Primary Sources - Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism
For more background information on religions see:
http://home.comcast.net/~mruland/WHAP/Notes/foundations/wreligion.htm
The Aryan invasion of the subcontinent around 1,500 B.C.E. brought with it a new religion
that featured a pantheon of gods that the Aryans worshiped through ritualism and with burnt
sacrifices. Over the next thousand years, the religion matured, probably incorporating some
elements of Harappan theology and certainly establishing a rigid social structure.
Around 500 B.C.E., Indians began to record their extensive oral religious traditions in
what has become known as the Vedic literature. The oldest of the four Vedas is the Rig-Veda,
and it is there that the Hindu creation myth and the basis for the caste system can be found.
Another glimpse of the origins of the Hindu caste system can be seen in The Law of Manu,
written around 200 C.E., viewed as a guide to proper behavior for Hindus. Selections from both
texts are included below.
The Rig Veda is a collection of hymns counted among the four Hindu religious scriptures
known as the Vedas, and contains the oldest texts preserved in any Indo-Iranian language & the
world. It was first orally passed down in India & then later on finally was documented. It consists
of 1,017 hymns (1,028 including the apocryphal valakhilya hymns 8.49-8.59) composed in Vedic
Sanskrit, many of which are intended for various sacrifical rituals. These are contained in 10
books, known as Mandalas. This long collection of short hymns is mostly devoted to the praise of
the gods. However, it also contains fragmentary references to historical events, notably the
struggle between the early Vedic people (known as Vedic Aryans, a subgroup of the Indo-Aryans)
and their enemies, the Dasa.
The chief gods of the Rig-Veda are Agni, the sacrificial fire, Indra, a heroic god that is praised
for having slain his enemy Vrtra, and Soma, the sacred potion, or the plant it is made from. Other
prominent gods are Mitra, Varuna and Ushas (the dawn). Also invoked are Savitar, Vishnu,
Rudra, Pushan, Brihaspati, Brahmanaspati, Dyaus Pita (the sky), Prithivi (the earth), Surya (the
sun), Vac (the word), Vayu (the wind), the Maruts, the Asvins, the Adityas, the Rbhus, the
Vishvadevas (the all-gods) as well as various further minor gods, persons, concepts, phenomena
and items. Some of the names of gods and goddesses found in the Rig-Veda are found amongst
other Indo-European peoples as well: Dyaus is cognate with Greek Zeus, Latin Jupiter, and
Germanic Tyr, while Mitra is cognate with Persian Mithra and Ushas with Greek Eos, Latin
Aurora and, less certainly, Varuna with Greek Uranos. Finally, Agni is cognate with Latin ignis
and Russian ogon', both meaning "fire".1
Document 1 – Old Order (Hinduism (The Vedic Age)
Thousand-headed Purusha, thousand-eyed, thousand-footed he, having pervaded the earth on
all sides, still extends ten fingers beyond it.
Purusha alone is all this—whatever has been and whatever is going to be. Further, he is the lord
of immortality and also of what grows on account of food.
Such is his greatness; greater, indeed, than this is Purusha. All creatures constitute but one
quarter of him, his three-quarters are the immortal in the heaven.
With his three-quarters did Purusha rise up; one quarter of him again remains here. With it did he
variously spread out on all sides over what eats and what eats not.
1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda
From him was Viraj born, from Viraj evolved Purusha. He, being born, projected himself behind
the earth as also before it.
When the gods performed the sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation, then the spring was its
clarified butter, the summer the sacrificial fuel, and the autumn the oblation.
The sacrificial victim, namely, Purusha, born at the very beginning, they sprinkled with sacred
water upon the sacrificial grass. With him as oblation the gods performed the sacrifice, and also
the Sadhyas [a class of semidivine beings] and the rishis [ancient seers].
From that wholly offered sacrificial oblation were born the verses and the sacred chants; from it
were born the meters; the sacrificial formula was born from it.
From it horses were born and also those animals who have double rows [i.e., upper and lower] of
teeth; cows were born from it, from it were born goats and sheep.
When they divided Purusha, in how many different portions did they arrange him? What became
of his mouth, what of his two arms? What were his two thighs and his two feet called?
His mouth became the brahman; his two arms were made into the rajanya; his two thighs the
vaishyas; from his two feet the shudra was born.
The moon was born from the mind, from the eye the sun was born; from the mouth Indra and
Agni, from the breath the wind was born.
From the navel was the atmosphere created, from the head the heaven issued forth; from the two
feet was born the earth and the quarters [the cardinal directions] from the ear. Thus did they
fashion the worlds.
Seven were the enclosing sticks in this sacrifice, thrice seven were the fire-sticks made, when the
gods, performing the sacrifice, bound down Purusha, the sacrificial victim.
With this sacrificial oblation did the gods offer the sacrifice. These were the first norms [dharma]
of sacrifice. These greatnesses reached to the sky wherein live the ancient Sadhyas and gods.
Source: The Rig-Veda, 10.90, in Sources of Indian Tradition by Theodore de Bary (New York:
Columbia University Press, 1958), pp. 16-17.
Document 2: From The Law of Manu
But in the beginning he assigned their several names, actions, and conditions (created beings),
even according to the words of the Veda.
He, the Lord, also created the class of the gods, who are endowed with life, and whose nature is
action; and the subtile class of the Sadhyas, and the eternal sacrifice.
But from fire, wind, and the sun he drew forth the threefold eternal Veda, called Rik, Yaius, and
Saman, for the due performance of the sacrifice.
Time and the divisions of time, the lunar mansions and the planets, the rivers, the oceans, the
mountains, plains, and uneven ground,
Austerity, speech, pleasure, desire, and anger, this whole creation he likewise produced, as he
desired to call these beings into existence… .
Whatever he assigned to each at the (first) creation, noxiousness or harmlessness, gentleness or
ferocity, virtue or sin, truth or falsehood, that clung (afterwards) spontaneously to it.
As at the change of the seasons each season of its own accord assumes its distinctive marks,
even so corporeal beings (resume in new births) their (appointed) course of action.
But for the sake of the prosperity of the worlds, he created the Brahman, the Kshatriya, the
Vaishya, and the Shudra to proceed from his mouth, his arms, his thighs, and his feet… .
To Brahmans he assigned teaching and studying (the Veda), sacrificing for their own benefit and
for others, giving and accepting (of alms).
The Kshatriya he commanded to protect the people, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study
(the Veda), and to abstain from attaching himself to sensual pleasures… .
The Vaishya to tend cattle, to bestow gifts, to offer sacrifices, to study (the Veda), to trade, to lend
money, and to cultivate land.
One occupation only the lord prescribed to the Shudra, to serve meekly even these (other) three
castes.
Source: Manu, The Law of Manu, in The Sacred Books of the East, vol. XXV, ed. F. Max Müller
(Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press, 1886), pp. 12-14, 24.
Document 3 – The Song of God (Bhagavad – Gita)
A core sacred text of Hindu (Vedic) religion and philosophy, the Bhagavad Gita, often
referred to as the Gita, is a summation of the Vedic, Yogic, Vedantic and Tantric philosophies.
The Bhagavad Gita, meaning "song of the Lord", refers to itself as a 'Yoga Upanishad' and is
sometimes called Gītopanişad. During the message of Gita, Lord Krishna proclaims that he is
God Himself (a Bhagavat, or all-embracing personal god). In order to make Arjuna believe this,
he shows Arjuna his divine form which is described as timeless and leaves Arjuna shaking with
awe and fear. It is not exactly clear when the Bhagavad Gita was written. Astronomical evidence
cited in the Mahabharata itself put the date at 3137 BCE, ancient Indian historical texts (Puranas)
suggest a date of about 1924 BCE and the bulk of modern scholars hold widely differing dates
that occur after 1000 BCE.2
All is one and one is all.
Himself as in all beings,
And all beings in himself,
Sees he whose self is disciplined in
discipline,
Who sees the same in all things.
Who sees Me in all,
And sees all in Me,
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For him I am not lost,
And he is not lost for me.
Whoso reveres me as abiding in all things,
adopting the belief in oneness,
though abiding in any possible condition,
that disciplined man abides in Me. [vi. 29-31]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita#Revelation_of_the_Supreme
Document 4:
A memorable passage of the Gita is in the Eleventh Chapter in which Krishna
reveals himself to Arjuna in all his splendid forms, all the plenary permutations of beings,
the many gods and planes of existences all subsumed into the one essential Superconsciousness.
Column 1: (continues on the next page)
"Krishna: Thou canst not!—nor, with human
eyes, Arjuna! ever mayest!
Column 2 (should be read after column 1)
So did Pandu's Son behold
All this universe enfold
Therefore I give thee sense divine. Have other
eyes, new light!
And, look! This is My glory, unveiled to mortal
sight!
All its huge diversity
Into one vast shape, and be
Visible, and viewed, and blended
Sanjaya: Then, O King! the God, so saying,
In one Body—subtle, splendid,
Stood, to Pritha's Son displaying
Nameless—th' All-comprehending
All the splendour, wonder, dread
God of Gods, the Never-Ending
Of His vast Almighty-head.
Deity!
But, sore amazed,
Out of countless eyes beholding,
Thrilled, o'erfilled, dazzled, and dazed,
Out of countless mouths commanding,
Arjuna knelt; and bowed his head,
Countless mystic forms enfolding
And clasped his palms; and cried, and said
In one Form: supremely standing
Arjuna: Yea! I have seen! I see!
Countless radiant glories wearing,
Lord! all is wrapped in Thee!
Countless heavenly weapons bearing,
The gods are in Thy glorious frame! the creatures
Crowned with garlands of star-clusters,
Of earth, and heaven, and hell
Robed in garb of woven lustres,
In Thy Divine form dwell,
Breathing from His perfect Presence
And in Thy countenance shine all the features
Breaths of every subtle essence
Of all heavenly odours; shedding
Of Brahma, sitting lone
Blinding brilliance; overspreading—
Upon His lotus-throne;
Boundless, beautiful—all spaces
Of saints and sages, and the serpent races
With His all-regarding faces;
Ananta, Vasuki;
So He showed! If there should rise
Yea! mightiest Lord! I see
Suddenly within the skies
Thy thousand thousand arms, and breasts, and
faces,
Sunburst of a thousand suns
And eyes,—on every side
Flooding earth with beams undeemed-of,
Perfect, diversified;
Then might be that Holy One's
And nowhere end of Thee, nowhere beginning,
Majesty and radiance dreamed of!
Nowhere a centre! Shifts—
Wherever soul's gaze lifts—
Thy central Self, all-wielding, and all-winning!"
Questions on Hinduism:
Directions: (for every question provide a quote or quotes from the documents
above supporting your answer.
1. Is HINDUISM a monotheistic or a polytheistic religion?
2. What is the meaning of term “Dharma”? (see first document’s last paragraph)
3. “As at the change of the seasons each season of its own accord assumes its
distinctive marks, even so corporeal beings [resume in new births] their
appointed course of action.” (Document 2). What process is described in this
quote? Explain your understanding of the process.
4. What occupations did Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras perform
in the society? How did the religious teachings of Hinduism justify/influence
social stratification of the Indian civilization?
5. After reading primary sources and Chapter 6, define and explain the following
terms:
a). Reincarnation –
b). Dharma –
c). Karma –
d). Atman –
e). Jati (Castes) -
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http://kcm.co.kr/bethany/graphics/hindumap.gif
Jainism - JAIN DOCTRINES AND PRACTICES OF NONVIOLENCE
THE EXAMPLE OF MAHAVIRA
('Akaranga-sutra, I, 8, 1-3-IV-8)
Translation from Prakrit by Herman Jacobi, Jaina Sutra, part 1, in Sacred Books of the
East, (Oxford, 1884), PP. 85-7
Vardhamarma Mahavira ('The Great Hero') was a contemporary of the Buddha. He is
said to have left his home at the age of thirty and wandered for twelve years in search of
salvation. At the age of forty two he obtained enlightenment and became a 'conqueror'
(jina, term from which the Jain took their name). Mahavira founded an order of naked
monks and taught his doctrine of salvation for some thirty years. He died in 468 B.C., at
the age of seventy-two, in a village near Patna.
1. 3. For a year and a month he did not leave off his robe. Since that time the Venerable
One, giving up his robe, was a naked, world relinquishing, houseless (sage).
4. Then he meditated (walking) with his eye fixed on a square space before him of the
length of a man. Many people assembled, shocked at the sight; they struck him and cried.
5. Knowing (and renouncing) the female sex in mixed gathering places, he meditated,
finding his way himself: I do not lead a worldly life.
6. Giving up the company of all householders whomsoever, he meditated. Asked, he gave
no answer; he went and did not transgress the right path.
7. For some it is not easy (to do what he did), not to answer those who salute; he was
beaten with sticks, and struck by sinful people. . . .
11. Thoroughly knowing the earth-bodies and water-bodies and fire-bodies and windbodies, the lichens, seeds, and sprouts,
12. He comprehended that they are, if narrowly inspected, imbued with life, and avoided
to injure them; he, the Great Hero.
13. The immovable (beings) are changed to movable ones, and the movable beings to
immovable ones; beings which are born in all states become individually sinners by their
actions.
14. The Venerable One understands thus: he who is under the conditions (of existence),
that fool suffers pain. Thoroughly knowing (karma), the Venerable One avoids sin.
15. The sage, perceiving the double (karma), proclaims the incomparable activity, he,
knowing one; knowing the current of worldliness, the current of sinfulness, and the
impulse.
16. Practicing the sinless abstinence from killing, be did no acts, neither himself nor with
the assistance of others; be to whom women were known as the causes of all sinful acts,
he saw (the true sate of the world). . . .
III. 7. Ceasing to use the stick (i.e. cruelty) against living beings, abandoning the care of
the body, the houseless (Mahavira), the Venerable One, endures the thorns of the villages
(i.e. the abusive language of the peasants), (being) perfectly enlightened.
9. When he who is free from desires approached the village, the inhabitants met him on
the outside, and attacked him, saying, 'Get away from here.'
10. He was struck with a stick, the fist, a lance, hit with a fruit, a clod, a potsherd. Beating
him again and again, many cried.
11. When he once (sat) without moving his body, they cut his flesh, tore his hair under
pains, or covered him with dust.
12. Throwing him up, they let him fall, or disturbed him in his religious postures;
abandoning the care of his body, the Venerable One humbled himself and bore pain, free
from desire.
13. As a hero at the head of the battle is surrounded on all sides, so was there Mahavira.
Bearing all hardships, the Venerable One, undisturbed, proceeded (on the road to
Nirvana). . . .
VI 1. The Venerable One was able to abstain from indulgence of the flesh, though never
attacked by diseases. Whether wounded or not wounded, he desired not medical
treatment.
2. Purgatives and emetics, anointing of the body and bathing, shampooing and cleaning
of the teeth do not behoove him, after he learned (that the body is something unclean).
3. Being averse from the impressions of the senses, the Brahmana wandered about,
speaking but little. Sometimes in the cold season the Venerable One was meditating in
the shade.
4. In summer he exposes himself to the heat, he sits squatting in the sun; he lives on
rough (food); rice, pounded jujube, and beans.
5. Using these three, the Venerable One sustained himself eight months. Sometimes the
Venerable One did not drink for half a month or even for a month.
6. Or he did not drink for more than two months, or even six months, day and night,
without desire (for drink). Sometimes he ate stale food.
7. Sometimes he ate only the sixth meal, or the eighth, the tenth, the twelfth; without
desires, persevering in meditation.
8. Having wisdom, Mahavira committed no sin himself, nor did he induce other to do so,
nor did he consent to the sins of others.
Questions on Jainism: (use quotes to support your answers)
1. What are some of the central values of the Jainist faith?
2. “…beings which are born in all states become individually sinners by their
actions. The Venerable One understands thus: he who is under the conditions [of
existence], that fool suffers pain. Thoroughly knowing [karma], the Venerable
One avoids sin.” Paraphrase and/or explain your understanding of this quote.
3. What Jainist beliefs can be seen as a challenge to Hindu religion? Explain.
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http://go.hrw.com/hrw.nd/gohrw_rls1/pKeywordResults?keyword=st9%20jainism
Buddhism
From: Ephanius Wilson, Sacred Books of the East, rev. ed. (London: The Colonial Press,
1900), pp. 158, 160-61, 171-72, repr. In Mark A. Kishlansky, ed., Sources of World
History, Volume I, (New York: HarperCollins CollegePublishers, 1995), pp. 67-71
[Kishlansky Introduction] Siddhartha Gautama (ca. 563-483 BCE.) was the son of the
king of a small Indian state. Legend holds that it was foretold at his birth that he would
either be a great monarch or a great Buddha (literally, "an enlightened one") His father,
hoping for the former, raised Siddhartha in luxury. But at the age of 29 Siddhartha
experienced a vision of human suffering that led him to renounce his worldly status and
goods and take to the road as a wandering ascetic. He joined at least two ascetic sects,
whose philosophies he quickly mastered but neither allowed him to achieve the highest
truth. He finally attained this goal when one night while he was meditating he was able to
comprehend his past and future lives. Siddhartha determined to teach the truths he had
realized; he gathered disciples and preached a middle way between worldliness and
asceticism. His teachings swept throughout East Asia, becoming the foundation for one of
the world's great religions. Buddhist traditions flourished in both India and China,
although they developed separately.
The teachings of the Buddha were recorded by his students and then codified over the
next 500 years. The Buddha's sermons are regarded by scholars as largely authentic,
and part of his first sermon, the Sermon at Benares, is reproduced here. The selection
that follows is a disquisition on the concept of Nirvana.
Document 1: THE SERMON AT BENARES
On seeing their old teacher approach, the five bhikkhus (disciples or monks) agreed
among themselves not to salute him, nor to address him as a master, but by his name
only. "For," so they said, "he has broken his vow and has abandoned holiness. He is no
bhikkhu but Gautama, and Gautama has become a man who lives in abundance and
indulges in the pleasures of worldliness."
But when the Blessed One approached in a dignified manner, they involuntarily rose
from their seats and greeted him in spite of their resolution. Still they called him by his
name and addressed him as "friend Gautama."
When they had thus received the Blessed One, he said: "Do not call the Tathagata5 by his
name nor address him as 'friend,' for he is the Buddha, the Holy One. The Buddha looks
with a kind heart equally on all living beings, and they therefore call him 'Father.' To
disrespect a father is wrong; to despise him, is wicked.
"The Tathagata," the Buddha continued, "does not seek salvation in austerities, but
neither does he for that reason indulge in worldly pleasures, nor live in abundance. The
Tathagata has found the middle path.
"There are two extremes, O bhikkhus, which the man who has given up the world ought
not to follow-the habitual practice, on the one hand, of self-indulgence which is
Literally means “thus gone one.” The term was used by Buddha himself to describe a being who has
reached Nirvana.
5
unworthy, vain and fit only for the worldly-minded and the habitual practice, on the other
hand, of self-mortification, which is painful, useless and unprofitable.
"Neither abstinence from fish or flesh, nor going naked, nor shaving the head, nor
wearing matted hair, nor dressing in a rough garment, nor covering oneself with dirt, nor
sacrificing to Agni, will cleanse a man who is not free from delusions.
"Reading the Vedas, making offerings to priests, or sacrifices to the gods, selfmortification by heat or cold, and many such penances performed for the sake of
immortality, these do not cleanse the man who is not free from delusions.
"Anger, drunkenness, obstinacy, bigotry, deception, envy, self-praise, disparaging others,
superciliousness and evil intentions constitute uncleanness; not verily the eating of flesh.
A middle path, O bhikkhus, avoiding the two extremes, has been discovered by the
Tathagata-a path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to peace
of mind, to the higher wisdom, to full enlightenment, to Nirvana!
"What is that middle path, O bhikkhus, avoiding these two extremes, discovered by the
Tathagata - that path which opens the eyes, and bestows understanding, which leads to
peace of mind, to the higher wisdom, to full enlightenment, to Nirvana?
"Let me teach you, O bhikkhus, the middle path, which keeps aloof from both extremes.
By suffering, the emaciated devotee produces confusion and sickly thoughts in his mind.
Mortification is not conducive even to worldly knowledge; how much less to a triumph
over the senses!
"He who fills his lamp with water will not dispel the darkness, and he who tries to light a
fire with rotten wood will fail. And how can anyone be free from self by leading a
wretched life, if he does not succeed in quenching the fires of lust, if he still hankers after
either worldly or heavenly- pleasures. But he in whom self has become extinct is free
from lust: he will desire neither worldly nor heavenly pleasures, and the satisfaction of
his natural wants will not defile him. However, let him be moderate, let him eat and drink
according to the needs of the body.
"Sensuality is enervating: the "self-indulgent" man is a slave to pleasure to his passions,
and pleasure-seeking is degrading and vulgar.
"But to satisfy the necessities of life is not evil. To keep the body in good health is a duty
for otherwise we shall not be able to trim the lamp of wisdom, and keep our mind strong
and clear. Water surrounds the lotus-flower, but does not wet its petals.
"This is the middle path, O bhikkhus. that keeps aloof from both extremes.
And the Blessed One spoke kindly to his disciples, pitying them for their errors, and
pointing out the uselessness of their endeavors, and the ice of ill-will that chilled their
hearts melted away under the gentle warmth of the Master's persuasion.
Now the Blessed One set the wheel of the most excellent law rolling, and he began to
preach to the five bhikkhus, opening to them the gate of immortality, and showing them
the bliss of Nirvana.
The Buddha said:
"The spokes of the wheel are the rules of pure conduct: justice is the uniformity of their
length, wisdom is the tire; modesty and thoughtfulness are the hub in which the
immovable axle of truth is fixed.
"He who recognizes the existence of suffering, its cause, its remedy, and its cessation has
fathomed the four noble truths. He will walk in the right path.
"Right views will be the torch to light his way. Right aspirations will be his guide. Right
speech will be his dwelling-place on the road. His gait will be straight, for it is right
behavior. His refreshments will be the right way of earning his livelihood. Right efforts
will be his steps, right thoughts his breath; and right contemplation will give him the
peace that follows in his footprints.
"Now, this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning suffering:
"Birth is attended with pain, decay is painful, disease is painful, death is painful. Union
with the unpleasant is painful, painful is separation from the pleasant, and any craving
that is unsatisfied, that too is painful. In brief, bodily conditions which spring from
attachment are painful.
"This, then, O bhikkus, is the noble truth concerning suffering.
"Now this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the origin of suffering:
"…, it is that craving which causes the renewal of existence, accompanied by sensual
delight, seeking satisfaction now here, now there, the craving for the gratification of the
passions, the craving for a future life, and the craving for happiness in this life.
"This, then, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the origin of suffering"Now this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the destruction of suffering:
"…, it is the destruction, in which no passion remains, of this very thirst; it is the laying
aside of, the being free from, the dwelling no longer upon this thirst.
"This then, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the destruction of suffering'Now this, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the way which leads to the
destruction of sorrow. Verily! it is this noble eightfold path: that is to say:
"Right views; right aspirations; right speech; right behavior; right livelihood, right effort;
right thoughts; and right contemplation.
"This, then, O bhikkhus, is the noble truth concerning the destruction of sorrow. "By the
practice of loving kindness I have attained liberation of heart, and thus I am assured that I
shall never return in renewed births. I have even now attained Nirvana."
And when the Blessed One had thus set the royal chariot wheel of truth rolling onward, a
rapture thrilled through all the universes. The devas left their heavenly abodes to listen to
the sweetness of the truth; the saints that had parted from this life crowded around the
great teacher to receive the glad tidings; even the animals of the earth felt the bliss that
rested upon the words of the Tagathata: and all the creatures of the host of sentient
beings, gods, men, and beasts, hearing the message of deliverance, received and
understood it in their own language.
And when the doctrine was propounded, the venerable Kondanna, the oldest one among
the five bhikkhus, discerned the truth with his mental eye, and he said: "Truly, O Buddha,
our Lord, thou hast found the truth!" Then the other bhikkhus too, joined him and
exclaimed: "Truly, thou art the Buddha, thou has found the truth. "
And the devas and saints and all the good spirits of the departed generations that had
listened to the sermon of the Tathagata, joyfully received the doctrine and shouted:
"Truly, the blessed One has founded the kingdom of righteousness. The Blessed One has
moved the earth; he has set the wheel of Truth rolling, which by no one in the universe,
be he god or man, can ever be turned back. The kingdom of Truth will be preached upon
earth; it will spread; and righteousness, good-will, and peace will reign among mankind."
Document 2: WHAT IS NIRVANA?
"Revered Nagasena6, things produced of karma are seen in the world, things produced of
cause are seen, things produced of nature are seen. Tell me what in the world is born not
of karma, not of cause, not of nature." "These two, sire, in the world are born not of
karma, not of cause, not of nature. Which two? Either, sire, and Nirvana."
"Do not, revered Nagasena, corrupt the Conqueror's words and answer the question
ignorantly."
"What did I say, sire, that you speak thus to me!"
"Revered Nagasena, what you said about ether - that it is born not of karma nor of cause
nor of nature-is right. But with many a hundred reasons did the Lord, revered Nagasena,
point out to disciples the Way to the realization of Nirvana and then you speak thus:
'Nirvana is born of no cause."'
"It is true, sire, that with many a hundred reasons did the Lord point out to disciples the
Way to the realization of Nirvana; but he did not point out a cause for the production o f
Nirvana."
"Well then, sire, attend carefully, listen closely, and I will tell the reason as to this. Would
a man, sire, with his natural strength be able to go from here up a high Himalayan
mountain?"
'Yes, revered Nagasena."
"But would that man, sire, with his natural strength be able to bring a high Himalayan
mountain here.
"Certainly not, revered sir."
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Nāgasena was a Buddhist sage who lived about 150 BCE. (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagasena)
"Even so, sire, it is possible to point out the Way for the realization of Nirvana, but
impossible to show a cause for the production of Nirvana. Would it be possible, sire, for a
man who, with his natural strength, has crossed over the great sea in a boat to reach the
farther shore!"
"Yes, revered sir."
"But would it be possible, sire, for that man, with his natural strength, to bring the farther
shore of the great sea here?"
"Certainly not, revered sir."
"Even so, sire, it is possible to point out the Way to the realization of Nirvana, but
impossible to show a cause for the production of Nirvana. For what reason? It is because
of the uncompounded nature of the thing." "Revered Nagasena, is Nirvana
uncompounded!"
"Yes, sire, Nirvana is uncompounded; it is made by nothing at all. Sire, one cannot say of
Nirvana that it arises or that it does not arise or that it is to be produced or that it is past or
future or present, or that it is cognizable by the eye, ear, nose, tongue or body."
"If, revered Nagasena, Nirvana neither arises nor does not arise and so on as you say.
Well then, revered Nagasena, you indicate Nirvana as a thing that is not: Nirvana is not."
"Sire, Nirvana is; Nirvana is cognizable by mind; … faring along rightly with a mind that
is purified, lofty, straight, without obstructions, without temporal desires, sees Nirvana."
"But what, revered sir, is that Nirvana like that can be illustrated by similes! Convince me
with reasons according to which a thing that is can be illustrated by similes."
"Is there, sire, what is called wind?"
"Yes, revered sir."
"Please, sire, show the wind by its color or configuration or as thin or thick or long or
short."
"But it is not possible, revered Nagasena, for the wind to be shown; for the wind cannot
be grasped in the hand or touched, but yet there is the wind."
"If, sire, it is not possible for the wind to be shown, well then, there is no wind."
"I, revered Nagasena, know that there is wind, I am convinced of it, but I am not able to
show the wind."
"Even so, sire, there is Nirvana; but it is not possible to show Nirvana by color or
configuration."
"Very good, revered Nagasena, well shown is the simile. Well seen the reason: thus it is
and I accept it as you say: There is Nirvana."
Questions on Buddhism: (use quotes to support your answers)
1. Explain your understanding of the “middle path” described by the Buddha in the
first document.
2. Provide quote(s) from document 1 in which the Buddha criticizes Hindu as well
as Jain religious customs.
3. What are the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS?
4. How can one escape the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth (the world of craving
and suffering) and enter Nirvana?
5. After reading the second document on Buddhism, explain your understanding of
the concept of Nirvana.
Buddhist Countries in Asia
7
7
http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/wml/humanworld/worldcultures/asia/graphics/buddhism_map.gif