some
regularities and shared perceptions on which these judgments can be
based.37
Many linguists have stressed the point that switching is a communicative option
available to a bilingual member of speech community on much the same basic as
switching between styles or dialects is an option for the monolingual speakers. It
can be seen that all of these utterances draw to differing extents on items which
36
Charlote Hoffmann, An Introduction to Bilingualism (London: Longman, 1991). Page 110
Ronald Wardhaugh, An Introduction to sociolinguistics fourth edition, (Massachutetts:
Blackwell Publisher, 1986), page. 115
37
26
come from more than one language and which are combined in different ways.38
Switching in both cases serves an expressive function and has meaning. 39 A
speaker may switch for a variety of reasons, E.g. to redefine the interaction as
appropriate to a different social arena, or to avoid, through communal codeswitching, defining the interaction in terms of any social arena. The latter function
of avoidance is an important one because it recognizes that code-switching often
serves as a strategy of neutrality or as a means to explore which code is most
appropriate and acceptable in a particular situation.40 For example, the
conversation of two students who discussing the plan in their next holidays.
A :
We decide to visit there tourism places in our next holidays.
B :
What is the appropriate transportation needed, then?
A :
Itu tergantung dari jumlah teman kita yang ikut nanti.41
1. Type of Code-Switching
Code-switching is distinguished between situational codeswitching and metaphorical code-switching. Situational code-switching
occur when the language change accompanies a change of topics or
participant, or any time the communicative situation is redefined. For
example: with in a single conversation, a teacher who are from Java usually
speak Bahasa Indonesia to one another when discussing matters related to
38
Suzanne Romain, Language in Society, an Introduction to Sociolinguistic, (New York:
Oxford University Press, 1994), page 55
39
Suzanne, Romaine, Language in Society …., page 59
40
Suzanne, Romaine, Language in Society …., page 60
41
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 21
27
school, but may switch to Javanese to discuss their families or other
community activities. Meanwhile, metaphorical code-switching occur with
in a single situation, but adds meaning to such components as the role
relationship which are being expressed. In metaphorical code-switching we
change to code as we change the code as we redefine the situation: formal to
informal, official to personal, serious to humorous and politeness to
solidarity.42
According to Hoffman, there are three types of code switching.43
a. Intra-Sentential
It contains switches within a sentence, for example:
1) A Spanish-English bilingual
“I started going like this, Luego Decia (and then he said) look at the
smoke coming out of my fingers”.
2) A French-Bilingual
“Va Chercher March (go and fetch March) and bribe him aves
unchocolat choud (with a hot chocolate) with cream on top.
b. Inter-Sentential
It contains the switch occur between sentences for example:
1) An Indonesian-English bilingual
“Kemarin aku pergi ke pantai, I saw my friend”
42
43
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 21-22
Charlote Hoffmann, An Introduction to Bilingualism…. Page. 112
28
(yesterday, I went to the beach…..)
2) An English-Javanese bilingual
“Can you help me? Sampeyan wis janji lho karo aku”
c. Involving a word within a sentence
For exmple is Indonesian-Javanese bilingual
“Rumah itu seharusnya tenang biar kita “krasan”
Krasan is a Javanese word.
2. The Causal Factors of Language-Switching
Language switching would not exist if are not some crucial factors
motivating the process44
a.
The Speakers
In the case, having position as speakers may motivate the
members of social interaction to convey his crucial personal purpose.
Thus in all interaction, each person means he or she says and is speaking
with a purpose.
b. The Interlocutors
The presence of interlocutors may motivate speakers as the
members of social interaction to change from their use in one language to
the language used by interlocutors. From this point, the interlocutors may
be categorized into two groups: (a) the interlocutors who from some
ethnic and have identical habitual use of language with the speakers, (b)
44
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 21-23
29
the interlocutors who come from different ethnic and have different
habitual use of language from speakers.
c. The Presence of the Participate
Sometimes two speakers who participate in speech interaction
have to change their language. For the reason of the presence of
participants who come from different language group. This can be
assumed as the effort of the speakers to bring the participate into their
interaction.
For instance is one occasion two Javanese students who
interact by using Bahasa Jawa aspire to switch their language into Bahasa
Indonesia when their Madura friend whose habitual use of language is
Bahasa Madura participates in their conversation.
d. The Topic Discussion
It can be included as the dominant aspect motivating people to
proceed language switching. Topic discussion comparies formal and
informal topics. Formal topics are often expressed by formal style, mean
while, informal topics are closed to informal language.
For example, the Indonesia Javanese teachers speak Bahasa
Indonesia when the topic of their discussion is dealt with the curriculum
but they switch into Bahasa jawa when they talk about the growth of their
babies.
30
Examples, (BOKMAL IS IN SMALL CAPITALS. Ranamal is
not.)
Jan
:
Petter :
Hello Peter. How is your wife now?
Oh she’s much better thank you Jan. She’s out of hospital and
convalcsing well.
Jan
:
That’s good I’m pleased to hear it. DO YOU THINK YOU
COULD HELP ME WITH THIS PESKY FORM? I AM
HAVING A GREAT DEAL OF DIFFICULITY WITH IT.
Petter :
OF COURSE. GIVE IT HERE ………45
Nothing appears to change except topic of discussion and with
it the code. In fact the change of topic here symbolizes a change in the
relationship between the men. They switch from their roles as neighbors to
their roles as bureaucrat and member of the public. In other words they
switch from a personal interaction to a more formal transaction. This kind
of role switch is commonly associated with a code switch in multilingual
communities. Exactly the same kind of switching occurs in Belgium when
government clerk deals with a query from someone she went to school
with. They switch from a local variety of Flemish to French when they
turn from exchanging stories about what has happened to their
schoolmates to sorting out their business.46
45
46
Janet holmes, An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, (London: Longman, 1992), page. 42
Ibid .,
31
e. Humorous Usage
Language switching may also applicable when people have
initiative to convey humorous expression. It can be shown from the
language switching operated by clowns, jokers, or when a presenter in
seminar is aspiring, to keep the participants of the seminar from bredom
by uttering humorous expression.
f. Prestigious Usage
Naturally, some members of social community want to be
regarded as intellectual people or high-class group. They tend to show
their identification by changing from common language to scientific
language.
3. Reasons of Code switching
According to Hoffman, there are seven reasons are a follows: (a).
talking about particular topic, (b). quoting somebody else, (c). being emphatic
about something, (d). interjection, (e). repetition used for clarification, (f).
intention of clarifying the speech content for the interlocutor, and (g).
expressing group identity.47
The explanations of the reasons for bilingualism to do code switching are:
a. Talking about a particular topic
This switching happens because of lock capacity or various connotations
which are related to experiences in particular language. For example:
47
Charlote Hoffmann, An Introduction to Bilingualism…. Page. 116
32
when someone used code switching to say about technology. “Gimana
kamu punya flashdisk gak?
b. Quoting somebody else
People sometimes like to quote people expression and wise words.
Consequently, when they want to express something but do not have on
appropriate expression to explain what they mean, thus they used it.
Quotation may include a lyric of song, a conversation on movies, or the
title from movie. For example when a bilingual states that remind a friend.
“jangan bermalas-malasan karena “time is money”.
c. Being emphatic
People often switch language to show empathy about something in which
they switch language when they show attention to friend in order to
encourage and support them psychological. For example: “sudah jangan
terlalu sedih, don’t worry be happy aja girl.”
d. Interjection
Code switching can sometimes mark as interjection or sentence filler. This
attitude may happen very naturally because have been familiar them, here
are examples:
1) Wow, bagus sekali itu !
2) Syukurlah yes, aku berhasil !
33
e. Repetition used for classification
When a bilingual speakers wants to clarify a message so that it will be
understood more by listener, they sometimes use both of the languages
that he masters saying the same utterances. For example IndonesianEnglish bilingual says : “ya sudah buat kamu gak papa, no problem deh”.
f. Intention of clarifying the speech content for the interlocutor
People switch language to clarify what they are taking, for instance, when
a bilingual takes to make the listener understand.
For example, is a teacher who is teaching English in the classroom.
Student
: Apa bahasa Inggrisnya kata cantik?
Teacher
: Beautiful itu artinya cantik
Student
: bagaiamana menulisnya?
Teacher
: B–E–A–U–T–I–F–U–L
Student
: Oo …. Beautiful itu artinya cantik yaaaaaaaa?
g. Expressing group identity
Code switching can use to express group identity such as to speaker from
Java when he meets their friend from some area although they are in
another country.
For example: both are Javanese but lived in Jakarta as metropolitan city,
hey meet in the street.
A : Heh arep neng negndi?
B : Mau ke took, took alat-alat rumah tangga.
34
D. Bilingualism
Some expert give varies definition of bilingualism. The concept of
bilingualism seems at first sight to be non problematical. According to Webster
Dictionary in Hamers bilingual is defined as ‘having or using two languages
especially as spoken with the fluency characteristic of a native speaker; a person
using two languages especially habitually and with control like that of native
speaker’ and bilingualism as ‘the constant oral use of two languages’.48 Uriel
Weinreich in Charlote , one of the founding fathers of bilingual studies and a
bilingual himself. Offer one of the shortest definitions in his well known book
Language in Contact the practice of alternately using two languages will be called
bilingualism, and the person involved bilingual.49 Bilingualism is essentially a
characterization of individual linguistic versatility a characterization of the social
allocation of function to different language varieties.50 Bilingualism is a study of
those who speak two or more languages, when and where they speak each and
the effect of one language on the other.51.The concept of bilingualism seems at
first sight to be non-problematical. According to the Webster Dictionary in
Michel bilingual is defined as ‘having’ or using two languages especially as
spoken with the fluency characteristic of a native speaker; a person using two
languages especially habitually and with control like that of native speaker’s and
48
Josiane F. Hamers and Michael H. A. Blanc, Bilinguality and Bilingualism, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1986). Page 6
49
Charlote Hoffmann, An Introduction to Bilingualism (London: Longman, 1991). Page 15
50
Joshua A, Fishman, Sociolinguistics, A Brief Introduction, (Rowly Massachusetts: New Burry
House Publisher INC, 1975). Page. 83
51
Elaine Chaika, Language the Social Mirror……… page 225
35
bilingualism as ‘the constant oral use of two languages’.52
Mackey in
Breadsmore describe bilingualism is the alternate use of two more languages by
the same individual. Besides, Aucam in Susanto says that bilingualism is the
condition in which two living languages exist side by side in a country; each
spoken by one national group, representing a fairly large proportion of the
people.53 Another expert gives definition of bilingualism as follows:54
1. Can use language alternatively (Weinreich, 1953)
2. Can produce meaningful sentences in L2 (Haugen, 1969)
3. Can engage in communication in more than one language (Fishman, 1966)
4. Possesses al least one language skill (listening, speaking, reading, or writing)
in L2 and minimal degree (Macnamara, 1967)
5. Speaks only one language but uses different language varieties, registers, and
style of that language (Holliday and Steven, 1964)
6. Can use two languages alternately; but the point at which a person actually
becomes bilingual is arbitrary or impossible to determine (Mackey, 1962)
7. (An “incipient bilingual”) can use a passive knowledge of L2 and a little
lexical competence to transact business in L2 (Diebold, 1961)
52
Michel H. A. Blanch and Josiane F. Hamers. Bilingaulity and Bilingualism, (New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1986), page. 6
53
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 25
54
Carlos Julio, Bilingual and ESL Classroom, (Virginia: Sons Company, 1985), page 66
36
Besides, Harmes and Blanc (1989) give definition bilingualism as the state
of individual or a community characterized by the simultaneous presence of two
languages.
Referring to the definition given above, we simply note that
bilingualism:55
1. Is used for individuals and communities in which two language are presents
2. The description of language contact at the societal level and is essentially as
natural phenomenon
3. Refers to the presence of two language in that particular setting
4. There is no claim that should have the same ability in two languages perfectly
Skjutnabb-Kangas in Susanto makes table sets out clearly the criteria and other
details involved in the destination, as shown below:56
Table: Defining Bilingualism
The Mother Tongue is the
Criterion
A speaker is bilingual Who
Language
Origin
First learned (the speakers has a.
Has learnt two languages in the
established
family from native speakers from
her
linguistic contacts in)
first
lasting
the beginning
b. Has used two languages in parallel
as means of communication from
55
56
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 25-26
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page.
37
the beginning.
Competence
Best known
a.
Complete
masterly
of
two
control
of
two
languages
b.
Native-like
languages
c. Equal mastery of two languages
d. Can produce complete meaningful
utterance in the other languages.
e. Has at least some knowledge and
control of the other language
f.
Has come intro contract with
another language.
Function
Most used
Uses (or can use) two languages (in
most situations) (in accordance with
her own wishes and the demands of
the community)
Attitudes
(a). Identified with by self (internal (a). Identifies herself as bilingual/with
identification)
two languages and/or two cultures
(or parts of them)
Identify and
(b). Identified by others as a native (b).
Is
identified
by
others
as
38
identification
speakers
of
(external
identification)
bilingual/as a native speakers of
two languages
1. Types of Bilinguals
The three definitions mentioned so far say nothing about how well the
languages need to be known, whether they must be used in similar or different
situation or about any particular requirements regarding the uses to which the
languages are put. Yet such considerations would probably be relevant in
deciding whether any or all, should be considered as bilinguals: 57
a. The two-year-old who is beginning to talk, speaking English to one parent and
welsh to the other
b. The four-year-old whose home language is Bengali and who has been
attending an English playgroup for some time
c. The young graduate who has studied French for eleven years
d. The sixty-year-old scholar who has spent a considerable part of her life
working with manuscripts and documents written in Latin
e. The technical translator
f. The personal interpreter of an important public figure
g. The Portuguese Chemist who can read specialist in his subjects written in
English
57
Charlote Hoffmann, An Introduction to Bilingualism (London: Longman, 1991). Page 16-17
39
h. The Japanese airline pilot who uses English for most of his professional
communication
i. The wife of the latter, who is able to get by in spoken German but cannot read
or write it
j. The Danish immigrant in New Zealand who has had no contact with Danish
for the last forty years.
k. The schoolchild from an Italian immigrant family living in the United States
who increasingly uses English both at home and outside but whose older
relatives address him in Italian only.
l. The Canadian child from Montreal who comes from an English speaking
background and attends an immersion programme which consist of virtually
all school subjects being taught trough the medium of French.
m. The Turkish immigrant worker in the federal Republic of Germany who
speaks Turkish at home and with his friends and work colleagues, but who
can communicate in German, in both the written and the oral forms, with his
superiors and the authorities.
n. The Belgian government employee who lives in bilingual Brasels, whose
friends and relatives are mainly Flemish speakers but who works in an
entirely French-speaking environment and whose colleagues in the office
(whether they are Flemish or not) use French as well.
40
o. The fervent Catalanist who at home and at work uses Catalan only, but who is
exposed to Castilian Spanish from the media and in the street and has no
linguistic difficulty in the latter language.
Many specialists would say that all the above individuals could be classed as
bilinguals but public opinion and at least some of these people themselves, would
probably disagree. It is possible to think of number of explanation for the
difficulties involved in arriving at precise definition. The elusiveness of the
phenomenon has already been referred to. Another factor is the nature of the
subject itself. Language use is part of human behavior, and as such not readily
accessible to scientific investigation and experimental research.
2. Factors Taken Into Account When Describing Bilingualism
a. The age of the Bilingual
It refers to the time of the acquisition that may result in considerable
differences, as suggested by the terms “Early bilingual” and “Late
bilingualism”. In early bilingualism is a case of infant or child bilingual. The
case of three and the age of puberty is the case of adult or late bilingualism.58
1) Early and Late-Bilingualism
a) The terms early-bilingualism and late bilingualism are both used to
refer to the child who has been in contact with two languages from
birth, and also to the one who acquired a second language in early
childhood, after the first language had been established.
58
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 28
41
b) Early and late bilingualism are used to refer to natural or primary
bilingualism and artificial or secondary-bilingualism.
c) Early and late bilingualism refers to ascribed-bilingualism in which
the child acquired L2 under natural condition.
d) Late bilingualism refers to achieved-bilingualism in which the adult
learnt L2 through systemic or structured instruction.
2) Bilingualism Patterns
The obvious answer to the question of how the child becomes bilingual is
by growing up in bilingual environment
A bilingual environment can be produced through:
a) Immigration: it involves leaving the country of origin in order toettle
in a host country.

The children of immigrants usually acquired their first language at
home, from their parents and family, and their second, that of their
new country of residence: from people outside the home.

In this case it will involve assimilate (adapt to the norms and
custom of the host country) as quickly as possible and his of
course include linguistic assimilation.

The result usually is that for many generations of immigrants
bilingualism is a transitory stage.
42
First Generation
Second Generation
Third Generation
Fourth Generation
LA + LB
LA and LB
LA, LB
LB
(note: + = some)
b) Close contact with other linguistic groups. In some countries with rich
linguistic diversity, contact between members of different language
groups is quite common. It may be brought about urbanization and
bilingualism is likely to be found among children as well as adult.
c) Schooling. In this sense education can play a very important role in
making children bilingual. Hence, the example is the compulsory to
use a second language as a medium of instruction in education.
d) Growing up in a bilingual family
Cross-marriage between a couple whose different L1 can be supposed
as a bilingual family. In this family, the child gets input of language
from his or her parents. He or she can imitate the utterances spoken by
either his/her father or his/her mother in everyday communication.59
b. The Contexts
It refers to the way how an individual acquires L2.the child who
acquires two languages from the speakers around him in an unstructured way
can be called natural or primary-bilingualism or refers to the expression
59
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 15
43
“Ascribed” bilingualism meanwhile the person who becomes bilingual
through systematic or structured instruction (that is, undergoing some kind of
training) is known as school or achieved-bilingualism. It involves formal
language teaching at school and the learner gets opportunity to practice the
language inside the classroom environment. The two languages may have
been presented to the infant/child bilingual either in a ‘fused’ context (both
parents using both languages to the child; it can also mean that the context of
acquisition is such as that the two languages are spoken in the same locality
where the young learner is beginning to use them-as for example in a
multilingual society) or in ‘separate’ contexts (the parents follow the oneparent-one-language principle, or one language is learnt in one country and
the other in different one).60
c. The Proficient of the Individual
If refers to the speakers competency in using both L1 and L2 in the
case, some experts have different views about speakers competency.
1) Perfectionist view or maxima list view, it sees bilingual must have the
ability in using L2 near-native control or bilingual has complete mastery
of two different languages without interference. More over, Christpperson,
in this view, sees a person who knows two languages with approximately
the same degree of perfection as unilingual speakers of those languages.
60
Charlote Hoffmann, An Introduction to Bilingualism (London: Longman, 1991). Page 18-19
44
2) Minimalist View
It limits the bilingual is a speaker who can first produce complete
meaningful utterances in the other language. In this view, Jhon macmara
sees a minimal degree of competency in one of the four languages skills
(speaking, writing, reading, and understand in speech) as sufficient.
3) Equillingualisme or Balanced-Bilingualism
It refers to the equal proficiency of the two languages mastered by the
speaker. It is supposed to be something ideal in which individuals are fully
competent in both codes. In fact, someone has dominant or stronger and
weaker language mastery.
d. The Use of the Function that the Bilingual Language Fulfill
Function-based definition reflects the view that language is not an
abstract entity. But a tool employed for taking part in act of communication.
For example the definition or bilingualism defined by Mackey that point to
the bilingual’s habit of alternating between the two languages. Els Oksaar
(1983) suggest a combination of the criteria of competence and function when
she defines bilingualism as the ability of a person to use here and now two or
more languages as a means of communication in most situation and to switch
from one language to the other if necessary.61
61
Susanto, Sociolinguistics…. Page. 28-29
45
E. Negotiation62
Negotiation is a dialogue intended to resolve disputes, to produce an
agreement upon courses of action, to bargain for individual or collective
advantage, or to craft outcomes to satisfy various interests. It is the primary
method of alternative dispute resolution.
Negotiation occurs in business, non-profit organizations, and government
branches, legal proceedings, among nations and in personal situations such as
marriage, divorce, parenting, and everyday life. The study of the subject is called
negotiation theory. Professional negotiators are often specialized, such as union
negotiators, leverage buyout negotiators, peace negotiators, hostage negotiators,
or many work under other titles, such as diplomats, legislators or brokers.
1. Approaches of Negotiation
Negotiation typically manifests itself with a trained negotiator acting
on behalf of a particular organization or position. It can be compared to
mediation where a disinterested third party listens to each side’s arguments
and attempts to help craft an agreement between the parties. It is also related
to arbitration which, as with a legal proceeding, both sides make argument as
to the merits of their “case” and then the arbitrator decides the outcome for
both parties. There are many different ways to segment negotiation to gain a
greeter understanding of the essential parts. One view of negotiations involves
three basic elements: process, behavior and substance. The process refers to
62
http/wikipedia.com
46
how the parties negotiate: the context of the negotiations, the parties to the
negotiations, the tactics used by the parties, and sequence and stages in which
all of these play out.
Another view of negotiation comprises 4 elements: strategy, process
and tools, and tactics. Strategy comprises the top level goals-typically
including relationship and the final outcome. Processes and the tools include
the steps that will be followed and the roles taken in both preparing for and
negotiating with the other parties. Tactics include more detailed statements
and actions and responses to others’ statements and actions. Some add to this
persuasion and influence, asserting that these have become integral to modern
day negotiation success, and so should not be omitted.
2. Problems with Lab negotiation Studies
Negotiation is a rather than complex interaction. Capturing all its
complexity is a very difficult task, let alone isolating and controlling only
certain aspects of it. For this reason most negotiation studies are done under
laboratory conditions and focus only on some aspects. Although lab studies
have their:
a. Emotions in lab studies are usually manipulated and are therefore
relatively ‘cold’ (not intense). Although those ‘cold’ emotion might be
enough to show effects, they are qualitatively different from the ‘hot’
emotions often experienced during negotiations.
47
b. In real life there is self-selection to which negotiation one gets into, which
effects the emotional commitment, motivation and interests. However this
is not the case of studies.
c. Lab studies tend to focus on relatively few well defined emotions. Real
life scenarios provoke a much wider scale of emotions.
d. Coding the emotions has a double catch: if done by a third side, some
emotions might not be detected as the negotiator sublimates them for
strategic reasons. Self report measure might overcome this, but they are
usually filled only before or after the process, and if filled during the
process might interfere with it.
3. Negotiation Meaning
Negotiating meaning is a process that speakers go through to reach a
clear understanding of each other.63 Example: asking for clarification,
rephrasing and confirming what you think you have understood are all
strategies for the negotiation of meaning. In the classroom information gap
activities such as jigsaw readings or listening, group story building, spot the
differences and communicative crosswords are examples of activities that give
learners the opportunity to develop their communicative competence through
negotiation of meaning as they share information. Language policies within
schools (as in other public institution) arise from ideologies that often
contradict both the experience of teachers and students and what linguist
63
http://www.Teachingenglish.org.uk/think/knowledge-wiki/negotiation-meaning
48
knows about the nature of language. Policies in turn, shape classroom
discourse in ways that may hinder the successful negotiation of linguistic
differences and the subsequent development of scientific understandings.
Instructional practices are also influenced by the language ideologies held by
individual teachers, even when these ideologies are not enshrined in policy.64
The construction of meaning in classroom is affected by multiple factors,
including (but not limited to) the subject matter being taught, the language
background of both teachers and students, the social relations among ethnic
groups respected in the classroom, and the specific language ideologies
underlying school policies and practices. The present study has illustrated a few
of the ways in which implicit language ideologies can hinder classroom
instruction with ELLs.65
Ideally, teachers should know enough about their students’ home language
to be sensitive to specific semantic difficulties that may arise with translated
content and to guide students through these “rich points”. For teachers with more
extensive linguistic knowledge of the subtleties of English and/ or students’ home
languages, simple morphological analysis of certain science terms may be key to
helping students construct scientific understanding. The kind of knowledge that
teachers need to negotiate cross-linguistic rich points is not easily taught with in
the context of formal teacher education programs because it involves
64
Aurolyn Luykx, Lost in Translation Negotiating Meaning in a Beginning ESOL science
Classroom, (……..: Educational Policy Online First, 2007), page. 28
65
Ibid.,
49
communicative competence acquired over years of using a language. On the other
hand, it is not unrealistic to insist that teachers be aware of the sorts of semantic
difficulties that arise with science content in translation.66
Classroom teachers are the most crucial mediators between what
educational policy mandates and what students’ experience in school. Finegrained examination of classroom interactions can reveal how teachers’ own
language ideologies, combined with those embodied in state-, district-, and
school-level policies, give rise to instructional practice that limit student’s access
to scientific discourse and the development to transport science concept across the
language barrier reveal the context-dependent and language-specific nature of
scientific understandings and the and the complexity of the interpretive work
required of students and teachers in ESOL classroom.67
66
67
Aurolyn Luykx, Lost in Translation ……… page. 30
Ibid.,