Language CRQ 1: Language Diversity and Extinction (KEY)
A. Linguists have identified three primary means of language formation: (Your answers need not be as
detailed as those below but should include the basic definitions and at least one example for each term.)
1. Language divergence: Language divergence occurs when speakers of a one language migrate to two
different areas. Over time, if the spatial interaction between them breaks down (e.g. they lose contact with
each other), the language the two groups speak will first fragment into different dialects and then into two
mutually unintelligible languages. This idea is used to explain the branching of a relatively few (possibly
one) ancient languages into the 6,000 or so languages in the world today. Language divergence has
happened recently in the split between Spanish and Portuguese and is now happening between French and
Quebecois. Language divergence is by far the most common means by which new languages are thought to
form.
2. Language convergence: Language convergence occurs when speakers of two languages migrate to the
same area. Over time and through constant interaction the two languages can merge into one. Language
convergence is happening on the island of Malta, where almost the entire population speaks both English
and Maltese and are gradually creating a new language from the combination of the two.
3. Creolization: Creolization occurs when a colonized (dominated) people adopts the language of the
colonizer but changes it by simplifying its grammar and adding words from their former language. Haitian
Creole, a mix of French and African languages created by the black population on the island of Haiti, is and
example of a creole language.
B. Possible answers (you need two, each with and adequate discussion):
1. Isolation: Many of the countries with high language diversity have geographical barriers preventing the
movement of people or communication between groups of people. This isolation is what allowed languages
to fragment in these countries through language divergence. Examples include Papua New Guinea and
Indonesia, where small language groups often have their own island, the Congo, where thick jungle isolates
groups (this is also true of Papua New Guinea), as well as India and China, where the sheer size of the
countries has allowed language groups to exist without frequently interacting.
2. Poverty: As a general rule, as a country gets richer, its language diversity declines. So poorer countries
have more language diversity. This may be because in poorer countries no one language group has become
economically or politically powerful enough to create a dominant language that will then threaten all the
other languages in that country. India is an example of a country where no one of its 400 or so language
groups has ever been rich enough to become dominant and wipe out the others.
Note: The countries with the highest language diversity (Congo and Papua New Guinea) combine both of
the above factors: geographical isolation and poverty.
3. Lack of communication technologies: Many of the countries with high language diversity have low levels
of technology. This is also a form of isolation in that it protects small language groups from the effects of
globalization and acculturation (take over) by a dominant or official language. Nigeria and South Africa are
good examples of this phenomenon.
4. Linguistic rivalry between multiple languages: In Nigeria, English, the language of the hated colonizer,
was nevertheless chosen as the official language after the British left, because choosing any of the over 500
languages may have caused violent conflict. As long as none of the native languages (or English) becomes
dominant, language diversity will be preserved.
C. B. Possible answers (you need two, each with and adequate discussion):
1. Geography: Many languages with low language diversity are either large islands (Cuba, Japan, Iceland) or
peninsulas at the edge of continents (Korea, Portugal, Denmark). As long as the speakers of the dominant
language maintained contact with each other within their countries,, their geography might have protected
them from the influence of other languages coming in from outside their borders.
2. Colonization: Many of the countries with low language diversity are former colonies where the
colonizer's language has become dominant and wiped out or is threatening language diversity. Examples
include Cuba, Columbia, Mexico (Spanish), Brazil (Portuguese), and Australia (English).
3. Politics: Politics plays a role in Japan's linguistic homogeneity (lack of diversity). Japan has very strict
immigration policies that have protected its culture and language from outside influences. Cuba and North
Korea are communist states were there are also restrictions on travel and immigration that protect
monolingualism.
4. Religion: In Saudi Arabia and Egypt, the dominant influence of Islam promotes monolingualism. This is
especially true for Islam because the Koran is taught only in Arabic.
D. Possible answers (you need one):
1. Dominant language: The countries with a high number of languages but a low Greenberg index are
America, Russia, Brazil, China and Mexico. Each has over 100 languages but low language diversity because
English, Russian, Portuguese, Chinese and Spanish have grown to the point where they threaten to destroy
the many tiny native languages.
2. Size: These countries are also all very large countries. Their size provided small rural pockets were
endangered languages can hang on. This gives the country a high number of languages even though the
vast majority of its citizens speak one or two dominant or official languages.
Language CRQ 2: Language Extinction (KEY)
A. Extinct language: A language no longer spoken as part of everyday communication anywhere in the
world.
B. See map below of language extinction "hotspots". Your map should show four of these areas with the
highest number of endangered languages.
C. In general, a language becomes extinct for one of two reasons: either all of its speakers die off or the
young people decide to speak another language instead.
Possible answers (you need two, each with an adequate explanation)
1. The speakers of a language can die out from disease or military conquest (Native American populations
in on the islands of the Caribbean after the arrival of Europeans. Ultimately the survival of a language
historically has depended on the political and military strength of its speakers.
2. Popular culture diffused via mass media can threaten local diversity of culture which includes local
languages. Mass media (TV, radio, internet, publishing) strengthens dominant and standard languages at
the expense of local diversity. (English is threatening local languages globally but especially in North
America and Australia, Spanish in Mexico and South America.)
3. Colonizers often forbid local populations from speaking native languages as a way of weakening or
destroying their cultures. (the French in West Africa, the British in India and Africa, the American
government in North America, Australian government in Australia all forbid the use of native languages at
one time.)
4. Urbanization plays a roll in language extinction. The large scale migration of young people from their
small rural villages in favor of job opportunities in larger cities leave no young speakers behind to learn and
keep alive the endangered language in the villages where the languages are clinging to life. This process is
taking place throughout the world in LDCs (migration to Lima in Peru, to Mexico City, to the big cities of
South and East Africa is resulting in the extinction of languages in those regions).
5. Young speakers may chose to speak a dominant culture language for economic reasons. For example, a
young person whose parents or grandparents speaks an indigenous language in Columbia or India may
choose to speak Spanish or English respectively or order to further his career.
6. Changing marriage patterns also can contribute to language extinction. When young people, especially
women, marry outside their tribe or culture group they may adopt the dominant language spoken by their
spouse and do not pass their native language on to their children.
7. Latin went extent with the decline of the Roman Empire.
8. Gothic went extinct when its speakers were integrated into more dominant culture and were converted
to Christianity and began speaking Latin.
D. Possible answers (you need two, each with an adequate explanation and example)
1. Cultural pride: languages that have speakers that take great pride in their culture, music, art, history, etc.
are more motivated to preserve their language because they know that that language is vital to
transmitting and preserving the other aspects of their culture. The Basque people are an example of a
culture that takes great pride in its unique and ancient culture and its language which is not related to any
Indo European language.
2. Political unity: If a language has its own state it has an obvious advantage in surviving extinction
because it has the powers of that state behind it. Hebrew is an example of a language with its own state
(Israel).
3. Languages taught in schools stand a better chance of surviving because even young people who don't
speak the language at home have an opportunity to learn and pass on the language. Irish (Gaelic),Welsh,
and recently Navaho are examples of endangered languages currently taught in schools.
4. Isolation may help an endangered language survive by protecting it from a dominant culture. Celtic
languages were pushed to the edges of Europe by later Indo European languages but were able to hang on
in their relatively isolated locations in Ireland, Scotland, and Breton. Basque was also isolated from
neighboring languages by mountains.
5. Pop culture can be a threat to endangered languages but can also help sustain or revive them. The
recent popularity of Celtic music, art, alphabet (in tattoos for instance), and jewelry has helped make the
Celtic languages more popular and therefore more likely to survive. The BBC has recently begun
broadcasting radio and television programs in both Welsh and Irish (Gaelic). The internet can serve a similar
function in preserving endangered languages.
6. Status as an official language. When a language is given the status as an official language of a country,
government documents, roads signs, etc. will appear in that language and help to revive it. Irish Gaelic, one
of two official languages of Ireland (the other is English) is an example of an official endangered language.
Language CRQ 3: Language and Politics (KEY)
A. Possible answers (choose two)
Country
Belgium
Canada
Nigeria
Switzerland
United States
Official Language(s) and
Distribution Pattern
Official languages: Flemish and
French.
Distribution: Flemish (a variety of
Dutch) is spoken in the north.
French (a romance language) is
spoken in the south. The capital is
located within the Flemish
speaking region but is bilingual.
Official languages: English and
French.
Distribution: French is dominant in
Quebec and English is dominant
everywhere else.
Official languages: English.
Distribution: English is taught in
schools and spoken throughout
the country but by a minority of
the population. English is used as
a lingua franca used for
communication between tribes.
Official languages: German,
French, Italian, and Romanisch.
Distribution: German, French, and
Italian are spoken in the areas of
the country adjacent to Germany,
France, and Italy respectively.
Romanisch, a romance language,
is spoken in small mountain
valleys in the eastern part of the
country.
Official language: None, although
27 states have declared English
their official language. Two states
are officially bilingual (Louisiana
(English/French) and Hawaii
(English/Hawaiian)
Language Conflicts
There have been many rivalries and difficulties
between the French, who have dominated the
country politically and economically and the Flemish
speakers of Belgium. The Flemish, resenting French
dominance (French was once the only official
language of Belgium) fought for and won regional
autonomy. But for some this has not been enough
and there have been calls for succession.
Quebec has threatened to secede (break away) from
the rest of Canada several times partly in order to
protect its French language tradition from the
dominant English population of the rest of Canada.
Quebec did not secede but has passed laws requiring
the use of French on signs and in daily activities to
protect the province from the powerful influence of
English.
Nigeria is an example of the troubles that arise from
great language diversity (over 500 languages). English
was chosen as the official language because to
choose one of the three main tribal languages over
the others might have had violent consequences. The
capital was moved to a region away from these three
major tribal languages for the same reason.
In contrast with Belgium, Switzerland peacefully
coexists with its multiple languages. The capital,
Bern, is located in the German speaking region and
German is the most widely spoken language. But the
population is almost 100% bilingual (German/French)
and the Swiss have avoided language conflicts by
turning over considerable power to the local
governments.
As a nation of immigrants, newcomers to the United
States have traditionally learned English as part of
becoming American. However, laws intended to
declare English as the official national language have
never passed at the federal (national) level and
Spanish, spoken by 34 million people in the U.S., has
become an increasingly important language
especially in Florida, Texas, and in California, where
50% of the population is projected to speak Spanish
as a first language by 2020. In all, about 55 million
Americans (20% of the population) speak a language
other than English at home.
Language CRQ 4: The History and Future of English
A. Possible answers (you need four, each with and adequate discussion):
1. The Anglo-Saxon invasions of the 5th century provided the English with its Germanic / Indo European
roots. About 90% of the most common vocabulary words in English come from this Germanic base. Various
English dialects can also be traced backed to the regions of England were the various Germanic tribes first
settled.
2. Christian missionaries throughout the Middle Ages brought Latin words into English, and, more
importantly, provided English with the Latin alphabet, in which English is written to this day.
3. The Viking invaders brought some Old Norse words into English. More importantly for the development
of English, their invasion unified Britain and made one dialect (West Saxon) the dominant.
4. The Norman Conquest. The period of Norman (French) control of the British Isles was enormously
important for the development of English. French became the language of the elite and thousands of
Romance based words were added to the English language.
5. Shakespeare's genius added thousands of new words and phrases to English during the Middle English
period. Also during this period the Scientific and Industrial revolution forced the coining of new words in
English to describe the new inventions and discoveries that emerged during this time.
6. Many words were added to English from the far flung corners of the British Empire during the period of
British Imperialism. These words often named new animals, plants, or experiences of the British colonies in
the Americas, Africa, and the Far East.
B. Possible answers:
1. English spread around the world primarily through the British Empire. The widespread distribution of
English speakers around the world today exists due to the relocation diffusion (migration) of English
speaking people of England when they established colonies over the past four hundred years. England first
diffused to North America in the 17th century, to South Asia (especially India) and to the South Pacific
(including Australia and New Zealand) in the eighteenth century, and to South Africa in the late nineteenth
century.
2. More recently English the use of English has continued to spread through hierarchical diffusion from the
hearths of popular culture in the big cities of North America to other big cities around the world. Most
movies, TV programming, films, video games, etc. are produced in English and distributed worldwide. This
spread of popular culture has served to further entrench English as a global lingua franca.
3. The emergence of the internet as an important means of communication and commerce (business) has
further strengthened the dominance of English. Because a majority of content on the internet is in English,
knowledge of English has become essential for internet users around the world.
4. The dominance of English has a snowballing effect. Students all of the world learn English as a second
language simply because the more dominant English becomes, the more useful it becomes as a second
language for travel, business, science, popular culture, and so on. This process feeds on itself.
5. Languages have always diffused based on political and economic power. The political and military
dominance of the United States as one of two superpowers after WWII also increased the importance and
distribution of the English language as the center of power in the post war period shifted from Europe to
the United States.
C. Possible answers (you need two FOR and two AGAINST):
FOR
AGAINST
Through colonialism, English has become the most
widespread of all languages. It is spoken as an
official language in 57 countries, as a first language
by 350 million people and as a second language by
another billion and growing. About one third of
people live in a country where English is an official
language.
About ninety percent of Americans report that they
speak English fluently. Its place as the dominant if
not official language in the United States is
unchallenged.
Despite the distribution of English, its dominance is
not total in any country since other languages are
still spoken in all of these countries, even in those
where English is the official language. Even in the
US an increasing number of immigrants do not
speak English.
As more people move to cities in developing
nations, they increasingly use English as the lingua
franca among the many languages spoken there.
They see English as necessary for economic
advancement in an increasingly globalized
economy.
The US is the second-largest world market and a
major manufacturer that outsources many jobs.
Those working in the system often learn English.
As nations urbanize, they will grow their own
industries and promote their own cultures and
English will become less important.
The United States has no official language for a
reason. We are a nation of immigrants and have
shown a great tolerance for the culture and
language of immigrants. In addition, non-English
speaking populations, particularly Hispanics, have
much higher birth rates than the English speaking
population.
Population growths around the world are generally
higher in non English speaking areas than they are
in English speaking areas.
With the spread of popular culture, local folk
cultures are less important and English grows with
popular culture.
In many of the world’s transnational corporations,
the leadership of satellite operations is increasingly
drawn from local labor, uses local languages with
workers there, and speaks English only with
headquarters in American or European countries.
Many nations are rejecting popular culture and
globalization and attempting to preserve their own
culture and languages.
The Internet is almost completely in English and as
it spreads more and more people will speak English.
Additional, much of the world’s technology is
written in English and designed for English speakers
English is working its way into other languages and
The dominance of English as the language of the
internet is declining as more and more non-English
speakers go online for the first time and more and
more non English content is created.
More and more countries are following the lead of
other languages become more and more
"anglacized". Examples include: Spanglish,
Franglais, and Denglish (German and English).
In summary, English is the most widely used lingua
franca in tourism, business, advertising, pop
culture, air traffic control, the internet, and science.
No other language challenges its dominance in any
of these areas. Even if local people hold on to their
native languages as a way of preserving their local
culture, they will increasingly turn to English as a
global language of trade and commerce.
the French and are taking steps to protect their
local and national languages from the incursion of
English words and phrases.
Actually English is not the dominant global
language, if one defines language as the means by
which people around the world communicate in
their day to day interactions. Overwhelmingly
people still use their local and national languages
for everyday communication. There is no evidence
that local peoples are willing to abandon their local
language in favor of English.
Two hundred years ago, everyone would have
predicted French would continue to expand as the
global lingua franca. They would have been wrong.
The lesson is that the future of language
distribution is hard to predict because the
economic and political influences on language are
constantly changing.