Вопрос 24
The OE vowel
The development of vowels in Early OE consisted of the
modification of separate vowels, and also of the modification of
entire sets of vowels. The change begins with growing variation in
pronunciation, which manifests itself in the appearance of
numerous allophones: after the stage of increased variation, some
allophones prevail over the others and a replacement takes place. It
may result in the splitting of phonemes and their numerical growth,
which fills in the “empty boxes” of the system or introduces new
distinctive features. It may also lead to the merging of old
phonemes, as their new prevailing allophones can fall together.
The vocalic system in OE included 2 subsystems: monophthongs,
diphthongs. All vowels existed in the pairs: ææдолг, a ā, e ē, o ō,
i ī , u ū, y y долг (У готтов не было ā, ææдолг, ō) В виде пар
существовали и дифтонги: ea eaдолг, eo eoдолг, ie ieдолг. The
major factor in OE was a category of quantity vowels. It means,
that all OE vowels, including diphthongs, could be both long and
short. It it the system of vowels on the beginning of OE. The new
system came with Anglo-Saxon tribes (жоанная): In most cases
these new processes represent result of influence of the next
sounds and called the COMBINATORY CHANGES.
1.Influence of the next consonant–Breaking (diph thongization)
Short vowel were diphthong-sed before consonant. The short
vowels æ и е, a. Short vowels æ and е were diph-nized: æ turn
into ea before combinations r + согл, l + согл, h + согл, and
before h on the end of a word: wearþ,healp,eahta,seah e.g.: [e] >
[eo] in OE deorc, NE dark.
e turn into eo before combinations r + согл, l + velar
concordant c and h, before h on the end of a word:
weorþan,meolcan,feoh
The essence of breaking consists that front vowel assimilates with
the subsequent firm consonants by development of a sound of
glide, which forms a diphthong. The glide, together with the
original monophthong formed a diphthong.
Palatalization
After the palatal consonants [k’], [sk’] and [j] short and long [e]
and [æ] turned into diphthongs with a more front close vowel as
their first element, e.g. OE scæmu > sceamu (NE shame). In the
resulting diphthong the initial [i] or [e] must have been unstressed
but later the stress shifted to the first element, which turned into
the nucleus of the diphthong, to conform with the structure of OE
diphthongs. This process is known as “diphthongisation after
palatal consonants”. It observes in Wessex dialect. æ - ea sceal ,
cearu. æдолг - ea долг scēāwian, зēāfon. a - ea scacan- sceacan.
o - eo sceort, ceort. e - ie scield, з iefan
Contraction –(стяжение) The vowels contracted into 1 when
they were separated by h and H disappeared. e+a=eo (sehan –
seon. i+a=eo (tihan- teon). a+a=ea (slehan – slean). o+a=o долг
(fohan – fon)
Mutation -перегласовка
Mutation is the change of one vowel to another through the
influence of a vowel in the succeeding syllable. 2 types: i-Umlaut
mutation (palatal mutation) and Back mutation (guttural)гортанный.
1) i-Umlaut - under its influence vowel moves ahead or narrowed.
æ – e sætjan – settan, a-e talu – tellan, o-e ofost – efstan, ō –ē
dōm – dēman, u - y fullian - fyllan , u - y cuþ- cŷþþan.
Changes in diphthongs: ea – ie, ea долг – ie долг, eo – ie, eo долг
– ie долг.
Back mutation – U-Umlaut it is caused by back vowels (a, o, u).
In Wessex dialect take place only before consonants r, l, p, f, m. aea saru – searu, i- io hira – hioru, e-eo herot – heorot. The words
which begin with wi – mutation occurred without dependence from
the subsequent concordant: widu – wiodu
U-umlaut was optiona(facultative) and i-umlaut was the main
(системообразующ).
Development of monophthongs
The PG short [a] and the long [a:], which had arisen in West and
North Germanic, underwent similar alterations in Early OE: they
were fronted, and in the process of fronting, they split into several
sounds. The principal regular direction of the change – [a] > [æ]
and [a:] > [æ:] – is often referred to as the fronting or palatalisation
of [a, a:]. The other directions can be interpreted as positional
deviations or restrictions to this trend: short [a] could change to [o]
or [ā] and long [a:] became [o:] before a nasal; the preservation of
the short [a] was caused by a back vowel in the next syllable.
Development of diphthongs
The PG diphthongs – [ei, ai, iu, eu, au] – underwent regular
independent changes in Early OE; they took place in all phonetic
conditions irrespective of environment. The diphthongs with the iglide were monophthongised into [i:] and [a:], respectively; the
diphthongs in –u were reflected as long diphthongs [io:], [eo:] and
[ea:].
Вопрос 25
The OE consonant
The consonants were subdivided:
1. On a way/mode of an articulation: constrictives -смычные
and fricatives-щелевые and Sonants
2By place of an articulation: labial-губной, guttural(velar)
заднеяз-е, dental consonants.
3. On a lenght all consonants shared:
short (simple) t and long (geminate -геминаты) tt- удвоенные.
Consctictives– shared as voiced –звонкие(b,d,g) и voiceless
(p,t,k). Смычные: простые: /t/ - /d/; /p/- /b/; /k/ - /g/; /k’/- /g’/
геминаты: /t:/ - /d:/; /p:/ - /b:/; /k:/ - /g:/; /k’:/ - /g’:/
Fricatives voiced (v, th, z) fīf /f/– ofer /v/ , sæt, hus /s/ – risan /z/,
þeof, wearþ /Ø/ - weorþan /ð/. voiceless [f, Ө, x, s] and voiced [v,
ð, γ, z]. Заднеязычные щелевые –h / H – X’/ - habban, nitht.
/w/ /j/ /r/ /l/ /m/ / nhave paired geminate. Исторически геминаты
употреблялись только интервокально.
Changes
The PG voiced [ð] (due to Verner’s Law) was always hardened to
[d] in OE and other WG languages, e.g. Icel, gōðr and OE зōd.
The two other fricatives, [v] and [γ] were hardened to [b] and [g]
initially and after nasals, otherwise they remained fricatives. PG
[z] underwent a phonetic modification through the stage of [з] into
[r] and thus became a sonorant, which ultimately merged with the
older IE [r]. This process is termed rhotacism. После
фонологизации озвончения по закону Вернера некоторые из
озвончившихся фонем изменились качественно. Звонкий
дентальный слился со звонким смычным,— отсюда возникла
засвидетельствованная в древнеанглийском форма fæder.
Индоевропейская фонема /s/ при озвончении по закону
Вернера превратилась в */z/, фонему, очень недолго
просуществовавшую и перешедшую затем в /r/. Этот
переход /s/ через */z/ в /г/ называется ротацизмом.
Лабиовелярный /hw/ по закону Вернера изменяется в /w/,
но иногда в англских диалектах встречается /з/: sawon,
sæзon 'увидели'. Закон этот был открыт датским ученым
Карлом Вернером. Графически эту позицию можно
изобразить так: — щелевой-`- или: -`-согл.— щелевой.
Озвончение НЕ происходило в позиции: -`- щелевой—.
Gemination (lengthening of conson) before j The process along
with i-mutation, after a short sylible.
Assimilation – k,g +dental into h,t. (pyncan-puhte). P,b+dent. Into
f,t. (liban-lifte). Dental+dent into ss,st. (vittan-visse). F,m into mm
(wifman(n) –wiman(n). m is dropped before h,f,s,p(т.е.th) –fimffif. K,g dropped before dental. Macian-made.
Palatalisation – k,g’,sk,into sounds closed to affricares dz..ch,sh.
Sk into sh.Front vowel was a resalt of mutation. (cuni-cynkin.)родственник, (cuni-cin-chin)подбородок.
Вопрос 10
The reform of OE orthography in ME
The most conspicuous feature of Late ME texts in comparison with
OE texts is the difference in spelling. The written forms of the
words in Late ME texts resemble their modern forms, though the
pronunciation of the words was different. In the course of ME
many new devices were introduced into the system of spelling;
some of them reflected the sound changes which had been
completed or were still in progress in ME; others were graphic
replacements of OE letters by new letters and digraphs.
In ME the runic letters passed out of use. Thorn – þ – and the
crossed d – đ, ð – were replaced by the digraph th, which retained
the same sound value: [Ө] and [ð]; the rune “wynn” was displaced
by “double u” – w – ; the ligatures æ and œ fell into disuse. After
the period of Anglo-Norman dominance (11th–13th c.) English
regained its prestige as the language of writing. Though for a long
time writing was in the hands of those who had a good knowledge
of French. Therefore many innovations in ME spelling reveal an
influence of the French scribal tradition. The digraphs ou, ie, and
ch which occurred in many French borrowings and were regularly
used in Anglo-Norman texts were adopted as new ways of
indicating the sounds [u:], [e:], and [t∫]. other alterations in spelling
cannot be traced directly to French influence though they testify to
a similar tendency: a wider use of digraphs. In addition to ch, ou,
ie, and th Late ME notaries introduced sh (also ssh and sch) to
indicate the new sibilant [∫], e.g. ME ship (from OE scip), dg to
indicate [dз] alongside j and g; the digraph wh replaced the OE
sequence of letters hw as in OE hwæt, ME what [hwat]. Long
sounds were shown by double letters, e.g. ME book [bo:k], though
long [e:] could be indicated by ie and ee, and also by e. Some
replacements were probably made to avoid confusion of
resembling letters: thus o was employed not only for [o] but also to
indicate short [u] alongside the letter u; it happened when u stood
close to n, m, or v, e.g. OE lufu became ME love [luvə]. The letter
y came to be used as an equivalent of i and was evidently preferred
when i could be confused with the surrounding letters m, n and
others. Sometimes, y, as well w, were put at the end of a word, so
as to finish the word with a curve, e.g. ME very [veri], my [mi:]; w
was interchangeable with u in the digraphs ou, au, e.g. ME doun,
down [du:n], and was often preferred finally, e.g. ME how [hu:],
now [nu:]. For letters indicating two sounds the rules of reading are
as follows. G and с stand for [dз] and [s] before front vowels and
for [g] and [k] before back vowels respectively. Y stands for [j] at
the beginning of words, otherwise, it is an equivalent of the letter i,
e.g. ME yet [jet], knyght [knix’t]. The letters th and s indicate
voiced sounds between vowels, and voiceless sounds – initially,
finally and next to other voiceless consonants, e.g. ME worthy
[wurði]. To determine the sound value of o one can look up the
origin of the sound in OE or the pronunciation of the word in NE:
the sound [u] did not change in the transition from OE to ME (the
OE for some was sum); in NE it changed to [Λ]. It follows that the
letter o stood for [u] in those ME words which contain [Λ] today,
otherwise it indicates [o].
Вопрос 7
ME dialects. Earliest records.
The basic OE dialects continued to function in the ME period, and
their territorial borders, in general, were kept. The ME dialects are
called on the basis of their geographical position. Northumbrian
now refers to northern (Northern), Mercian- central (Midland) is
divided into West Midland and East Midland; уэссекский (Southern, South-Western); only Kentish dialect has kept the name,
because Kent continued to exist, but the dialect sometimes called
(South-Eastern.) The Sou thzrh group included the Kentish and the
South-Western dialects. The Southwestern group was a
continuation of the OE Saxon dialects, - not only West Saxon, but
also East Saxon. Among the dialects of this group we may mention
the Gloucester dialect and the London dialect. In the course of
Early ME the area of the English language
in the British Isles grew. In the late 12th c. the English made their
first attempts to conquer Ireland. Theinvaders settled among the
Irish and were soon assimilated, a large proportion of the invaders
being Welshmen. The English language was used there alongside
Celtic languages —Irish and Welsh — and was influenced by
Celtic.For a long time after the Norman Conquest there were two
foreign written languages in England: Latin and French.
Earliest records
West Midland Dialect. The continue of «Anglo-Saxson hronicles»
- from the year 1122 to the year 1154, known as the «The
Peterborough Chronicle». «Ormulum», начало 13 в. a poem
composed by the monk Orm in about 1200 in the North-East
Midland dialect (Lincolnshire). It consists of unrhymed metrical
paraphrases
of the Gospels. The text abounds in Scandinavianisms and lacks
French borrowings.
Also were wrote «King Horn» и «Havelok the Dane» («Хавелок
Датский») -2 verse novel 13в. Роберт Маннинг из Бурна «The
Story of England»-verse chronicle.
East-Midland dialect. «Sir Gawayne and the Green Knight»
(«Сэр Гавейн и Зеленый рыцарь») - knight's novel, конец 14 в.;
the 2-nd
knight's novel «William of Palerne» («Уильям
Палернский», 14 в.). Jne of the main satirical poem «The Vision
of William Concerning Piers, the Plowman» («Видение Петра
Пахаря») against corruption in church, and at court. The author is
Уильям Лэнгленд.Southern dialect. Поэма Лайамона «Brut»
(начало 13 в) with a touch of Midlest dialect. «Ancren Riwle» (начало 13 в.). Роберт Глостерский «Chronicle» - стихотворная
хроника (конец 13 в.), в начале излагающая как реальную
историю кельтские легенды (среди них легенду о короле
Лире), а дальше - об ист.событиях. Kentish dialect. Дан Мичел
«The Ayenbite of Inwit» («Угрызения совести»), XIV в., перевод
с французского. Уильям Шорэмский -стихотворения (начало
XIV в.).Southern dialect. «Cursor Mundi» («Бегущий по свету»),
13 в.- рифмованная поэма, about bible legend. «The Pricke of
Conscience» («Угрызения совести») первая половина 14 в. a
translation attributed to Richard Rolle of Hampole. Among the
Early ME texts in the South-Western dialects should mention THE
LONDON PROCLAMATION of the year 1258.
Вопрос 14
OE syntax
The syntactic structure of OE was determined by two major
conditions: the nature of OE morphology and the relations between
the spoken and the written forms of the language. OE was largely a
synthetic language; it possessed a system of grammatical forms
which could indicate the connection between words. It was
primarily a spoken language, consequently, the syntax of the
sentence was relatively simple.
The Phrase. Noun, Adjective and Verb Patterns
The syntactic structure of a language can be described at the level
of the phrase and at the level of the sentence. In OE texts we find a
variety of word phrases. OE noun patterns, adjective and verb
patterns had certain specific features which are important to note in
view of their later changes. A noun pattern consisted of a noun as
the head word and pronouns, adjectives, numerals and other nouns
as determiners and attributes. Most noun modifiers agreed with the
noun in gender, number and case, e.g. on þǽm ōþrum þrīm daзum
‘in those other three days’ – Dat. pl Masc.
An adjective pattern could include adverbs, nouns or pronouns in
one of the oblique cases(косвенный) with or without prepositions,
and infinitives, e.g. him wæs manna þearf ‘he was in need of man’.
Verb patterns included a great variety of dependant components:
nouns and pronouns in oblique cases with or without prepositions,
adverbs, infinitives and participles, e.g. brinз þā þīnз ‘bring those
things’. Word orderThe order of words in the OE sentence was
relatively free. The position of words in the sentence was often
determined by logical and stylistic factors rather than by
grammatical constraints. Nevertheless the freedom of word order
and its seeming independence of grammar should not be
overestimated(возвышен). The order of words could depend on
the communicative type of the sentence – question versus
statement, on the type of clause, on the presence and place of some
secondary parts of the sentence. A peculiar type of word order is
found in many subordinate and in some coordinate clauses: the
clause begins with the subject following the connective, and ends
with the predicate or its finite part, all the secondary parts being
enclosed between them. It also should be noted that objects were
often placed before the predicate or between two parts of the
predicate.
Those were the main tendencies in OE word order.
Sentens
Simple sent. Composite(compound, complex). Sentense sometimes
have opposition(приложение). Members of the dentense were the
same + opposition.
Sound of donation inner flexion. Mutation was used to define
number and gender of noun. Primary compound (both parts in
Nomcase) +adj+noun. Secondary comp.noun (the 2-nd part in Gen
Case.)=noun+noun, verb+noun
Stem – part of the word comparasing(connected) root and stem.
3 types of word order: direct(subj+pred+obj) and inversion:begins
with an adverbal modifier/any other subdivision part.
Syntactic sent –when any secondary member is between the subj
and predicate.
Impersonal sent. Containes: Impersonal verbs(D.Case+1P.Sg) e.g:
him puhte.
Compound sent – wre connected with conjunction(and, un, ac(but).
Complex - pat, pe, pone.
Вопрос 26
Noun in OE
The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and case.
Also, nouns distinguished three genders, but gender was not a
grammatical category; it was merely a classifying feature
accounting for the division of nouns into morphological classes.
The category of number consisted of two members: singular and
plural There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, and instrumental.The nominative case indicated the
subject of the sentence. It was also used for direct address. The
accusative indicated the direct object of the sentence. It was never
distinguished in the plural, or in a neuter noun.The genitive case
indicated possession. It also indicated partitive nouns. The
meanings of the Gen. case were very complex and can only be
grouped under the headings “Subjective” and “Objective” Gen.
Subjective Gen. is associated with the possessive meaning and the
meaning of origin. Objective Gen. is associated with what is
termed “partitive meaning” .The dative case indicated the indirect
object of the sentence. was the chief case used with prepositions,
e.g. on morзenne ‘in the morning’The instrumental case indicated
an instrument used to achieve something. During the Old English
period, the instrumental was falling out of use, having largely
merged with the dative. Only pronouns and strong adjectives
retained separate forms for the instrumental.
Morphological classification of nouns. Declensions Historically,
the OE system of declensions was based on a number of
distinctions: the stem-suffix, the gender of nouns, the phonetic
structure of the word, phonetic changes in the final syllables.
Stem-suffixes could consist of vowels (vocalic stems, e.g. a-stems,
i- stems), of consonants (consonantal stems, e.g. n-stems), of sound
sequences, e.g. -ja-stems, -nd-stems. Some groups of nouns had no
stem-forming suffix or had a “zero-suffix”; they are usually termed
“root-stems” and are grouped together with consonantal stems, as
their roots ended in consonants, e.g. OE man, bōc. OE nouns
distinguished three genders: Masc., Fem. and Neut. Sometimes a
derivational suffix referred a noun to a certain gender and placed it
into a certain semantic group, e.g. abstract nouns built with the
help of the suffix –þu were Fem. – OE lenзþu, ere were Masc. –
OE fiscere.Masculine and neuter words generally share their
endings. Feminine words have their own subset of endings. The
plural does not distinguish between genders. The division into
genders was in a certain way connected with the division into
stems, though there was no direct correspondence between them:
some stems were represented by nouns of one particular gender,
e.g. ō-stems were always Fem., others embraced nouns of two or
three genders. Other reasons accounting for the division into
declensions were structural and phonetic: monosyllabic nouns had
certain peculiarities as compared to polysyllabic; monosyllables
with a long root-syllable differed in some forms from nouns with a
short syllable. The majority of OE nouns belonged to the a-stems,
ō-stems and n-stems.
Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak. Weak
nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are easier
than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their declensional
system. Strong (a,o,i,u –stem). A-stem and its variation ja&wa –
m,n. O-stem – jo&wo –f noun. I-stem – m,f,n. U-stem – m,f. j,w –
appeare before inflexion. Weak decl – n –m,f,n. es –n. room-stem
(Root-stemm formed some cases not by an inflexional ending, but
by the chance of the root vowel due to mutation)-no form suffixes.
Вопрос 27
Adjectives in OE
The adjective in OE could change for number, gender and case.
Those were dependent grammatical categories or forms of
agreement of the adjective with the noun it modified or with the
subject of the sentence – if the adjective was a predicative. Like
nouns, adjectives had three genders and two numbers. The
category of case in adjectives differed from that of nouns: in
addition to the four cases of nouns they had one more case, Instr. It
was used when the adjective served as an attribute to a noun in the
Dat. case expressing an instrumental meaning.
Adjectives can be declined either strong/weak.
Historically adjective is a younger class of words as compared to
noun & it has borrowed many inflections from nouns & pronouns.
Declensions (unlike nouns adjectives could be declined both
ways):1. strong A-sterm, O-stemi, when adjective was used
attributeliy without any determined (articles, demonstrative &
possesive pronouns) when used predicatively 2. weak N-sterm,
when an adjective was preceded by demonstrative pronoun or
genitive case. Some adjectives were declined always strong: call, ,
oper; others always weak: ilca (=some).
The endings of adjectives showed agreement between noun &.
adjective. There were a lot of anonymous forms -> inflections
were lost & adjective became an unchangeable part of speech.
Gender- first cathegory to disappear (1 r1 century) Cases:
1.instrumental ease fell together with dative (end ofOE)
2. all other cases disappeared by the end of 13th century
The difference between the strong and weak declension of
adjectives was not only formal but also semantic. The choice of the
declension was determined by a number of factors: the syntactical
function of the adjective, the degree of comparison and the
presence of noun determiners. The adjective had a strong form
when used predicatively and when used attributively without any
determiners. The weak form was employed when the adjective was
preceded by a demonstrative pronoun or the Gen. case of personal
pronouns.
Degrees of comparison Most OE adjectives distinguished
between three degrees of comparison: positive, comparative and
superlative. The regular means used to form the comparative and
the superlative from the positive were the suffixes –ra and –est/ost. Sometimes suffixation was accompanied by an interchange of
the root-vowel.
Вопрос 29
OE Pronouns
Pronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories:
personal (now I, you), demonstr (this, that), interrogative (who,
which), possesive (my, his), indefinite (one, some), negative
(no+body). And relative particle which are used for connection of
subordinate clauses, and reflexive pron. (mine). As for the other
groups – relative, possessive and reflexive – they were as yet not
fully developed and were not always distinctly separated from the
four main classes.
Personal
In OE, while nouns consistently distinguished between four cases,
personal pronouns began to lose some of their case distinctions: the
forms of the Dat. case of the pronouns of the 1st and 2nd p. were
frequently used instead of the Acc. It is important to note that the
Gen. case of personal pronouns had two main applications: like
other oblique cases of noun-pronouns it could be an object, but far
more frequently it was used as an attribute or a noun determiner,
like a possessive pronoun, e.g. sunu mīn.
They have categories of 3 persons, 3 numbers (у 3лица - 2), 4
cases, in 3 person, в 3 лице ед.ч - 3 рода. 1,2 Person have dual
number, the 3P - gender. 1,2 – it is ancient paradigm, they are
suppletive, 3 – is late, non suppletive. Suppletivity – the expression
of grammatical categories of different roots by means of root
vowel be, es, ves.
Demonstrative pronouns There were two demonstrative pronouns
in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished three genders
in the sg. And had one form for all the genders in the pl. and the
prototype of this. They were declined like adjectives according to a
five-case system: Nom., Gen., Dat., Acc., and Instr. Demonstrative
pronouns were frequently used as noun determiners and through
agreement with the noun indicated its number, gender and case
2 types: the 1st with the demonstrative meaning considerably
weakened. And have 5-th case –Instrumental (творительный). 2nd
– with a clear demonstr.meaning..
Possesive pron. In the basic form coincided with G.Case.Personal
pron. but they were perceived as Nom case.. 1-2 person declined
by strong declinations (ср.рус "my", "your"), and it is no 3 person
Interogative pron – hwā, Masc. and Fem., and hwæt, Neut., - had
a four-case paradigm (NE who, what). The Instr. case of hwæt was
used as a separate interrogative word hwў (NE why). Some
interrogative pronouns were used as adjective pronouns, e.g. hwelc
Indefinite pron – were a numerous class embracing several simple
pronouns and a large number of compounds: ān and its derivative
ǽniз (NE one, any); nān, made up of ān and the negative particle
ne (NE none); nānþinз, made up of the preceding and the noun
þinз (NE nothing).
Negative pron - другое слово+отр.частица ne дали
no+thing=nothing. 1,2 – склоняются как “никакой”. 3 – как сущ
либо ж.р., либо ср.р – «ничто».
Вопрос 28
OE verb
Grammatical categories - The verb-predicate agreed with the
subject of the sentence in two grammatical categories: number and
person. Its specifically verbal categories were mood and tense.
Finite forms regularly distinguished between two numbers: sg and
pl. The category of Person was made up of three forms: th 1st, the
2nd and the 3rd. The category of Mood was constituted by the
Indicative, Imperative and Subjunctive. The category of Tense in
OE consisted of two categorical forms, Present and Past. The use
of Subj. forms conveyed a very general meaning of unreality or
supposition. In addition to its use in conditional sentences and
other volitional, conjectural and hypothetical contexts Subj. was
common in other types of construction: in clauses of time, clauses
of result and in clauses presenting reported speech. The meanings
of the tense forms were also very general, as compared with later
ages and with present-day English. The forms of the Present tense
were used to indicate present and future actions. The Past tense
was used in a most general sense to indicate various events in the
past. In addition to Mood and Tense we must mention Aspect and
Voice. In OE the category of aspect was expressed by the regular
contrast of verbs with and without the prefix зe-; verbs with the
prefix had a perfective meaning while the same verbs without the
prefix indicated a non-completed action, e.g. feohtan – зefeohtan
‘fight’ – ‘gain by fighting’. it has been shown that the prefix зe- in
OE can hardly be regarded as a marker of aspect, it could change
the aspective meaning of the verb by making it perfective, but it
could also change its lexical meaning, e.g. beran – зeberan ‘carry’
– ‘bear a child’. It follows that the prefix зe- should rather be
regarded as an element of word-building, a derivational prefix of
vague general meaning, though its ties with certain shades of
aspective meaning are obvious. It is important to note that in OE
texts there were also other means of expressing aspective
meanings: the Past or Present Participle. The phrases with
Participle I were used to describe a prolonged state or action, the
phrases with Participle II indicated a state resulting from a
previous, completed action. The category of voice in OE is another
debatable issue. The passive meaning was frequently indicated
with the help of Participle II of transitive verbs used as
predicatives with the verbs beōn ‘be’ and weorðan ‘become’.
Grammatical categories of the Verbals
In OE there were two non-finite forms of the verb: the Infinitive
and the Participle. The Infinitive had no verbal grammatical
categories. Being a verbal noun by origin, it had a sort of reduced
case-system: two forms which roughly corresponded to the Nom.
and the Dat. cases of nouns – beran – uninflected Infinitive
(“Nom.” case) tō berenne or tō beranne – inflected Infinitive
(“Dat.” case) Like the Dat. case of nouns the inflected Infinitive
with the preposition tō could be used to indicate the direction or
purpose of an action. The uninflected Infinitive was used in verb
phrases with modal verbs or other verbs of incomplete predication.
The Participle was a kind of verbal adjective which was
characterized not only by nominal but also by certain verbal
features. Participle I (Present Participle) was opposed to Participle
II (Past Participle) through voice and tense distinctions: it was
active and expressed present or simultaneous processes and
qualities, while Participle II expressed states and qualities resulting
from past action and was contrasted to Participle I as passive to
active, if the verb was transitive. Participle II of intransitive verbs
had an active meaning; it indicated a past action and was opposed
to Participle I only through tense. Participles were employed
predicatively and attributively like adjectives and shared their
grammatical categories: they were declined as weak and strong and
agreed with nouns in number, gender and case.
Вопрос 30
OE Strong verbs
The majority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong
verbs and the weak verbs. Besides these two main groups there
were a few verbs which could be put together as “minor” groups.
The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the
means of forming the principal parts, or “stems” of the verb. The
strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding
certain suffixes; in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by
consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they
distinguished two stems in the Past Tense – one for the 1st and 3rd
p. sg Ind. Mood, the other – for the other Past tense forms, Ind. and
Subj. the weak verbs derived their Past tense stem and the stem of
Participle II from the Present tense stem with the help of the dental
suffix -d- or -t-; normally they did not interchange their root vowel,
but in some verbs suffixation was accompanied by a vowel
interchange. Minor groups of verbs differed from the weak and
strong verbs. Some of them combined certain features of the strong
and weak verbs in a peculiar way (“preterite-present” verbs);
others were suppletive or altogether anomalous.
Strong Verbs The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into
seven classes. Classes from 1 to 6 use vowel gradation which goes
back to the IE ablaut-series modified in different phonetic
conditions in accordance with PG and Early OE sound changes.
Class 7 includes reduplicating verbs, which originally built their
past forms by means of repeating the root-morpheme; this doubled
root gave rise to a specific kind of root-vowel interchange. The
principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings
irrespective of class: -an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Past sg
stem, -on in the form of Past pl, -en for Participle II.
Strong vrb indicate tense by a change in the quality of a vowel.
They are original(germ. Europ). Restrictive group of verb. Oe –
over 300Sv. 1 class –i class, a. 2 class-u-classu+root=diphthong,.
Root consonant changed(rotasism). 3,4 class- the gradation was
caused by consonant.(breaking), 6- qualitative-quantities ablaut 7
class –reduplication of the root-morpheme. They use form of
conjugation known as ablaut. And this form of conjugation the
stem of the word change to indicate the tense.
Вопрос 31
OE Weak verbs
W.v. form their Preterit and Participle2 by addition of a dental
suffix (d/t) –love, loved. Weak verbs form the majority of Old
English verbs. There are three major classes of weak verbs in Old
English. The first class displays i-mutation in the root. The verbs
of Class I usually were i-stems, originally contained the element [i/-j] between the root and the endings. The verbs of Class II were
built with the help of the stem-suffix -ō, or -ōj and are known as ōstems. Class III was made up of a few survivals of the PG third and
fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly -ǽj-stems.
Each Wv. is characterized by 3 basic forms: infinitive, Preterit and
a participle 2.
1st class regular verbs are formed either from noun, or from
other verbs. In regular verbs the root vowel in all forms
subjected to mutation under the influence -i in suffix. 1. The
verbs with long root vowels -i disappears irrespective of which
consonant stood before it. dēman-dēmde-dēmed
The 1st class formally with ja in the present and i in the past. Its
root vowel is mutated (anomalous). 3 forms, because Pl&sg
distinguished only the inflection. There are 11 irregular verbs in 1
class. Their irregularity consist that they have suffix only in 1 form
- the infinitive and present tense, and it means, that umlaut was
only in 1-st form, that is the 1st form distinguished from the
second and the third by quality of the root vowel. (sellan, sealed,
seald-to give). Irreg verbs which have a mutated vowel in the
Present tense and no mutation in the Preterit and P2
2rd class –o-class. This o –is preserved by preterit and Participle2.
2nd class has - oja -in the infinitive and –o- in preterit. The vowel
is not mutated.
3rd class contained few verbs: habban-hæfde-hæfd (have), Libbanlifde-lifd (live), Secзan-sæзde/sæde-sæзd/ (say). The dental suffix
is joined immediate to the root. In the present there was –j-, but the
2nd and 3rd pers.Sg show no trace of –j-.
Вопрос 32
OE anomalous verbs
Among the verbs of the minor groups there were several
anomalous verbs with irregular forms. Suppletive v(beon, wesen –
root be, es,wes)is verb which create different grammatical
categories by means of root vowel(be,es,wes). The most important
group of these verbs were the so-called “preterite-presents”.
Originally the Present tense forms of these verbs were Past tense
forms. Later these forms had a present meaning but preserved
many formal features of the Past tense. Most of these verbs had
new Past Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffix. Some
of them also had the forms of the verbals: Participles and
Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite-present verbs. Six of
them have survived in Mod E: OE āз; cunnan; cann; dear(r),
sculan, sceal; maзan, mæз; mōt (NE owe, ought; can; dare; shall;
may; must). Most preterite-presents did not indicate actions, but
expressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb,
an Infinitive which followed the preterite-present. In other words
they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into
modern modal verbs. They have in Present vowel gradation and
in the Past – dental suffix.
OE willan was an irregular verb with the meaning of volition and
desire; it resembled(имело сходство) the preterit-presents in
meaning and function, as it indicated an attitude to an action and
was often followed by an Infinitive. Willan had a Past tense form
wolde, built like sceolde, the Past tense of the preterite-present
sculan, sceal. Eventually willan became a modal verb, like the
surviving preterite-presents, and, together with sculan developed
into an auxiliary (NE shall, will, should, would).
Some verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE
don formed a weak Past tense with a vowel interchange: and a
Participle in -n: don — dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had
a weak Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun like a
strong verb.
Вопрос 33
Changes of vowel in ME
There are qualitative and quantitative changes of vowel
in ME. Quantitative vowel changes - In Later OE and in Early
ME vowel length began to depend on phonetic conditions. The
earliest of positional quantitative changes was the readjustment of
quantity before some consonant clusters: 1) Lengthening - ME - in
9-10 century. Short vowels were lengthened before two consonants
– a sonorant and a plosive. All vowels occurring in this position
became long, e.g. OE wild – ME wild [wi:ld] – NE wild.
Shortening - occurred at long vowels before two consonants. All
vowels in this position became or remained short, e.g. OE cēpte >
ME kepte [΄keptə] – NE kept.
3) Short vowels became long in open syllables, e.g. OE nama >
ME name [na:mə] – NE name. This lengthening
initially affected the more open of the short vowels [e], [a] and [o]
13 cent.
unstressed vocalism: There was a reduction of unaccented
syllables in a final position, and then it is lost. At First there was
weakening, and then loss of a unstressed syllable.
Qualitative vowel changes.
After Norman invasion continued to develop the dialect: Northern
dialect(бывший
Northumbrian),
East-Midland(Mercian),
West_midlend(Mercian),
South-Eastern(Kentish),
SouthWestern(Wesseks).
Short vowel - у краткого -а- - сохранился во всех диалектах. -аили-о- befor nosal: in east-Midland закрепилось(fix) –о- (con), в
остальных закрепилось – а- (can). -æ- (лигатура) – found во
всех диалектах, но сам значок не существовал. Зап-центр,
Кент - -æ turn into –е- (wæs – wes). In the rest - -æ перешел в –
а- (wæs – was). e- во всех диалектах без изменений. о – без
изменений. i – без измененй . u - без изменений. y – в разных
диалектах развивалось по разному: сев, вост-центр –/y/-/i/ и
в последствии знак –y- стал обозначать только этот звук (bisy).
Wентр, юго-зап – letter –u- стала обозначать звук /ü/ (busy).
Кент – /y/ - /e/ (besy). y-i –labialization. Y-e –labial+opening. Yu. The vowels [y] and [y:] existed in OE dialects up to the 10th c.,
when they were replaced by [e], [e:] in Kentish and confused with
[ie] and [ie:] or [i] and [i:] in WS. In Early ME the dialectal
differences grew. In some areas OE [y], [y:] developed into [e],
[e:], in others they changed to [i], [i:]; in the South-West and in the
West Midlands the two vowels were for some time preserved as
[y], [y:], but later were moved backward and merged with [u], [u:]
Long vowels – This was and early instance of the growing
tendency of all long monophthongs to become closer, so [a:]
became [o:] in all the dialects except the Northern group (hām –
hōm, stān – stōn)
-ō- иногда depicts as digraph –оа-.
Долгая æ(была только в Уэссекском диалекте) преходит в –ēоткрытую. (изображалась диграфом –еа-). OE slæpan – ME
slēpan
В других диалектах –æ- (являлась
результатом умлаута) перещла в –ē- закрытое. ( изображалась
диграфом –ее-). ē – ēзакр. ō- ōзакр., ū – без изменений, ī- без
изменений.
OE diphthongs in ME were monophtongonized. ea – a (healfhalf). eo: Сначала ео прешло в гласный ö(который изображался
как ео и просуществовал а зап-центр и юго-зап диалектах до
14в.) В остальных диалектах с 12 в. ö пререшел в –е-) heorteherte. Долгий ea преходит в ē откр. hleapan – lepen. Долгий eo –
ē закр. (изображался как –ее) seon – sen.
One of the mosl important sound change:, of the Early ME period
was the loss of OE diphthongs and the growth of new diphthongs,
with new qualitative and quantitative changes. Long and short:
[ea:], [eo:], [ie:] and [ea], [eo], [ie]. Towards the end of the OE
period some of the diphthongs merged with monophthongs: all
diphthongs were monophthongised before [xt], [x’t] and after
[sk’]; the diphthongs [ie:], [ie] in Late WS fused with [y:], [y] or
[i:], [i]. In Early ME the remaining diphthongs were also
contracted to monophthongs: the long [ea:] coalesced (united) with
the reflex of OE [ǽ:] – ME [ε:]; the short [ea] ceased to be
distinguished from OE [æ] and became [a] in ME; the diphthongs
[eo:], [eo] – as well as their dialectal variants [io:], [io] – fell
together with the monophthongs [e:], [e], [i:], [i]. As a result of
these changes the vowel system lost two sets of diphthongs, long
and short. In the meantime anew set of diphthongs developed from
some sequences of vowels and consonants due to the vocalization
of OE [j] and [γ], that is to their change into vowels. In Early ME
the sounds [j] and [γ] between and after vowels changed into [i]
and [u] and formed diphthongs together with the preceding vowels,
e.g. OE dæз > ME day [dai]. These changes gave rise to two sets
of diphthongs: with i-glides and u-glides. The same types of
diphthongs appeared also from other sources: the glide -u
developed from OE [w] as in OE snāw, which became ME snow
[snou], and before [x] and [l] as in Late ME smaul and taughte.
Вопрос 43
The great vowel Shift
Include ME long vowels which were monophtongonized.
General case:
i: > ai /ri:den/ > /raid/ ride, ė: > i: /sle:pen/ > /sli:p/ sleep, ę: > e:
> i: /mę:l / > /me:l/ > /mi:l/ meal, a: > ae: > ei /na:m/ > /neim/,
ò: (о-долгое открытое) > ou /ro:d/ > /roud/, ǒ: (о-долгое
закрытое) > u: /mo:n/ > /mu:n/, u: > au /hu:s/ > /haus/.
There is a contraction(сужение) and push out (вытеснение) of
vowels i: and u:, which became diphthongs, e: and o: have taken
their place.
Spelling (Orthography): - “ee”: - “ea”, ò: - “ou”: - “oa” (See/sea;
meet/meat - the spelling explaince a condition of16 century, and
the end of a phase of merge(слияние):it: is 17 century.).
Great, steak, break -: ę: turn into ei. The basic result of this shift is
reduction of number of vowel phonemes due to reduction of
number of long vowels.
i:-------u:, ė:-----ò:, ę:---ǒ:, a:.
The rise of the Future forms
1. Analytical Future Tense forms developed from OE verbs
Sculan/willan"+inf.
2. 13-14 cent. — Future Tense forms became very common
"willan/scullan were completely interchangeable.(взаимозамен-й)
3.17lb cent. John Wales established rule - 'shall" – first person,
will" - 2/3 person
4.present day tendency “will” is used with
ail(нездоровый) persons
The rise of the Continuous Forms OE "beon" +PI - denoted a
quality of a lasting(продолж-й) state of the subject. ME in ME this
form fell into disuse. NE in the NE there were two forms to show
continuous aspect (be+PI/ be +preposition "on"). In the 18 cent.
Cont. forms were well established(принята). 19th cent - Cont.
forms appear in Passive*, before this time such forms were
considered clumsy and a grammatical.
The Great Vowd Shift {14-18 cc). 1 theory - 15-17 century, 2-nd 16-18 century, in 18 century - rhymes and орфоэпические texts.
Historian G.S.Uajld at dating started with an illiterate writing.
Bleynd (blind), credyll (cradle) in XV century. On the basis of
some similar spelling it dates the beginning of the shift of vowels
to 14 century – the beginning of. 15 century, and the end of merge
/ė:/ и /ę:/ с /i:/ from ME. /e:/ - концом XVI в.
Some theories explains ВСГ 1.push-chain. Все началось с e: и o: . Они стали «push out»
narrow.
2.drag-chain Узкие ушли в дифтонги и потянули(drag) за собой
монофтонги.
But: Both theory shows that: 1. In this chain it became tight
(тесно). 2. At first the narrow monophtongs have gone (ушли) and
more wide have taken their place.
ME
NE
[i:] – [ai]
Time[i]-time[ai]
The rise of the do-forms1. do-forms (do-periphrasis) appeared in
Past
and
Present
in
Indicative
Mood.
2. do-forms were used in negative, affirmative(положит-й) and
interrogative scents and freely interchanged with simple forms without do (16-17 cent) (ex. Did you hear this/ Heard you this?
don't know/ I know not; I do like ice cream/ I like ice-cream)
3. 17 cent, do-forms only in negative and interrogative sents.
[e:]-[i:]
-
Kepen [e]-keep[i:]
[a:]-[ei]
-
Maken[a:] – make [ei]
[o:]-[ou]
-
Stohe
[o:]-[u]
-
Moon
[u:]-[au]
-
Mous – mouse
[au]-[o:]
-
cause
Вопрос 44
The evolution of syntax.
OE
The syntax of Old English was much more flexible than modern
English because of the declensions of the nouns. The case endings
told the function of the word in the sentence, so word order was
not very important. But as the stress began to move to the first
syllable of words, the endings were not pronounced as clearly and
began to diminish from the language. So in modern English, word
order is very important because we no longer have declensions to
show case distinctions. Instead we use prepositions. The general
word order was subject - verb - object, but it did vary in a few
instances:1. When an object is a pronoun, it often precedes the
verb. 2. When a sentence begins with an adverb, the subject often
follows the verb.
3. The verb often comes at the end of a
subordinate clause.
ME - Syntax was stricter and more prepositions were used. New
compound tenses were used, such as the perfect tenses, and there
was more use of the progressive and passive voice. The use of
double negation also increased as did impersonal constructions.
The use of the verbs will and shall for the future tense was first
used too. Formerly, will meant want and shall meant obliged to.
The most obvious difference between OE syntax and the syntax of
the ME and NE periods is that the word order became more strict
and the use of prepositions more extensive.
In ME is used the direct word order. But in the sentences which
began with adjunct (обстоятельственное) word, it was indirect
word order. The synthetical word order gradually disappears. The
word order in ME is not so fixed, as in NE, but has important
meaning. Then a direct word order becomes obligatory. The
indirect word order begins to be used in questions. The auxiliary
word do is entered, which was fixed in questions and negations.
Sentences.
In OE is distinguished part of the sentence, as in the modern
language: the main and minor clause.
In ME The word order from a rhetorical category becomes
syntactic. A subject is absolutely obligatory member of the
sentence. If it is absent there is a formal subject. The model with a
formal subject “there” is traced already in OE.
In EarluNE the simple sentence develops basically on a way of
ordering of all rules connected with an arrangement of all
members, questions and negation.
Вопрос 42
The evolution of analytical forms.
In OE there were no analytical forms; they appeared in ME in all
Germanic langs and consisted of two elements; 1) a verb of broad
semantics (to be, to have) and high frequency; 2) non-finite forms
(inf., PI/II). They are Perfect Passive. Future, Cont, Do-forms.
The rise of Perfect forms
1.habbant (transitive verb)/ beon (intransiuve verb) +PII
beon in ME ceased(прекращает) to be used not to confuse Perfect
withPassive.
2. In ME also inf. and Participle acquired(преобритать) Perfect
forms.
The rise of Passive forms
1.
beon/ weorÞ (died out in ME) от переходных глаголов
+PII. The Pass. Inf., consisting of beon plus Part. II, is found in OE
texts. В с-а гл weorÞan уходит из употребления. Остается 1
глагол д/выражения пассива - bēon. Форма глагола "быть"
утратила
свое
лексич
значение.
2.Passive constructions were often used with prepositions by/with
to show the doer(исполнитель) of the action and the instrument. В
с-а предлог "by" еще не употреблялся (только в конце р-н-а), а
были of, from, mid, with, through.
В р-на период развивается употребление глагола do как
вспомогательного. В XVI — XVII вв. формы настоящего и
прошедшего времени часто образуются из сочетания «do +
инфинитив». 18в. Do как вспом.глагол сохранился лишь там,
где он получал доп.грамм.значение: 1)для образования
отриц.формы глагола 2) для образования вопросит.формы
глагола 3) для образования эмфатической формы глагола.
Вопрос 45
The evolution of Gerund
Gerund appears in the 12th century. OE verbal
noun(отглагольное сущ)with suffix —ung, -ing and P1
overlapped(частично совпад); verbal noun later turned into
Gerund and could 1) take direct object (ex. buying the book) verbal feature; 2) preceded by article or possessive pronoun –
nominal(именной)feature.
The gerund
can be traced to three sources: the OE verbal noun in -uns and -ins,
the Present Participle and the Infinitive. In OE the verbal noun
derived from transitive verbs took an object in the Gen. case,
which corresponded to the direct object of the finite(личных) verb.
The syntactic functions of the verbal noun, the infinitive and the
participle partly overlapped.
This verbal feature — a direct object as well as the frequent
absence of article before the -ing-form functioning, as a noun —
transformed the verbal noun into a Gerund in the modern
understanding of the term. The nominal features, retained from the
verbal noun, were its syntactic functions and the ability to be
modified by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the Gen. case.
Вопрос 47 и 48
The evol. Of Participle&Infinitive
ParticipleI had an active meaning and expressed a process or
quality simultaneous with the events described by the predicate of
the sentence. ParticipleII had an active or passive meaning
depending on the transitivity of the verb, and expressed a
preceding action or its results in the subsequent situation.
Participle I coincided with the verbal noun, which was formed in
OE with the help of the suffixes -ung and -ing, but had preserved
only one suffix, -ing, in ME. (The fusion of the Participle with the
verbal noun was an important factor of the growth of a new verbal,
the Gerund,
and played a certain role in the development of the Continuous
forms.
Participle 2 In ME the weak verbs built Participle II with the help
of the dental suffix -(e)d, -t, the strong verbs — with the help of
vowel gradation and the suffix -en.Strong v -4 grades(1-the form
of the inf, 2-Preterit Sg, 3-Pret. Pl, 4-Partic2)
Weak v -3 grades (1-inf, 2-Pret, 3-P2).
Participle I - suffix -ende (ex. OE berende, ME bering. NE
bearing) PII - suffix -en{strong verbs), and -t,-d according to the
type of verb (weak verbs) and commonly marked by prefix -3e.
in OE: active voice (ex. segan) and passive voice (ex.seboren). PI
and PII were used predicatively and attributively (like adj.) and
agreed with noun in number, Gender, case. PI and PII lost number,
Gender, case in ME.
Inf. loss of dative case (ME) (ex. OE Nomin.: writan, Dative: to
writanne; ME: to written, NE: to write, ("to” is a formal sign). The
preposition to, which was placed In OE to show direction or
purpose, lost Its prepositional force and changed into a formal sign
of,the Infinitive. In ME the Infinitive with to does not necessarily
express purpose. In order to reinforce the meaning of purpose
another preposition, for.
Вопрос 38
The evolution of Strong verbs
The seven classes of OE strong verbs underwent multiple
grammatical and phonetic changes. In ME the final syllables of the
stems were weakened, in Early NE most of them were lost.
1.The OE endings •an, -on, and -en (of the 1st, 3rd and 4th
principal forms) were all reduced to ME -en; consequently in
Classes 6 and 7, where the infinitive and the participle had the
same gradation vowel, these forms fell together. In Classes 1 and 3
it led to the coincidence of the3rd and 4th principal(основные)
forms. 2. There were phonetic changes in root of verbs. The major
factor is lengthening of root the vowel: in 4 and 5 class because the
syllable is opened, also in 3 class - where after n goes d – (findan->
fiindan). Destruction of interchange [z~r] under Verner's
law (remains only was-were). The 4 and 5 class in ME it begins to
merge in favour of 4-th class. It is visible at Chaser. 4. Beren-barbren-boren.5. Treden-trad-trde-treden/trodden. The letter "o" gets
into 2 and 3 form. Treden-trod - troden (ступать).
Early NE. Formation of a paradigm from 3 forms comes to the
end. 1 class - has the form of Preterit Sg in all verbs, except bite. 2
class has the form of мн.ч. In 3 class it is differently, basically the
form мн.ч. find-found-found, but ring-rang-rung. 4 and 5 class has
vowel of Participle2, and these classes completely coincide. In 6
and 7 class ед.и мн.ч пр.времени were identical.
2) presence/absence of the suffix of Partis2
The unaccented inflection of infinitive was lost already in the ME,
and Part2 in ME was: Зe-treden, зe-writen, зe-funden.
As a result, ранне-NE has the form without prefix. Remains:
speak-spoken, find-found, but ring-rung. 3 class has rejected a
prefix and the form of Preterite and Part2 coincided, as well as at
weak verbs. Part2 has no suffix.There were kept some distinction
in 5 class: англ get/forget - got/forgot, амер gotten/forgotten.
One of the most important events in the history of the strong verbs
was their transition into weak. In ME and Early NE many strong
verbs began to form their Past and Participle II with the help of the
dental suffix instead of vowel gradation. Therefore the number of
strong verbs decreased. In OE there were about three hundred
strong verbs. Some of them dropped out of use owing to changes
in the vocabulary, while most of the remaining verbs became
weak. The changes in the formation of principal parts of strong
verbs extended over a long period — from the 12th to'18th c.
Вопрос 40 The evolution of weak verb.
Class I are described used as sources of modern non-standard
verbs. ME verbs of Class I took the ending -de in the past without
an intermediate vowel before the dental suffix — and the ending ed in the Past Participle.
Several groups of modern non-standard verbs have developed from
the weak verbs of Class I. (1) Verbs like OE sellan and txcan had
an interchange in the root caused by palatal mutation in the Present
tense stem and
its absence in the other stems (Past tense salde/sealde, tahte.) In
ME and NE they preserved the root-vowel interchange, though
some of the vowels were altered due to regular quantitative and
qualitative vowel changes: ME sellen — solde ME I'so:ld9]> NE
sold [sould]), techen — taughte; NE sell — sold, teach — taught.
(2) Another group of weak verbs became irregular in Early ME as
a result of quantitative vowel changes. In verbs like OE cepan
fedan
me tan the long vowel in the root was shortened
before two consonants in the Past and ParticipleII; OE cepte> ME
kepte ['kepta]. The long vowel in the Present tense stem was
preserved and was altered during the Great Vowel Shift, hence the
interchange[ i : ~ e ] , NE keep — kept, feed — fed.
(3) Verbs like OE settan, with the root ending in a dental
consonant, added the dental suffix without the intervening vowel [e
] — OE sette.
When the inflections were reduced and dropped, the three stems of
the verbs — Present, Past and Participle II fell together: NE set —
set — set;
Class 2 formed a basis of the future irregular verbs. There are some
verbs joined:
1.Some verbs of 1 class weak deem-deemed.
2.3 class live-lived.
The verbs of Class II, which were marked by -ode, -od in OE, had
weakened these endings to -ede, -ed in ME. In Late ME the vowel
[e] in unstressed medial and final syllables became very unstable
and was lost. This change eliminated the differences between the
two classes and also the. distinctions between the 2nd and 3rd
principal forms.
3. All borrowings (unique loan word take from сканд remains in 6
class,).
Class 3 was destroyed. We have 2 classes by the end of this
process:
1. Regular (on the basis of weak)
2. Irregular: 1) all remained strong 2) weak 1кл irregular 3) weak
1кл with devocalization in the end 4) 2 remained verbs of 3 class have, say.
Вопрос 41
The evolution of anomalous verbs
Several preterite-present verbs died out. The surviving verbs losl
some of their old forms and grammatical distinctions but retained
many
specific peculiarities. They lost the forms of the verbals which had
sprung up in OE and the distinctions between the forms of numbei
and mood in the Present tense. In NE their paradigms have been
reduced to two forms or even to one.
Among the verbs of the minor groups there were several
anomalous verbs with irregular forms. OE willan was an irregular
verb with the meaning of volition and desire; it resembled the
preterite-presents in meaning and function, as it indicated an
attitude to an action and was often followed by an Infinitive.
Willan had a Past tense form wolde, built like sceolde, the Past
tense of the preterite-present sculan, sceal. Eventually willan
became a modal verb, like the surviving preterite-presents, and,
together with sculan developed into an auxiliary (NE shall, will,
should, would).
Some verbs combined the features of weak and strong verbs. OE
don formed a weak Past tense with a vowel interchange: and a
Participle in -n: don — dyde — зe-don (NE do). OE buan 'live' had
a weak Past — bude and Participle II, ending in -n, ie-bun like a
strong verb.
OE sdn has had a most unusual history. In OE its Past form was
built from a different root and had a weak ending: code; its Part. II
ended in -n, similarly with strong verbs (ie)^dn. In ME the verb
acquired a new Past tense wente, which came from an entirely
different verb, OE wendan (ME wenden, NE wend). Its OE Past
form wente had entered the paradigm of goon (NE go, went), while
wend acquired a new past form wended. Thus the verb go remained
a suppletive verb, though its OE Past was replaced by a new form
(this is a rare instance of suppletion appearing at a relatively recent
period of history).
Вопрос 46
The evolution of word-formation.
Ways of formation - word formation fell into two types: word
derivation and word composition.
Word Derivation
Suffixation has always been the most productive way of deriving
new words, most of the OE productive suffixes have survived, and
many new suffixes have been added from internal and external
sources.
The development of prefixation was uneven: in ME many OE
prefixes fell into disuse; after a temporary decline in the 15th and
16th c. the use of prefixes grew again; like suffixes, Early NE
prefixes could come from foreign sources.
The Early NE period witnessed the growth of a new, specifically
English way of word derivation — conversion (also known as
"functional change"), which has developed into
a productive way of creating new words.
Sound interchanges
In OE they served as a supplementary means
of word differentiation and were mostly used together with
suffixes. In ME and Early NE sound interchanges continued to be
used as an accompanying feature together with other derivational
means. The role of sound interchanges has grown due to the
weakening and loss of many suffixes and grammatical endings.
Word Stress
The role of stress in word-building has grown in ME and EarlyNE
in consequence of the same changes namely the weakening and
loss of final syllables.
Prefixation
During the ME period prefixes were used in derivation less
frequently than before. OE prefixes were productive means of
forming verbs from other verbs. The simple and derived verb were
synonymous. Consequently
the prefix could be easily dispensed with. Instead of the OEpairs of
synonyms, differing in the prefix, ME retained only the simple
verb. Native Prefixes - Many OE verb prefixes dropped out of use,
e.g. a-, to-, on-. The negative prefixes mis- and un- produced a
great number of new words. OE un- was mainly used with nouns
and adjectives, seldom with
verbs; New formations inME are unable, unknowen, in Early NE
— unhook, unload and others; Borrowed Prefixes- In Late ME,
and in Early NE new prefixes began to be employed in word
derivation in English: French, Latin, and Greek. com- and sub-.
French and Latin. Between the years 1200 and 1500 English
borrowed many French words with the prefix re-, e.g.: ME redressen, re-formen. Re- was separated, as an element of the word.
The verb prefixes de- and dis- of Romance origin (French and
Latin) entered the English language in many loan-words, e.g.: ME
destructive, discomforten.
Suffixation
Suffixation has remained the most productive way of word
derivation through all historical periods. Though some of the OE
suffixes were practically dead, many new suffixes developed from
native and foreign sources.Native suffixes - suffixes:)Several OE
suffixes of agent nouns -end (friend), -ere(fiscere) were lost as
means of derivation; in ME -end, -en, -estre occur as inseparable
parts of the stem.
The old suffixes of abstract nouns -ap, -op, -p, had long been dead
in ME. The suffix -ness was equally productive in all historical
periods. It was mainly used with adjectival stems, irrespective of
their origin: ME derkness,, NE narrowness, (native stems);
MEcleerness, NE politeness (borrowed stems).
new suffixes derived from noun root morphemes - A new suffix man, developed from a root-morpheme in ME. Borrowed Suffixes
- borrowed suffixes entered the English language with the two
biggest waves of loan-words: French loans in ME and classical
loans in Early NE. French loan-words with the suffix –able
(agreeable). In Late ME the suffix -able began
to be used in adjective derivation — at first with Romance stems
—admittable. The French suffix -ess produced many derivatives in
ME, as it had replaced the native -estre; e.g.: ME authoress. The
suffix -or (from Fr) resembled the native suffix –er.
Вопрос 36 The evolution of nouns. The rise of the articles
OE The OE noun had two grammatical categories: number and
case. There were five major cases: nominative, genitive, dative,
accusative, and instrumental.Общее количество типов склонения
7: 1) гласные основы: -a-, -ō-, -i-, -u-, 2) основы на согласный: n-, -s-, -r-.OE nouns distinguished three genders: Masc., Fem. and
Neut. Old English nouns are divided as either strong or weak.
Weak nouns have their own endings. In general, weak nouns are
easier than strong nouns, since they had begun to lose their
declensional system. Strong (a,o,i,u -stem). Weak decl - n -m,f,n.
es -n. room-stem (Root-stemm formed some cases not by an
inflexional ending, but by the chance of the root vowel due to
mutation)-no form suffixes. Mutation was used to define number
and gender of noun. Stem - part of the word
comparasing(connected) root and stem.
ME – Noun have no gender. 2 group exist in ME in Pl form. The
one is the former a-declention and n-decl, which of former
feminine noun( weak decl). The root-decl. has lost some words,
but it cont to exist. The noun has 2 cases: the Common and
Possessive. The weak decl. has no case forms at all. Noun was
rejected into reduction of their flexion. All vowels endings –e-. OE
a-stem, became the productive type. Grammatical gender was lost
and difference between Weak and Strong decl. disappeared. (-n)/: s- became for Pl all nouns (for G). Some nouns retain Pl with oinflexions. For root-stem nouns their mutated forms were used
only in Pl. Weak decl. –n- express the Pl.
The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong &
weak declensions of adjectives - articles wereemployed to show
definiteness
&
indefiniteness.
2.word order: It is a book. The book is interesting. Definite articles
-> mascul, singular "se" Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral).
It had 5 case declension -> in. Middle English cases were lost, 13th
century an > oon/one -> a/an
Вопрос
37
The
evolution
or
pronoun.
OE Pronouns in OE were subdivided into following categories:
personal (now I, you), demonstr (this, that), interrogative (who,
which), possesive (my, his), indefinite (one, some), negative
(no+body). In OE personal pron. Had 3 persons, 1,2 had 3
numbers: Sg, Pl, dual. 3P. Sg, Pl had 3 genders in Sg. – m,f,n.
ME – Person. Pron 1P change Ich into Early NE I. 2P –ME
thou/thow into NE -thou/ye, 3P –ME m-he, f-he/she, n-hit, it into
NE – he, she, it. The forms of the dual number of the 1st and 2nd
p. went into disuse in Early ME. two cases fell together— Dat. and
Ace. — into what may be called the Obj. case but its distinction
from the Nom. case was preserved. In Late ME the paradigm of
personal pronouns consisted of two cases: Nom. and Obj.
The OE Gen. case of personal pronouns split from the other forms
and turned into a new class of pronouns — possessive. In ME
possessive pron lost thir declention. Some possessive pronouns had
two variant forms in ME: myne/my,our(e)/ours, etc.
Appears a new type of pron – reflexive. The appeared from
oblique case-forms of personal pronouns+ME Possesive+ adjective
self.
Demonstrative Pronouns. There were two demonstrative
pronouns in OE: the prototype of NE that, which distinguished
three genders in the sg. And had one form for all the genders in the
pl. and the prototype of this. They were declined like adjectives
according to a five-case system: Nom., Gen., Dat., Acc., and Instr.
In ME they lost category of case and gender, preserve only
number. The0theo-thes-this –Sg and these-Pl. Weak form of Dem.
Pron was used as a definite of the noun/formal indicator of noun. .
The rise of the articles is English Causes: 1.loss of strong &
weak declensions of adjectives - articles were employed to show
definiteness & indefiniteness. 2.word order: It is a book. The book
is interesting. Definite articles -> mascul, singular "se" in the
13th c. the uninflected oon/one and their reduced forms an/a
Indefinite article -> an (= one)(numeral). It had 5 case declension > in. Middle English cases were lost, 13th century an > oon/one > a/an
OE demonstrative and interrogative pronouns became thesource of
a new type of pronouns — relative.Relative pron – joined in
subordinate clauses(from interog. Pron)
Вопрос 39
The evolution of adjective.
In OE the adjective was declined to show the gender, case and
number of the noun it modified; it had a five-case paradigm and
two types of declension, weak and strong. In ME lost all its
grammatical categories with the exception of the degrees of
comparison. The first category to disappear was Gender, which
ceased to be distinguished by the adjective in the 11th c.
The number of cases shown in the adjective paradigm was
reduced: the Instr. case had fused with the Dat. by the end of OE;
In the 13th c. case could be shown only by some variable adjective
endings in the strong declension (but not by the weak forms);
towards the end of the century all case distinctions were lost.
Adjectives lost agreement with the noun, but the weak ending -e
still remained.
Degrees of Comparison - In OE the forms of the comparative and
the superlative degree, like
all the grammatical forms, were synthetic: they were built by
adding the suffixes -ra and -estl-ost, to the form of the positive
degree. In ME the comparative degree is formed with the suffix er, and superlative with the suffix – est.
The alternation of root-vowels in Early NE survived in the
adjective old, elder, eldest, where the difference in meaning from
older, oldest, made the formal distinction essential.
Вопрос 34
The evolution of consonant
English consonants were on the whole far more stable than vowels.
A large number of consonants have probably remained unchanged
through all historical periods. Thus we can assume that the
sonorants [m, n, l], plosives [p,b, t, d] and also [k, g] in most
positions have not been subjected to any noticeable changes. The
most important developments in the history of English consonants
were the growth of new sets of sounds, - affricates and sibilants.
Growth of sibilants and affricates
In OE there were no affricates and no sibilants, except [s, z]. the
new type of consonants developed from OE palatal plosives [k’,
g’], which had split from the corresponding velar plosives [k] and
[g], and also from the consonant cluster [sk’]. The three new
phonemes which arose from these sources were [t∫], [dз] and [∫]. In
Early ME they began to be indicated by special letters and
digraphs, which came into use mainly under the influence of the
French scribal tradition – ch, tch, g, dg, sh, ssh, sch. As a result of
these changes – and also as a result of the vocalization of [γ] – the
consonant system in Late ME was in some respects different from
the OE system.
Palatal sonsonant finished palatalization: k-g, sk-∫ -sh. All palatal
consonants disappeared. There was some dropping(сочетание) of
consonants in initial position before sonorant. Hlof-lof, hlafa-lord.
In Southern dialect –f- in initial position turn into –v-. Vocalization
of -з- in the initial position before front vowel. з- formed new
diphthong after front vowels. з – j –initial, з – I – final. (dæз –day
[ai], weз – wei [ei], fæзer –fair [ai] –middle position)
NE From the combination of /ng/ appeared a phoneme / ŋ/.
Loss of consonants in some groups: Voiceless velar fricative lost in
/night/; pronounced as f in /laugh/. [b] dropped in final -mb cluster
(dumb, comb). [l] dropped between[ a] or [o] and consonant (half,
walk, talk, folk). [r] dropped sometimes before [s]
(Worcestershire). [k] and [g] dropped before/n/in initial position
(knee, knight, gnat-nat). [g] in -ing endings (more commonly
pronounced [ɪn]). Finally, assibilation occurred when the alveolars
[s], [d], [t], and [z] preceded the palatal glide [j], producing the
palatal consonants: [š], [ǰ], [č], [ž]. Zj-ж(decision), tj-ч(nature), djdз(solder). /w/dropped before /r/ in the initial position(wrightright). /h/ is dropped in the middle position –which-wich. /p/ is not
pronounced in the initial position –physiology. NE vocalization of
/r/(diphton-on) between the vowel and /r/ appeared, then /r/ was
reduced(сокращена). Results: /e:/-/i:/-/iэ/-here, dear. /з:/-/e://зэ/bear and /iэ/-clear. /a:/-/ei:/-/зэ/ -care, dare. /o:/-/u:/-/uэ/-poor,
moor.
Вопрос 1 Subject matter and aims. Sources of lang history.
Subject is the historical development of E. language: phonetic
structure and spelling, evolution of grammatical system and
growth of vocabulary, so as to understand a current status of
language, we should to examine each phenomenon of modern
language as known result of long historical development.
Language constantly develops under the certain laws. The law of
development of Language: The Law of gradual transition of
language from one quality to another, thus elements of new quality
slowly collect, and elements of old quality slowly die off.
All the modern languages trace their roots back to great antiquity.
It means, that elements of modern English language laid during
period, when the tribes of Angles, Saxones and Utes still lived on
the European continent, long before 5-th century A.D. Since that
time the grammatical system of language slowly changed, and its
vocabulary structure contained new words. These changes
occurred in close relations with development of the society. The
Manufacture began to develop, the states are appeared, there was a
literature and writing, and the printing-press has been invented.
The aims – we should achieved both theretical and practical eimes
So, one of the aims is to provide the student with a knowledge
of linguistic history sufficient to account for the principal
features of present-day English. For example, through centuries
writing and spelling was changing in English. At the time when
Latin letters were first used in Britain (7th c.) writing was
phonetic: the letters stood for the same sound. After the
introduction of printing (15th c.) the written form of the word
became fixed, while the sounds continued to change. Another
important aim of this course is of a more theoretical nature.
While tracing the evolution of the English language through time,
the student will be confronted with a number of theoretical
questions such as the relationship between statics and dynamics in
language, the role of linguistic and extralinguistic factors and so
on. One more aim of this course is to provide the student of
English with a wider philological outlook. The history of the
English language shows the place of English in the linguistic
world.
Вопрос 2
Germanic invasion. Formation of the G. states
The 5th c. was the age of increased Germanic expansion. The
history of the English language begins with the invasion of the
British Isles by Germanic tribes in the 5th c. of our era.
Newcomers were of the 3 races of Germany: the Saxons, the
Angles and Jutes. Angels and Saxons the were called by Romans
and by celts – Angelcyn. And their conqued territories Angelcunes
land. The story of the invasion is told by Bede (673-735), a
monastic scholar who wrote the first history of England,
HISTORIA
ECCLESIASTICA
GENTIS
ANGLORUM.
According to Bede, the invaders came to Britain in A.D. 449 under
the leadership of two Germanic kings, Hengist and Horsa. The first
wave of invaders, the Jutes or the Frisians, occupied the extreme
south-east: Kent and the Isle of Wight. The second wave of
immigrants was largely made up of the Saxons, who had been
expanding westwards across Frisia to the Rhine and to what is
known as Normandy. The Saxons consolidated into a number of
petty kingdoms, the largest and the most powerful of them was
Wessex. Last came the Angles from the lower valley of the Elbe
and southern Denmark. They made their landing on the east coast
and moved up the rivers to the central part of the island. Angles
founded large kingdoms: East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria.
Вопрос 3 The Scandinavian invasion&influens upon English.
In the 8th century Scandinavian Danes made their 1st attacks on
England. He struggle lasted over 300 years. Then King Alfred
proclaimed peace treaty of 878. England was divided into halves:
the north-eastern (Danish) and called Danelagh. And south-western
(Wessex). But in 10 century 1013 Danish attacked again headed by
Sweyn and Canute. And Canute was a king of England. Under
Canute
death
1035
England
became
independent.
A most important role in the history of the English language was
played by the introduction of Christianity. It gave a strong impulse
to the growth of culture and learning. Monasteries were founded
all over the country with monastic schools attached. Religious
services and teaching were conducted in Latin. Thus due to the
introduction of Christianity the English language acquired much
influence from Latin. Influence- The Germanic tribes in 5th and 6th
c. spoke closely related tribal dialects belonging to the westGermanic subgroup. Their original tongue transformed into single
English tongue. Next – feudal system and a new phase in dialects.
(Kentish, West Saxon, Mercian, Northumblian)
Вопрос 4
Norman Conquest. The struggle Eng&French.
After Canute death, Edward was king of England. In 1066, upon
Edward’s death, the Elders of England proclaimed Harold Godwin
king of England. As soon as the news reached William of
Normandy, he mustered (gathered) a big army by promise of land
and, with the support of the Pope, landed in Britain. In the battle of
Hastings, fought in October 1066, Harold was killed and the
English were defeated. This date is commonly known as the date
of the Norman Conquest. After their battle, William crown king
and then he called the Conqueror.
After a Norman conquest both secular and church power
completely belongs to Normans. The population of cities was
mixed: it included both English, and Norman handicraftsmen
(ремесл). The ruling class was feudal aristocracy and clergy consisted of people of a Norman origin. The local population, both
in countrysides, and in the cities continued to speak in English.
The struggle between English and French.
Однако,
английский был не единственным языком, на котором
говорили и писали после нормандского завоевания. Как
сказано выше, победители принесли с собою французский
язык; точнее, его северный диалект - нормандский. В течение
ближайших после завоеваний столетий в Англии образовался
так называемый англо-нормандский диалект. В течение XIIXIII вв. англо-нормандский был государственным языком
Англии. , третьим языком, функционировавшим в стране,
была латынь, которая в Англии, как и во всей Западной
Европе, была языком церковного обихода и языком науки.
Таким образом, в Англии сосуществовали три языка:
английский, французский (англо-нормандский) и латынь.
Первым государственным документом, написанным на
английском языке, была Прокламация Генриха III (1258 г.).
Она написана на лондонском диалекте. преподавание в
школах начинает вестись на английском; впервые английский
язык стал изредка звучать в парламенте, К концу XIV в.
английский окончательно стал государственным языком.
Вопрос 5
Old E. dialects. OE written record.
Германцы образовали семь королевств; это были Нортумбрия,
Мерсия, Восточная Англия, Эссекс, Суссекс и Уэссекс и
Кент. Эти семь государств объединились в четыре основных
королевства - Нортумбрию, Мерсию, Уэссекс и Кент, в границах
которых
образовались
четыре
диалекта:
нортумбрийский, мерсийский, уэссекский и кентский.
Old English developed into four major dialects: Northumbrian,
Mercian; Kentish, and West Saxon.
Old English written records – The 1st was runic alphabet consist
of 24 sighs, contain only vertical and inclined lines. After 1st 6
letter this alphabet is called FUTHARK. It is found only two best
known runi inscription:(the Ruthwell Cross). And the 2nd Frank
Casket. The total number of inscriptions is 40. Monuments of
writing share on prosaic and poetic. Уэссекский диалект.
«Англосаксонская хроника». Она существует в виде ряда
параллельных chronicls, начиная с 7 в. Наиболее важной
является так называемая «Паркеровская хроника», которая
велась до конца 9 в.на уэссекском диалекте. К 9 в. относятся
переводы, сделанные королем Альфредом: 1) «Сurа Pastoralis»
(«Забота пастыря») -произведение папы Gregory I. К 10 в.
относятся the works priest Эльфрика (проповеди, перевод
«Искусства грамматики» и др.); к 11 в.- the Homilies of
Wulstan. Мерсийский диалект. The translations of Psalter (IX
в.), glosses (8 в.) и church гимны. Нортумбрийский диалект. 2
runic inscriptions, описанные выше; The Gospel was translated
by latin, Bede’s HISTORIA ECCLESIASTICA GENTIS
ANGLORUM (written in Latin in the 8th c.) contains and English
fragment of five lines known as “Bede’s Death Song” and a
religious poem of nine lines, “Cadmon’s Hymn”.Написана на
латинском и в IX в. она была переведена на древнеанглийский
переводчиками школы короля Альфреда. Поэтические
памятники. The greatest poem of that time was BEOWULF, an
epic of the 7th or 8th c. автор которой неизвестен; The poems of
monc Кюневульфа - «Helen», « Juliana», «Andrew»; Main
Peculiarities of OE poetry1.Old Germanic alliterative verse.2.
The Sines are not rhymed.3. The number of the syllables to a line
is free, but the number of stressed syllables is fixed.4. Each line is
divided intoo 2 halves and each half begins with one and the same
sound.5. There are at least 2 stressed syllables in a line, one in
each half.6. Metaphorical phrases.
Вопрос 6
Chronological division in the Hof E lang.
Traditional periodization divides E into 3 periods: OE, ME, NE.
OE begins with Germanic setlments of Britaine(5 th c)or with the
beginning of writtin(7) and ends with Norman Conquest.(1066).
ME –with Norman Conquest and ends on the introduction of
printing (1475). So then start NE and lasts to the present day. Some
authors called them – early, classixal and late.
The 1st period, which may be termed Early Old English. It is the
stage of the tribal dialects of the West Germanic invaders, which
were gradually losing contacts with the related continental tongues.
The tribal dialects were used for oral communication, there being
no written form of English. The 2ndperiod OE/Anglo-Saxon
extends from the 8th c. till the end of the 11th. The tribal dialects
gradually changed into local or regional dialects. The language of
this period is usually described synchronically and is treated as a
more or less stable system. The 3rd period, known as Early
Middle English, starts after 1066, the year of the Norman
Conquest, and covers the 12th, 13th and half of the 14th c. It was
the stage of the greatest dialectal divergence caused by the feudal
system and by foreign influences – Scandinavian and French.
Under Norman rule the official language in England was French,
or rather its variety called Anglo-French or Anglo-Norman; it was
also the dominant language of literature. (from syntactic into
analytic). The 4th period – from the later 14th c. till the end of the
15th – known the age of Chaucer, Classical ME. It was the time of
literary flourishing. The main dialect used in writing and literature
was the mixed dialect of London. H. Sweet called this period”
leveled endings”, because most of inflections in the nominal
system had fallen together. The 5th period is called Early New
English, lasted from the introduction of printing to the age of
Shakespeare. The first printed book in English was published by
William Caxton in 1475. This period was also a time of sweeping
changes at all levels, in the first place lexical and phonetic. The 6th
period extends from the mid-17th c. to the close of the 18th c. In
the history of the language it is often called “the age of
normalization and correctness. The 18th c. has been called the
period of “fixing the pronunciation”. The great sound shifts were
over and pronunciation was being stabilized. Word usage and
grammatical construction were subjected to restriction and
normalization. The 7th period in the history of English. It is called
Late New English or Modern English. The 20th c. witnessed
considerable intermixture of dialects. The local dialects were
retreated and displaced by Standard English. The English
vocabulary has grown.
Вопрос 8
London dialect.
The history of the London dialect reveals the sources of the
literary language in Late ME and also the main source and basis of
the Literary Standard, both in its written and spoken forms. The
history of London extends back to the Roman period. Even
in OE times London was by far the biggest town in Britain,
although the capital of Wessex — the main OE kingdom — was
Winchester. The capital was transferred to London a few years
before the Norman Conquest.
The Early ME records made in London —beginning with the
PROCLAMATION of 1258 — show that the dialect of London
was fundamentally East Saxon; in terms of the ME division, it
belonged to the Southwestern dialect group. Later records indicate
that the speech of London was becoming more mixed, with East
Midland features gradually prevailing over the Southern features.
In the middle of the 14th c. London was practically depopulated
during the "Black Death" (1348). About one third of the population
of Britain died in the epidemics. Most of the new arrivals came
from the East Midlands. As a result the speech of Londoners was
brought much closer to the East Midland dialect.
The flourishing of literature, which marks the second half of
the 14th c. This period of literary florescence is known as the "age
of Chaucer", the greatest name in English literature before
Shakespeare. Его произведения «Canterbury Tales», «A Legend
of Good Women». Of greatest linguistic consequence was the
activity of John Wyclif
(1324—1384), the forerunner of the English Reformation. His
most important contribution to English prose was his translation of
the BIBLE completed in 1384. Лондонский диалект начала XIV
в. представлен стихотворениями Адама Дэви; вторая половина
произведениями Джеффри Чосера, Джона Гауэра и Джона
Уиклифа.
Вопрос 11 OE word-stock.
Word stock include 30~100.000 words, don’t represent the total
number of words. 2 group of word: 1.Native and 2.Borrowings.
Native –are not Homogeneous in their origin. Common IE words,
Common Germanic Specifically OE words. (most encient part of
vocab. This is word of natural phenomena, anomals, human body.)
2.Common Germanic(wide layer-слой) formed independent lex.
Group. 3.Scpecificall OE words:(don’t occur in other lang.)
Compound wifman or wimman(woman) consist of 2 roots which
occurred in a separate words in other OG lang.
Borrowings- from other lang.(very small portions of wordstock~600). Major borrow. Were adopted after contact of people in
everyday life. Latin borrow. – it was well known because of
historical events. (Roman conquer, introduction of Christianity and
other). Latin borrow divided into several layers: 1.when West
Germanic tribes settled in Britanie, Anglo-Saxon invasion. OE
borrow from Latin indicate new things (trade, agriculture, building,
home life). Through Celts (were some place-names:e.g: camp)
Christianity: 1.word pertaining to religion. 2.word connected with
learning. E.g” clericos.
One more impact is called “translations” – word and phrases
created on the partten of Latin words as their literal translations.
Celtic borrow – is very small vocab. Germ. tribes assimilated with
celtic tribes. Among celtic words: cumb-small valey, Avon- river.
Вопрос 9
The making of the national lang.
During 15 century London literary lang.gradually extends,
superseding the local dialects. Лит.язык gets into all
spheres of relations. colloquial speech in various areas of
England gradually joins in the general лит.норму, and
distinctions between written norm and is national-spoken
speach are lost. In 16в the developing of англ as national
language is finished. Dialects become actually unwritten,
т.к.нац.язык (on the basis of London лит.языка) covers all
the spheres connected with writing: state documentation,
scientific and худ.лит-ру. Gradually гац.язык extends
more and more, modifying and absorbing dialects.
Вопрос 12
Written in OE
The runic alphabet The runic alphabet is a specifically Germanic
alphabet, not to be found in languages of other groups. The word
rune originally meant ’secret’, ‘mystery’ and hence came to denote
inscriptions believed to be magic. The runes were used as letters,
each symbol to indicate separate sound. This alphabet is called
futhark after the first six letters. Runic letters are angular; straight
lines are preferred, curved lines avoided; this is due to the fact that
runic inscriptions were cut in hard material: stone, bone or wood.
The shapes of some letters resemble those of Greek or Latin, other
have not been traced to any known alphabet, and the order of the
runes in the alphabet is certainly original. The number of runes in
different OG languages varied. As compared to continental, the
number of runes in England was larger: new runes were added as
new sounds appeared in English (from 28 to 33 runes in Britain
against 16 or 24 on the continent). The main use of runes was to
make short inscriptions on objects, often to bestow on them some
special power or magic. The two best known runic inscriptions in
England are the earliest extant OE written records. One of them is
and inscription on a box called the “Franks Casket”, the other is a
short text on a stone cross near the village of Ruthwell known as
the “Ruthwell Cross”. Old English alphabet and pronunciation
OE scribes used two kinds of letters: the runes and the letters of the
Latin alphabet. The bulk of the OE material is written in the Latin
script. The use of Latin letters in English differed in some points
from their use in Latin, for the scribes made certain modifications
and additions in order to indicate OE sounds. The most interesting
peculiarity of OE writing was the use of some runic characters, in
the first place, the rune called “thorn” which was employed
alongside the crossed d, ∂ to indicate [th] and [∂]. In the
manuscripts one more rune was regularly used – “wynn” for the
sound [w]. Like any alphabetic writing, OE writing was based on a
phonetic principle: every letter indicated a separate sound. This
principle, however, was not always observed, even at the earliest
stages of phonetic spelling. Some OE letters indicated two or more
sounds, even distinct phonemes. The letters could indicate short
and long sounds. In reading OE texts one should observe the
following rules for letters indicating more than one sound. The
letters f, s and [th], [∂] stand for voiced fricatives between vowels
and also between a vowel and a voiced consonant; otherwise they
indicate corresponding voiceless fricatives. The letter з stands for
[g] initially before back vowels, for [j] before and after front
vowels, for [γ] between back vowels and for [g’] mostly when
preceded by c: OE daз [j]
The letter h stands for [x] between a back vowel and a consonant
and also initially before consonants and for [x’] next to front
vowels: OE niht [x’]
The letter n stands for [n] in all positions except when followed by
[k] or [g]; in this case it indicates [ŋ]: OE sinзan.
Вопрос 13 morphological classification of the verb in OE
The majority of OE verbs fell into two great divisions: the strong
verbs and the weak verbs. Besides these two main groups there
were a few verbs which could be put together as “minor” groups.
The main difference between the strong and weak verbs lay in the
means of forming the principal parts, or “stems” of the verb. The
strong verbs formed their stems by means of ablaut and by adding
certain suffixes; in some verbs ablaut was accompanied by
consonant interchanges. The strong verbs had four stems, as they
distinguished two stems in the Past Tense – one for the 1st and 3rd
p. sg Ind. Mood, the other – for the other Past tense forms, Ind. and
Subj. the weak verbs derived their Past tense stem and the stem of
Participle II from the Present tense stem with the help of the dental
suffix -d- or -t-; normally they did not interchange their root vowel,
but in some verbs suffixation was accompanied by a vowel
interchange. Minor groups of verbs differed from the weak and
strong verbs. Some of them combined certain features of the strong
and weak verbs in a peculiar way (“preterite-present” verbs);
others were suppletive or altogether anomalous.
Strong Verbs
The strong verbs in OE are usually divided into seven classes.
Classes from 1 to 6 use vowel gradation which goes back to the IE
ablaut-series modified in different phonetic conditions in
accordance with PG and Early OE sound changes. Class 7 includes
reduplicating verbs, which originally built their past forms by
means of repeating the root-morpheme; this doubled root gave rise
to a specific kind of root-vowel interchange.
The principal forms of all the strong verbs have the same endings
irrespective of class: -an for the Infinitive, no ending in the Past sg
stem, -on in the form of Past pl, -en for Participle II.
Weak Verbs
The number of weak verbs in OE by far exceeded that of strong
verbs. The verbs of Class I usually were i-stems, originally
contained the element [-i/-j] between the root and the endings. The
verbs of Class II were built with the help of the stem-suffix -ō, or ōj and are known as ō-stems. Class III was made up of a few
survivals of the PG third and fourth classes of weak verbs, mostly ǽj-stems.
Minor groups of Verbs The most important group of these verbs
were the so-called “preterite-presents” or “past-present” verbs.
Originally the Present tense forms of these verbs were Past tense
forms. Later these forms acquired a present meaning but preserved
many formal features of the Past tense. Most of these verbs had
new Past Tense forms built with the help of the dental suffix. Some
of them also acquired the forms of the verbals: Participles and
Infinitives. In OE there were twelve preterite-present verbs. Six of
them have survived in Mod E: OE āз; cunnan; cann; dear(r),
sculan, sceal; maзan, mæз; mōt (NE owe, ought; can; dare; shall;
may; must). Most preterite-presents did not indicate actions, but
expressed a kind of attitude to an action denoted by another verb,
an Infinitive which followed the preterite-present. In other words
they were used like modal verbs, and eventually developed into
modern modal verbs.
Вопрос 15, 11 Foreign elements in the OE vocabulary
The OE vocabulary was almost purely Germanic; except for a
small number of borrowings, it consisted of native words inherited
from PG or formed from native roots and affixes.
Native words
Native OE words can be subdivided into a number of etymological
layers from different historical periods. The three main layers in
the native OE words are:
a) common IE words;
b) common Germanic words;
c) specifically OE words.
Words belonging to the common IE layer constitute the oldest part
of the OE vocabulary. Among these words we find names of some
natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultural terms, names
of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, etc.; this layer
includes personal and demonstrative pronouns and most numerals.
Verbs belonging to this layer denote the basic activities of man;
adjectives indicate the most essential qualities.
The common Germanic layer includes words which are shared by
most Germanic languages, but do not occur outside the group.
Being specifically Germanic, these words constitute an important
distinctive mark of the Germanic languages at the lexical level.
This layer is certainly smaller than the layer of common IE words.
Semantically these words are connected with nature, with the sea
and everyday life.
The third etymological layer of native words can be defined as
specifically OE, that is words which do not occur in other
Germanic or non-Germanic languages. These words are few, if we
include here only the words whose roots have not been found
outside English: OE clipian ‘call’, OE brid (NE bird) and several
others. However, they are far more numerous if we include in this
layer OE compounds and derived words formed from Germanic
roots in England, e.g. OE wīfman or wimman (NE woman)
consists of two roots which occurred as separate words in other
OG languages, but formed a compound only in OE.
Foreign elements in the OE vocabulary
Although borrowed words constituted only a small portion of the
OE vocabulary – all in all about six hundred words, - they are of
great interest for linguistic and historical study. OE borrowings
come from two sources: Celtic and Latin.
Borrowings from Celtic
There are very few Celtic loan-words in the OE vocabulary, for
there must have been little intermixture between the Germanic
settlers and the Celtic in Britain. Though in some parts of the
island the Celts population was not exterminated during the WG
invasion, linguistic evidence of Celtic influence is meager.
Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in placenames. The OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their
names from the names of Celtic tribes. The name of York, the
Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic sources.
Various Celtic designations of ‘river’ and ‘water’ were understood
by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Esk, Exe, Avon;
Thames, Stour, Dover also come from Celtic. Many place-names
with Celtic elements are hybrids; the Celtic component, combined
with a Latin or a Germanic component, makes a compound placename, e.g.: Celtic plus Latin: Man-chester, Win-chester, Lancaster; Celtic plus Germanic: York-shire, Corn-wall, Devon-shire,
Canter-bury.
Latin influence on the OE vocabulary
Latin words entered the English language at different stages of OE
history. Chronologically they can be devided into several layers.
The earliest layer comprises words which the WG tribes brought
from the continent when they came to settle in Britain. Contact
with the Roman civilization began a long time before the AngloSaxon invasion. Early OE borrowings from Latin indicate the new
things and concepts which the Teutons had learnt from the
Romans. They pertain to war, trade, agriculture, building and home
life. Among the Latin loan-words adopted in Britain were some
place-names made of Latin and Germanic components, e.g.
Portsmouth, Greenport, Greenwich. The next period of Latin
influence on the OE vocabulary began with the introduction of
Christianity in the late 6th c. and lasted to the end of OE.
Numerous Latin words which found their way into the English
language during these five hundred years clearly fall into two main
groups:
1) words pertaining to religion
2) words connected with learning.
The Latin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to
borrowing of words. There were also other aspects of influence.
The most important of them is the appearance of the so-called
“translation-loans” – words and phrases created on the pattern of
Latin words as their literal translations. The earliest instances of
translation-loans are names of the days of the week found not only
in OE but also in other Old Germanic languages. OE Mōnan-dæз
(Monday) ‘day of the moon’, L Lunae dies.
Вопрос 18
Introduction of printing.
15
в.–появление
книгопечатанья.
Английским
первопечатником был Уильям Кэкстон, уроженец Кента,
долго служил в Нидерландах, где познакомился с новым
изобретением. Первую книгу на а.я. “ The collection of stories
about Troy» он напечатал в 1475., Распространение(spread(ing)
печатных книг очень содействовало нормализации языка в
области графики и орфографии. Первые грамматики а.я.
строились по образцу латинских. Это – грамматики Бена
Джонсона, Ч. Батлера, Дж. Уоллиса (17 в.). В грамматиках 1718 вв lay down 2 tendenses: одни grammarian считали, что язык
должен based on “разума” (“reason”), т.е. из логики. Другие
считали, что при установлении правил следует исходить из
существующего обычая (“usage”). Но оба эти направления не
сильно отличались.
Вопрос 22
Grammar and dictionaries in 17&18 c.
Первые грамматики а.я. строились по образцу латинских. Это
– грамматики Бена Джонсона, Ч. Батлера, Дж. Уоллиса (17 в.).
В грамматиках 17-18 вв lay down 2 tendenses: одни grammarian
считали, что язык должен based on “разума” (“reason”), т.е. из
логики. Другие считали, что при установлении правил следует
исходить из существующего обычая (“usage”). Но оба эти
направления не сильно отличались. The largest representative of
the principle based on logic, R.Laut, the author of the book “ Brief
introduction in English grammar ” (1758) is, this book contains a
number of recommendations and prohibitions. The opposite
representative is Дж. Priestley, the author of the book of " the
Basis of English grammar ” (1761).
In 1795 American Lindlej Marrej has published grammar “ English
Grammar ” which has got enormous authority. The first
dictionaries (15в.) were bilingual english dictionaries, but in 16в.
there are dictionaries of "difficult" words - Robert Kodri's
dictionaries, Какрама, etc. They included archaisms and latin
little-used loans.
The first explanatory dictionary has been made by Natanielem
Bailey (1721г) “ the Universal etymological dictionary ”. It is very
important publishing of the dictionary “ Dictionary of the English
language … ” Semjuelja Johnson (1755г). It was based on works
of authors befor of Restoration's epoch of the end 16-сер17в. It
aspired to keep traditional spelling.
Вопрос 19
Regional varieties of E
Two
varieties of English in Great Britain distinguished from Standard
English-Scottish, and Anglo-Irish - claimed to be literary tongues
Scottish English reemerged again into literary eminence, after a
decline in the 17th c n the poetry of Robert Burns (1759-1796).
The literary tradition was not given up in the 19th c.: a series of
poets employed the Scottish dialect in depicting the grievances
of the common people. For the most part, however, Scottish
English was used for oral intercourse by the less educated people,
while a Regional Modified
Standard displaced it in other funct1Ons. As elsewhere the local
dialect was transformed into a social local dialect used by the
lower classes.
Despite the attempts to revive the Celtic tongue Gaelic or Irish
(which was one of the major issues in the vigorous
struggle for home rule in the 19th c ) , by 190D a variety of
English with a strong rish accent, known as the "brogue", had
become the main lanfuage of the population
Some authorities regard Anglo-Irish as a separate geographical
variant of English possessing an independent national Standard,
others treat it as a locadialect. Anglo-Irish is the official language
of Northern Ireland and Eire and also the language of literature,
school and universities.
Вопрос 20 Geographical Expansion of the English
England's colonial expansion to the New World began in the late
16th c. when her first colonies were set up in Newfoundland
(1583). later colonists came from other regions, including Scotland
and Ireland. Immigrants to the Southern areas were of a higher
class origin. Many immigrants from Great Britain
settled in the West Indies, which,became a part of the British
Empire in the 17th c.
'The colonists spoke different dialects of English. In North
America those dialects gradually blended into a new type of the
language, American English; contacts with other languages,
especially Spanish in the South and French in Canada, have played
a certain role in its development.
The expansion of English to Asia is mainly connected with the
occupation of India. India was one of the main issues in the
colonial
struggle of European powers in the 18th c. In the first half of the
19th c. India became a British colony and Britain acquired other
possessions in Asia, turning them into colonies, dominions or
protectorates. Thus the English language extended to many areas in
Asia, as the language of the state and writing.
Australia was a place of deportation of British convicts since the
late 18th c. A flow of immigrants were attracted to Australia, at
first by the free grants of land, later — by the discovery of gold.
British penetration into Africa was a lengthy affair that extended
over the 19th c. In consequence of financial dependence on British
capital, Sudan and Egypt fell under British political control.
Вопрос 21 Written Records in Late Middle English.
The flourishing of literature, which marks the second half of the
14th c. This period of literary florescence is known as the "age of
Chaucer", the greatest name in English literature before
Shakespeare. Его произведения «Canterbury Tales», «A Legend
of Good Women». Of greatest linguistic consequence was the
activity of John Wyclif
(1324—1384), the forerunner of the English Reformation. His
most important contribution to English prose was his translation of
the BIBLE completed in 1384. Лондонский диалект начала XIV
в. представлен стихотворениями Адама Дэви; вторая половина
произведениями Джеффри Чосера, Джона Гауэра и Джона
Уиклифа. The literary texts of the late 14th c. preserved in
numerous manuscripts, belong to a variety of genres^Translation
continued, but originnal compositions were produced in
abundance; poetry was more prolific than prose.
'John Gower, Chaucer's friend and an outstanding poet of the
time,was born in Kent, but there are not many Kentisms in his
London dialect. His first poems were written in Anglo-Norman and
in Latin. His longest poem VOX CLAMANTIS ("The Voice of the
Crying in the Wilderness"). We should mention one more poet
whose name is unknown. Four feoems found in a single
manuscript of the 14th c. — PEARL, PATIENCE.CLEANNESS
and SIR GAWAINE AND THE GREEN KNIGHT it- have been
attributed to the same author.
The poems are a blending of elaborate alliteration, in line with the
OE tradition,and new rhymed |verse, with a variety of difficult
rhyme schemes.
Вопрос 23 Historical Foundations of Modern English
Spelling
The alphabetic way of writing was originally based on a phonetic
principle: it was designed to give an accurate graphic
representation of pronunciation by using letters to indicate sounds.
Mod E spelling displays many deviations from this principle. The
reasons are to be found in the history of English sounds.
OE spelling was phonetic: They attempted to use a separate letter
for each distinct sound; the sound values of the letters were for the
most part the same as in Latin. Their spellings, however, were not
absolutely consistent, for some letters indicated two or more
sounds: the letter 3 stood for four different phonemes, c — for
two; f, ძ, Þ and s indicated two allophones each (which developed
into
phonemes
later).
ME spelling innovations incorporated many sound changes which
had taken place since the 9th—10th c, and spelling become more
ambiguous and conventional. In many instances ; the one-to-one
correspondence of letter and sound had been lost. Morel letters
than before had two sound values: 0 stood for o], [u], long o and
[0:]; c — for [s] and [k]; g — for [g] and [dз], etc.; u could even
indicate three sounds — the vowels [u] and [y] and the consonant
[v]. One and the same sound was commonly shown by different
means: [dз] could be indicated by g, j or dg, [k] — by k, c and q,
etc.
The digraphs introduced in ME look familiar to the modern
reader, since many of them are still in use, but their application in
ME was rather contradictory. For instance, both ou and ow were
used for [u:] and [oul; double 0 stood for the open and close long
[o:] and [0:] alongside 0; long [e:l and
[έ:] were shown
indiscriminately by ie, double e and the single letter e. The
conventional principle of spelling was later reinforced by the
fixation of the written form of the word in printing and by
extensive
sound
changes.
The phoneticians and spelling reformers of the 16th c. strove to
restrict the freedom of variation and to improve English
orthography by a more consistent use of letters and digraphs, and
by
the
introduction
of
new
symbols.
They insisted upon a strict distinction between u and v when used
to indicate a vowel and a consonant: [u] and [v], e.g. Early NE
loue, selues, vnripe, unshaken later spelt as love, selves, unripe,
unshaken; They introduced new digraphs to show the difference
between some open and close vowels, namely the digraph ea for
[έ: ] as distinguished from e, ee, and ie used for the closed [e: ],
and the digraph oa alongside 0 in open syllables for [o:], as
contrasted to 00 showing a long closed [0:]. The use of double
consonants became less frequent, except in traditional spellings
like kiss, sell, but double letters were sometimes employed to show
that the preceding vowel was short/
§
415. The activities of the scholars in the period of normalisation —
late 17th and the 18th c. — had a stabilising effect on the
development of English spelling. The dictionaries and grammars
fixed the written forms of the words as obligatory standards.
Only a few innovations were made: a few new digraphs were
adopted with borrowed words, such as ph, ps — NE photograph,
psychology, ch — NE chemistry, scheme and machine, g — genre.
In the 18th c. the sound changes slowed down. Standard
pronunciation (later known as RP — Received Pronunciation) and
standard spelling were firmly established,