Micr-22 Final Exam Study Guide, revised SP15
→ Our final exam is comprehensive, so it requires knowledge from the entire semester. This is a guide to the recent material.
→ Be able to define major terms, with explanations appropriate for someone who never took this class.
→ If needed to prepare you to address the items below, consider reviewing the “Check Your Understanding” and Study Questions for
the relevant chapters.
→ Before our exam, be able to describe and explain the following structures and ideas, respectively. Also, be able to place these topics in
the broader context of microbiology. (For example: Why do we care?)
Be able to:
Microbial Genetics (Ch. 8):
1. Describe primary differences between DNA replication,
transcription, and translation in prokaryotes versus
eukaryotes
- bidirectional replication
- simultaneous transcription and translation (why is this
possible?)
2. Explain why regulation of gene expression can be valuable
to a cell.
3. Distinguish between repression and induction of genes.
4. Draw a diagram of a general operon.
5. Describe the functions of each part of an operon.
6. Label and explain what is happening in figures depicting
these operons:
- negative inducible (ex: fig. 8.12, lac operon)
- negative repressible (ex: fig. 8.13, tryptophan enzymes)
- combinations of positive and negative (ex: fig. 8.15, lac
operon)
7. Distinguish among mutation types (base substitution,
missense, nonsense, and frameshift).
8. Describe the mutagenic actions of nitrous acid, nucleoside
analogs, and frameshift mutagens.
9. Describe the mutagenic actions of X-rays, gamma rays, and
UV light.
10. Describe how mutagens influence the frequency of
mutation, and compare this frequency to natural mutation
rates (see p.228).
11. Produce a diagram to explain how the Ames reverse gene
mutation test works.
12. Distinguish between vertical and horizontal gene transfer.
13. Explain what happened in Griffith's experiment on two
strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae (see fig. 8.25).
14. Explain the differences among transformation, conjugation,
and transduction, being sure to use these terms: “naked”
DNA, sex pili, plasmid, phage.
15. Recognize the implications of the R factor plasmid for
bacterial resistance to antibiotics and mercury (see fig.
8.30).
16. Describe the actions of transposons and their role in
evolution.
Biotechnology (Ch. 9):
17. label fig. 9.1 with the general parts, processes, and uses of
recombinant DNA (rDNA).
18. describe the actions of restriction enzymes.
19. interpret table 9.1.
20. describe four characteristics of useful cloning vectors.
21. explain the processes and uses of transformation,
electroporation, protoplast fusion, gene guns, and
microinjection.
22. describe how blue-white screening works (see fig. 9.11).
23. discuss specific applications of rDNA:
- therapeutic: (ex: insulin, subunit vaccines, DNA vaccines,
human blood from pigs, spider silk from sheep, gene
therapy, gene silencing).
- genome project.
- scientific investigation: bioinformatics, genetic testing,
forensics.
- agricultural: plant breeding, recombinant plants (Bt,
Roundup Ready).
24. discuss safety and ethics issues of rDNA technology.
Mechanisms of Pathogenicity (Ch. 15):
25. describe the various pathways microorganisms can take to
enter a host (mucous membranes, skin, parenteral route).
26. distinguish between ID50, LD50, and explain why we use
these terms rather than ID100 or LD100.
27. describe various methods bacteria use to evade host
defenses (capsules, cell wall variants, enzymes, antigenic
variation, cytoskeleton).
28. identify and distinguish among enzymes frequently used in
penetration of host defenses (coagulases, kinases,
hyaluronidase, collagenase, IgA proteases).
29. describe how bacteria damage host cells (using host's
nutrients, direct damage, producing toxins).
30. differentiate between exotoxins and endotoxins.
31. describe how viruses evade defenses.
32. describe how viruses cause cytopathic effects.
33. describe general pathogenic properties these groups: fungi,
protozoa, helminths, and algae.
Innate Immunity (Ch. 16):
34. identify the elements and functions of the first line of
defense (including physical, chemical, and normal
microbiota).
35. identify major parts of the second line of defense.
36. recognize names and functions of formed elements in blood
(see table 16.1).
37. describe the general purpose and layout of the lymphatic
system (see fig. 16.5).
38. describe the steps of phagocytosis (i.e., fig. 16.7).
39. describe how phagocytosis can be evaded.
40. describe the symptoms and purposes of inflammation and
fever.
41. explain the roles of antimicrobial substances: complement
system, interferons, iron-binding proteins, and
antimicrobial peptides. (What are they? How do they
work?)
42. describe general outcomes of complement activation (see
fig. 16.9).
Adaptive Immunity (Ch. 17):
43. distinguish between innate and adaptive immunity.
44. distinguish between humoral and cellular immunity.
45. describe the roles and actions of antigens, epitopes, and
antibodies.
46. identify the variable and constant regions of antibodies.
47. discuss the implications of information from table 17.1:
- how might their structures influence the effects of
different classes of antibodies? (Note: not much is implied
for IgA, IgD, or IgE)
- half-life differences
- placental transfer
48. explain the function of B cells.
49. explain how B cells are activated (i.e., be able to reproduce
fig. 17.4).
50. describe the process and purpose of “clonal selection” (see
fig. 17.5).
51. recognize the value of T-independent antigens.
52. outline and describe five possible results of antigenantibody binding (see fig. 17.7).
- i.e.: agglutination, opsonization, neutralization, activation
of complement, and ADCC.
- when are each of these useful?
53. explain why humoral antibodies are not useful against
intracellular pathogens, requiring instead the use of T cells.
54. explain the function of microfold (M) cells (these are above
Peyer’s patches).
55. describe the roles of helper, cytotoxic, and regulatory T
cells.
56. describe the process of apoptosis, and why this is a useful
process.
57. differentiate among three types of antigen-presenting cells:
B cells, dendritic cells, and activated macrophages
58. describe the various functions of different groups of
cytokines (interleukins, chemokines, interferons, tumor
necrosis factors, and hematopoietic cytokines).
59. contrast primary and secondary immune responses (see fig.
17.17).
60. distinguish among adaptive immunity types: active vs.
passive, and natural vs. artificial, with examples of each
combination (see fig. 17.18).
Applications of Immunology (Ch. 18):
61. describe the process of variolation, and explain why this
might produce immunity.
62. read a vaccination schedule (e.g., table 18.3).
63. for the following types of vaccines, explain (1) what they
are, (2) how they are produced, and (3) any specific benefits
of their use:
- live attenuated vaccines
- inactivated killed vaccines
- subunit vaccines
- conjugated vaccines
- nucleic acid (DNA) vaccines
64. describe the major challenges in the development of new
vaccines (little money in it, growth environment,
combinations, antigenic variation).
65. explain why adjuvants are useful.
66. explain how people have sometimes been misled and thus
scared of vaccines (e.g., recalled MMR paper).
67. contrast the general safety risks of getting vaccinated with
the risks of remaining unvaccinated.
68. describe the methods used to produce pure sources of
antibodies (i.e., monoclonal antibodies), and their naming:
- chimeric monoclonal antibodies
- humanized antibodies
- fully human antibodies
69. explain why detection of a precipitation reaction between
antigens and antibodies depends on an ideal balance
between antigens and antibodies.
70. contrast direct and indirect agglutination tests.
71. explain why agglutination reactions are sometimes used
instead of precipitation reactions.
72. explain how fluorescent-antibody techniques work.
73. explain how the direct and indirect ELISA work.
Immune Disorders (Ch. 19):
74. contrast type I and type II reactions, in terms of their
speed, length, characteristics, and examples (see table 19.1).
75. explain what the term “anaphylactic” means.
76. distinguish between systemic type I (systemic anaphylactic)
and localized type I (localized anaphylactic) reactions.
77. draw out a sequence of events for a general anaphylactic
reaction, beginning with introduction of antigen, and
ending with symptoms.
78. describe the symptoms of systemic anaphylaxis.
79. describe the symptoms of localized anaphylaxis, depending
on location of antigen (upper, lower respiratory tract,
gastrointestinal upset.
80. explain how desensitization to an antigen works.
81. explain why the ABO blood typing system helps us avoid
transfusion reactions.
82. explain why transfusion reactions could occur if the ABO
blood typing system is ignored.
83. explain how and why “hemolytic disease of the newborn”
can develop, and how it can be prevented.
84. explain how cancers and the immune system are
interrelated.
85. describe how immunotherapy may be useful to treat
cancers.
86. connect the spread of HIV to themes from our discussion of
emerging infectious diseases.
87. explain how HIV infects a T cell, with the level of detail
shown in fig. 19.13.
88. interpret figure 19.16, given a graph without labels (i.e.,
label the three phases across the top, explain how the T cell
count and HIV count are connected, and explain why
symptoms take so long to appear).
89. identify primary means of transmitting HIV.
90. describe major methods of preventing HIV transmission,
their benefits, and obstacles (i.e., HIV vaccines and
chemotherapy).
(Yes, we're ignoring reaction types III and IV, autoimmune
diseases, reactions related to the HLA complex, and
immunodeficiencies. Feel free to read it for fun!
Bioterrorism:
91. Be able to identify the characteristics of pathogens that
make them likely to be used in biological weapons.
92. Be able to name several likely pathogens to be used in
biological weapons.
93. Understand why medical professionals will be among the
most important people to recognizing a biological weapon
attack.
Pathogens (various references):
Be familiar with the organisms below:
- their biology (cell shape and arrangement, unusual cell
structures, Gram reaction, common method of
identification)
- the diseases with which they are associated (major names)
- any interesting history that might help you remember them
(optional memory aid)
The point is to be literate in microbiology, and literacy includes
awareness of these entities.
-
Proteus mirabilis
Staphylococcus epidermidis
Citrobacter koseri
Streptococcus pneumoniae
Morganella morganii
Staphylococcus haemolyticus