CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background to the study
In recent years there have been some concerns over the ability of individuals with intellectual
disabilities to function effectively when placed in a job setting. This concern arose as a result
of the type of training given to such individuals in schools that offer vocational training
programmes to them.
In Ghana, special schools for individuals with intellectual disabilities are established
primarily to provide functional academics and vocational skills to this category of children to
make them live independent lives after schooling. The concern is that, since these schools
provide pre-vocation skills training for children with intellectual disabilities, they should be
able to apply knowledge acquired from the programme in any job setting for which they are
trained. Mostly, pre-vocational programmes are not linked to jobs that students will want to
enter in future.
For individuals with intellectual disabilities to live independently, and to play social roles
successfully in their communities, they must be taught skill-based curriculum which is
aligned to their individual needs. Based on the International Labour Organization (ILO)
objectives and principles, various vocational training programmes are expected to be
designed for individuals with disabilities to enable them meet the exigencies of life after
schooling (Munkholm & Fisher, 2008). These programmes should also enable individuals
with disabilities to learn vocational skills where possible under the same principles,
measures, methods and conditions as their non-disabled individuals as far as their medical
and educational conditions permit them.
1
Vocational training is an essential tool for integrating persons with disabilities, especially
those with intellectual disabilities. Development of vocational training programmes for
intellectually disabled students’ research in the United States for instance has identified a
number of programmes and practices which are associated with successful vocational
training for students with intellectual disabilities. These practices include, person-centred
transition planning and assessment; community-referenced curriculum and instruction; an
Individualised Vocational Programme (IVP); job placement prior to leaving school; and the
importance of family involvement in educating individuals with intellectual disabilities
(Sitlington, Frank & Carson, 2000). These practices according to the authors are similar in
the United Kingdom and other developed countries in Europe.
Unfortunately, the field of vocational education and training for individuals with intellectual
disabilities in Africa has not lived up to the standards as practiced in the developed countries
mentioned earlier. In South Africa for example, vocational education and training has been
badly neglected, hence the adaptation of the United States’ vocational training programme as
a framework for developing suitable programmes for such individuals (Akoojee, Gewer &
McGrath, 2005).
In African countries such as Kenya, Nigeria and Ghana, vocational skills training are also
offered to students with intellectual disabilities to develop their potentials. The governments
of these countries are aware of the rights and potentials of such individuals thereby applying
international conventions to protect and provide them with the needed educational support.
Even though these conventions seek to provide a framework with which individuals with
intellectual disabilities will access quality education devoid of discrimination, these
2
individuals seem to miss out a lot on some of the provisions made in the policies by those
countries mentioned earlier (Taanila, Rantakallio, Koiranen, Von Wendt & Jarvelin, 2005).
Preparing individuals with intellectual disabilities for total independence and employability
therefore requires a comprehensive trans-disciplinary vocational programmes and an
emphasis on post-school planning, which is an important role for special schools.
It is therefore necessary to understand the current status of vocational training in the general
curriculum that states methods to be used in educating mentally handicapped children with
intellectual disabilities.
1.2
Statement of the problem
Vocational training is an essential tool for integrating individuals with disabilities, especially
those with intellectual disabilities in society. More importantly, vocational training offered in
special schools need to equip students with skills towards their future independent living. It
has been observed that some special schools are providing very good vocational skills
training for individuals with intellectual disabilities. However, it appears the programmes and
level of training given to these individuals in most cases does not lead to appropriate job
placement of such individuals. Also, many students seem not to be able to demonstrate the
skills they had learned after leaving school. In this study therefore, the researcher seeks to
investigate whether vocational programmes provided in special schools enable students to
enter job settings without hindrance.
1.3
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of vocational programmes offered
in special schools to see how they connect students to appropriate job placement.
3
1.4
Objectives of the Study
The study sought to:
1. Find out the vocational programmes studied in the special schools.
2. Find out how individuals with intellectual disabilities are prepared towards
employment.
3. Investigate the transitional programmes available in the schools.
4. Examine whether the vocational programmes are meeting students’ future needs.
1.5
Research questions
The following questions were raised to guide the study:
1. What vocational programmes are studied in the special schools?
2. How are individuals with intellectual disabilities prepared towards employment?
3. What transitional programmes are available to appropriately place students in jobs for
which they are trained?
4. How are the vocational programmes meeting students’ future needs?
1.6
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study would reveal the vocational programmes offered by the two special
schools for individuals with intellectual disabilities. The findings will also help ascertain
whether the programmes are addressing such individuals’ future needs with regard to their
employment and independent living. The findings will provide information that will enable
the staff of the two special schools to redirect their teaching in order to make the training of
individuals with intellectual disabilities more useful.
4
1.7
Delimitation of the Study
Even though there are seven (7) public special schools for individuals with intellectual
disabilities in Ghana, the study focused on only two (2). The two schools include Dzorwulu
and Castle Road special schools in Accra.
1.8
Limitation of the Study
The researcher adopted the descriptive survey design using only questionnaire as the methods
of data collection. The rationale was to generate data that could be easily manipulated and
described. However, the finding cannot be representative of all special schools for
individuals with intellectual disabilities in Ghana considering the population and the sample
size for the study. The use of only questionnaire did not also allow for in-depth investigation
of the problem.
1.9
Organization of the Study
The study is organized under five main chapters. Chapter one is made up of introduction to
the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study,
delimitation, limitations and definition of terms. In chapter two, related literature is reviewed.
Chapter three discusses the methodology. This involves the research design, populations,
sample and sampling, instrumentation, procedures for data collecting and data analysis.
Chapter four presents analysis and discusses the findings, while chapter five entails
summary, conclusion, recommendation and suggestions.
5
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
Introduction
This chapter explored and reviewed related literature to support the study. Review of
literature focused on the following themes:
2.2

Theoretical framework.

Vocational programmes for individuals with intellectual disabilities.

Preparing individuals with disabilities towards employment.

Transitional programmes towards employment.

Vocational evaluation processes

Related empirical studies

Summary of reviewed literature.
Theoretical Framework
The framework that underpins the study is the “Special Needs Vocational/Career Education
and Transitional Models”. These models were adopted based on their relevance to this study.
Special Needs Vocational/Career Education Models (Brolin, 1978)
The special needs vocational and career education models, based on vocational training and
transition for individuals with intellectual disabilities will be relevant for the study. Applying
these models in the current study will enhance the full realisation of the expectations of
individuals with intellectual disabilities on one hand, and the general educational goals of
individuals with disabilities on the other.
6
These models require that students be provided access to all appropriate vocational education
classes with modified occupational content and supplemental services when needed. This
requirement resulted in a continuum of vocational options ranging from general Vocational
class placement to segregated vocational education programmes. Examples of this model
included a school-based career development and transition education model for adolescents
with disabilities (Clark, 1999), the Ohio Special Needs Vocational Model (Flexer, Simmons,
Luft & Baer, 2001), and the Three-Stage Vocational Transition Model for Youth with
Disabilities (Wehman, Revell & Kregel, 1998).
During the 1970s and early1980s, the concept of career education emerged and became a
national priority and pre-transition programme model. Professionals influenced by the career
development movement began to adopt a more longitudinal and expansive life-centered
approach to students with disabilities and their preparation for adult life. Brolin (1995)
defined career education as “a lifelong process that infuses a career emphasis in all subjects,
grades, including job training, apprenticeship programmes, mentoring, career exploration,
and the nonpaid work done as a family member, citizen, and leisure seeker” (p. 53). Hoyt and
Lester, (1997) identified seven major goals of career education, many of which were to
become central tenets of the transition movement: (a) to help persons in career awareness,
career exploration, and decision-making; (b) to equip persons with general employability and
adaptability skills; (c) to promote and implement private sector and public school system
partnerships; (d) to interface education and work so that the student may make better choices;
(e) to reform education by infusing a “careers” emphasis in academic classrooms; (f) to make
work a meaningful part of the individual’s life; and (g) to protect freedom of choice by
reducing prejudice and stereotyping.
7
Several of the early career education curriculum models successfully used with students with
disabilities included (a) the life-cantered, competency-based model (Brolin, 1978); (b)
school-based career development and transition education model (Clark, 1999); (c)
ecological inventory (Brown, Branston, Hamre-Nietupski, Pumpian, Certo, & Gruenewald,
1999); (d) experienced-based model (Larson, 1991); and (e) career development model
(Egelston-Dodd & DeCaro, l992). Each of these models presented a viable method for
appropriately blending academic and functional life skills. While evolving over a 30 year
period, the career education approach continues today to be important for educators to
consider as they develop curriculum to meet contemporary needs of students with disabilities
in regard to productive, competitive work and meaningful and vocational activities.
Transitional Models
The goal of a transition is for schools to prepare their students with disabilities to
successfully assume young adult roles and responsibilities. Thus, the issue of transition
outcomes remains a critical dimension when considering what is meant by young adult roles
and responsibilities. West and Kregel’s (1997) initial definition only included “employment”
as a post-school outcome. Since then, a variety of life goals have come to be deemed as
important outcomes for students with disabilities. Halpern (1995), for example, challenged
the employment-only definition by offering an alternative definition that also included
“community adjustment” considerations in terms of residential environments and the quality
of social and interpersonal networks. The legislative definition of 1990 referred to transition
as an outcome oriented process that included “post secondary education,” “vocational
training,” “integrated employment,” “continuing and adult education,” “adult services,”
“independent living,” and “community participation”. And finally, DCDT’s professional
8
definition of 1994 also view outcomes from the standpoint of emerging adult roles in the
community, including “employment”, “participating in post-secondary education”,
“maintaining a home”, “becoming appropriately involved in the community”, and
“experiencing satisfactory personal and social relationships”. Finally, in the 1990s, quality
of life issues came to the forefront as a critical component of any transition model that had to
be considered, since individuals with disabilities had a high likelihood of living in poverty,
being victims of crime, and having health and medical concerns (Doren, Bullis & Benz,
1996; West & Kregel,1997). Over the past 40 years, numerous transition models have been
drafted and implemented. These models have provided the operational framework from
which to design programmes and deliver services.
Contemporary transition models include many elements from past models, such as the workstudy model, career education model, special needs model, bridges model, and community
adjustment model. Flexer, Simmons, Luft, and Baer, (2001), for example, highlight common
elements of the 60s work-study model that exist in transition practices of today. These
elements include (a) part-time work experiences combined with functional academics with
credit toward graduation for work experience; (b) the classroom teacher as a work
coordinator working along with the rehabilitation counsellor as part of the school
programme; and (c) interagency agreements utilized to combine school transition, including
work-based learning, and rehabilitation services. Finally, the Bridge’s Model of the 80s has
remained until this day a cornerstone for transition efforts, even though it has since been
expanded by many other professionals (e.g., Brolin, 1993; Brolin & Schatzman, 1989;
Halpern, 1995; Rusch, Wilson, Hughes, & Heal, 1995; Wehman, Revell & Kregel, 1998).
9
2.3
Vocational programmes for individuals with intellectual disabilities
Szymanski and Parker, (2003) opines that vocational programmes are subsumed under seven
different areas which are agriculture, business and office, distributive, health, home
economics, trade and industry and technical occupations. In their study, McCrea and Miller,
(2004) added that vocational programmes are further simplified to include mushroom
farming, batik/tie dying, basketry, weaving, carpentry, poultry, bead making and calabash
work which constitute an important component of preparing individuals with intellectual
disabilities to enter the world of work.
Developing a career is important at all stages of one’s working life. For this reason,
vocational activities must be adapted to meet the needs of individuals with intellectual
disabilities because the interaction of the developmental nature of such individuals and the
developmental nature of career education can lead to a variety of impediments in career
instruction for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Morris & Levinson, 1995). As Rusch,
Wilson, Hughes & Heal, (1995) said, vocational programmes should be dynamic and life
long process because individuals with intellectual disabilities are always changing as they
grow. Szymanski et al. (2003) gave a framework for vocational training programme for
individuals with intellectual disabilities which is particularly useful for counsellors who need
to integrate their own services with the services offered by other members of Individualized
Educational Program (IEP) teams.
Weir (2004) reported that vocational training programme focuses on helping those with
intellectual disabilities to acquire skills and techniques that are used in vocational training to
assist such individuals to acquire relevant skills. Kniel (2002) contends that the selection of
10
vocational programmes should be relevant to individuals with intellectual disabilities, and the
activities should be simple and repetitive.
Hayford’s (2000) evaluation of vocational programmes in four special schools for the
individuals with intellectual disabilities in Ghana suggested that, the schools concentrated on
the provision of vocational activities such as batik/tie dye, weaving, bead making and
poultry. These vocations according to the author appeared too limited in exposing individuals
with intellectual disabilities to other vocational options and the job market.
Studies into vocational programmes for intellectually disabled students in the United State
for instance have identified a number of practices which are associated with their successful
vocational training (McDonnell, Hardman, McDonnell & Kiefer-O’Donnell, 1995). These
programmes or practices include person-centred transition planning and transition
assessment, community-referenced curriculum and instruction, an individualised vocational
programme, job placement prior to leaving school and family involvement (Sitlington, Clark
& Kolstoe, 2000).
As Kortering and Braziel, (2000) stated, individualized vocational programmes should be
developed according to students’ needs. This programme is specially designed with inputs of
team members (i.e. the disabled child, parents and class teacher) to meet an individual’s
needs. Involving individuals with intellectual disabilities in decision making in terms of
vocational programme choices will create opportunities for them to have a say in their own
education and future. Besides, Cummings, Maddux, and Casey, (2000) opined that, school
counsellors can collaborate with teachers to help their students develop vocation interest and
ability to make choices among vocational activities. For example, instructional activities at
11
all school levels may be designed to expose students with intellectual disabilities to a wide
range of job-related skills. The identification of preferences can help the individual’s define
preferences that may translate to preferred occupational environments.
Furthermore, Avoke and Avoke, (2004) argue that schools should incorporate vocational
education programmes and experiences early in the lives of individuals with intellectual
disabilities. The authors also affirmed that the paramount importance of daily living skills,
work experiences and vocational education is deeply infused within a robust vocational
system.
Thressiakutty and Rao, (2001) suggest that, there should be an on-going support services to
help individuals with disabilities, especially those with intellectual disabilities to continue
with vocational training programmes. The authors further identifies that, one major objective
in educating individuals with intellectual disabilities is the acquisition of literacy and
numeracy skills, and also vocational skills for self dependency. In segregated settings, the
curriculum is geared towards functional education and life skills training for individuals with
disabilities (Mutua & Dimitrov, 2001). Teachers for individuals with intellectual disabilities
must therefore focus on teaching their students how to communicate their needs, employ selfcare skills for basic hygiene, maintain appropriate behaviour, employ functional academics,
to be safe, and how to employ appropriate social skills (Mwangi, Kerre, Wabuge, & Mugo,
1999).
2.4
Preparing Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities towards Employment
Human resource development improves economic growth and productivity. This leads to
economic emancipation, social mobility and political stability. Training and skills
12
development play a vital role in individual’s productive capacity and are integral part of
Human Resource Development (Brown & Gerber, 1994). Rapid economic growth demands a
mixture of skilled workers. The accelerated economic progress of the Asian Countries like
China, Japan, Malaysia and also Australia are the excellent examples in point. It is an
established fact that technical education and vocational training can help individuals to
generate income and contribute towards economic growth and social development of a
country by acquiring knowledge and skills (Wehmeyer, Lattin, Lapp-Rincker & Agran,
2003).
The economic growth of a country crucially depends on skills for producing goods and
services (Ballard, 1995). Investment in physical and human capital leads to the development
of services sector, that invariably follows industrialization and modernization, requires midlevel human resource duly possessing entrepreneurial, secretarial and other skills (Brown &
Gerber, 1994).
Blackorby and Wagner, (1997) in a study mentioned three types of skills development:
creative and cognitive skills (problem solving and linking creativity to action), personal and
social skills (conflict resolution, refusal skills, peer mediation, coping skills, facilitation
skills, and navigational skills) and vocational and job skills (job and career options and
entrepreneurship). In Pakistan for instance, training of various skills is imparted through
technical education, vocational training and informal traditional system (Kazmi, 2007).
Employment issues underscore the need for a multifaceted career development programme.
Career development is a cyclical process that involves self-knowledge about personality,
interests, skills, and abilities; understanding of the world of work and the requirements of
specific occupations; and the ability to match one’s abilities and skills satisfactorily with an
13
occupation and a work environment. Aspects that influence the process are occupational
aspirations, self-efficacy expectations, and career maturity. Other essential factors include
positive self-esteem, emotional intelligence, knowledge of one’s civil rights regarding
disability, awareness of accommodations, and skills for self-advocacy and disclosure. Several
of these factors build upon the experience of disability and reinforce each other. For example,
effective self-advocacy requires positive self-esteem. Simply enduring in the face of the
many obstacles individuals with disabilities present may be a building block of emotional
intelligence (Reiff, 1998). These success factors and the career related research cited
previously suggest practices that should be the focus of career development for individuals
with intellectual disabilities.
Michaels (1997) advocates an ideological shift from a focus on deficits to a belief in the gifts,
capacities and dreams of individuals with disabilities, in other words, reframing of
individuals with disabilities’ experience on the part of professionals. The following practices
can be implemented within this framework; many are the same practices that would be used
with individuals without disabilities, but they are adjusted to the needs of the disabled
population: (1) accurate self-knowledge about skills, abilities, interests, and goals as well as
knowledge of one’s disability; (2) world-of-work knowledge acquired through career
exploration, job shadowing and appropriate work experience; (3) self-efficacy enhancement
through attribution retraining, anxiety reduction, and reframing; (4) self-advocacy skills,
including knowledge of civil rights, disclosure issues, accommodations, assistive
technologies, and compensatory strategies; (5) job-search skills; and (6) development of
personal qualities such as persistence, resilience, and the ability to build social support
networks. Individualized Transition Plans should be developed as early as possible, be
14
comprehensive, communicate high expectations, reflect the student’s preferences, and be
developed in cooperation with parents and social service agencies (Blackorby & Wagner
1997).
Employment for individuals with intellectual disabilities requires that such individuals
successfully perform a wide range of jobs, and can be dependable workers. The type of jobs
these individuals are able to perform will depend on their strengths and interest. Examples
include animal caretakers, laundry workers, building maintenance workers, library assistants,
data entry clerks, mail clerks, store clerks, messengers, cooks, sales personnel, hospital
attendants, housekeepers, statement clerks, automobile detail workers and clerical aids
(Hitchings & Retish, 2000).
Cameto, Marder, Wagner and Cardoso, (2003) state that combining the curriculum content
and instruction with job placement that can be on or off the school will ease the transition
from school to work. This concept gives students the opportunity to get curriculum content
input and learn specific job skills. Many employers exclude individuals with intellectual
disabilities from the work because of persistent, but unfounded myths, fears and stereotypes
(Kortering & Braziel, 2000). For instance, some employers believe that workers with
intellectual disabilities will have higher absentees than employers without disabilities (Ohler,
Levinson & Barker, 1996). These authors found that, employing individuals with intellectual
disabilities will not lead to higher insurance rates or more workers compensation as claims.
Just as non-disabled adults work to earn their living, individuals with intellectual disabilities
also have the potential to work and earn when provided with the necessary training,
placement and other supports. Presently, many of such individuals are idle, work in sheltered
15
workshops or work a few hours every week. Their earnings do not reflect their capabilities.
To make employment realistic for individuals with intellectual disabilities, appropriate jobs
from the open market needs to be identified (Rojewski, 1996). Simple jobs that require
minimum supervision and low risk need to be selected for successful training and placement.
In schools for individuals with intellectual disabilities set up for training and daily working,
the students are assigned to be on job training which suit their potential. Students with
intellectual disabilities will have their time-table or duty schedule, throughout the school
period, weekends and even vacation. Activities aimed at preparing these children to be
employed by the school, as well as to train them on jobs, or they have job training in school.
Main activities for example are picking up rubbish and waste, cleaning toilets, watering
flowers, growing vegetables, gardening, growing mushrooms, dyeing clothes, washing and
ironing clothes, doing kitchen work to prepare food, handicraft, and so on. These activities
are organized to train them in various jobs they can enjoy doing and feel well and also have
self-esteem. Besides, many schools work closely in collaboration with accredited vocational
schools and technical institutions as networks for vocational training. Some schools provide
job training at schools with invitee teachers from networked institutions, some send their
students to these institutions to attend the job training. When some of the students pass and
complete their training, the schools sometimes employ them to work at school, or transfer
them to workforce, such as business enterprise, private and government sectors. The students
have to be well trained, knowledgeable, and capable to do the job.
Preparing individuals with intellectual disabilities for workforce, an important factor is that
such individuals must be ready, be qualified, and up to standard requirement. They must be
keen in daily living skills, be able to get medical rehabilitation, having the tools and media to
16
help them access to public services, and then they will be ready in conducting their career of
the job.
2.5
Transitional Programmes towards Employment
Preparing students for the workforce is an important role for schools, or at least it should be.
However, most schools emphasize preparation, which often overshadows attention to actual
workforce readiness. Although graduating from school is an excellent advantage in finding a
rewarding job for a great number of people, it is not the optimal or even possible choice for
students with intellectual disabilities. In the US for example, about half of their students
leave school without the knowledge or skills needed to find and maintain a job (U.S.
Department of Labour, 1991), and one third of students are not prepared for even entry-level
work (U.S. General Accounting Office, 1993).
Transition from school has long been a recognised speciality within the broader context of
service provision. As a result, what constitutes best practice has been described
comprehensively in the literature for some time (Haugh, 1993; Wehman, 1993). MirfinVeitch (2003) has provided an overview of developments in transition programming and
those directly involved in providing transition services and developed resources that guide
practitioners (Career Moves, 2005).
According to Haugh (1993), transition from school can be a daunting time when the normal
anxieties around parenting teenagers are complicated by the vulnerabilities and barriers that
young people with intellectual disabilities may experience. In addition there is a whole new
world of post-school service providers, new funding systems to grapple with and the
possibility that there may be multiple providers involved in different support roles – each
wanting to ensure parent involvement. Including parents as active and contributing members
17
of the transition planning team from the beginning is essential. Again, this can be
problematic if transition planning is compressed into the last year or two of school. There
may be anxieties and issues that need time to work through and options that need exploring.
In addition the range of post-school options, including employment support, is constantly
evolving and changing. The pattern of post-school support services that emerges as the point
of transition approaches can also lead to significant lifestyle decisions for parents in terms of
their support roles.
Huang and Cuvo, (1997) suggested that securing and sustaining employment for individuals
with intellectual disabilities can be an extraordinarily challenging enterprise. In the absence
of full time employment, options that include further education and training, leisure,
recreation and voluntary work are essential components of a valued and well supported life in
the community, and therefore need also to be a focus of transition planning. The tendency is
to respond to these needs by way of congregate programme options rather than exploring
more individualized and supported options that are consistent with the vision of an inclusive
community.
Compared to their non-disabled peers, students with disabilities, especially those with
intellectual disabilities are more likely to experience unemployment or underemployment,
lower pay, and job dissatisfaction (Dunn, 1996). Many students with disabilities as well as
those with chronic achievement problems drop out of school before graduating, leaving them
even more unprepared for and less likely to obtain a job. Schools can better engage and
support these students by helping identify their strengths and interests and providing them
with the skills (or a plan for gaining them) they need to succeed in the workplace.
18
According to the Twenty-First Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of Education, 1999), only
about one-fourth of students with disabilities graduate from school; however, these students
were less likely to drop out of school and more likely to be competitively employed if they
received adequate vocational education and training (Zhang & Stecker, 2001).
Further, there are key legal entitlements, thus the Carl D. Perkins Vocational Act and the
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) that mandate workforce preparation for
students with disabilities including those with intellectual disabilities. According to IDEA
(2004), school administrators should be familiar with these provisions for vocational
assessment and training and ensure that school programmes are consistent with these
mandates. Of course, many students with disabilities do go to school and have great success,
and school personnel should never downgrade their expectations for these students. It is also
important to build the capacity of their teachers to help students and their parents accurately
determine what vocational and life skills training is appropriate. The core elements of
workforce preparation for students with disabilities are the same as those for their nondisabled peers. The awareness of interests and aptitudes, exposure to career options, and
assessing and building skills, but they require more extensive and individualized support
from school personnel and other adults.
Keys to Successful Post-school Transitions Trans-disciplinary Assessment
A major ingredient of a successful school-to-work transition programme is a comprehensive,
trans-disciplinary vocational assessment that integrates a variety of school and community
agency personnel into the assessment process. The assessment process should include
teachers, counsellors, and psychologists, as well as representatives from community mental
19
health/mental retardation, vocational rehabilitation, and social services agencies who work
together to identify relevant transition needs and plan appropriate services. Parents, state
agencies, employers, business organizations, and students must also be involved in the
vocational assessment to some extent. The goal of the vocational assessment is to facilitate
educational and vocational planning that will allow a student to make a successful adjustment
to work after schooling and live in a community without discrimination. Without a
comprehensive assessment of a student’s skills, it is difficult to identify the needs that should
be addressed in the student’s transition plan.
Components of a Comprehensive Vocational Assessment
According to Mont (2004), assessment of students towards their independent living should
address the following areas:

Academic skills,

Daily living skills,

Personal and social skills,

Occupational and vocational skills (including performance tests that assess a student’s
ability to perform specific job-like tasks; work samples that expose a student to
natural job responsibilities; and situational assessments that measure a student’s
interests, abilities, and work habits in actual and contrive work environments,

Career maturity (the extent to which a student possesses adequate understanding of
themselves, adequate understanding of the work world, and adequate decisionmaking skills,
20

Vocational interests (assessment tools include Self-Directed Search [SDS], the Strong
Interest Inventory; the Career Key; and the Occupational Aptitude Survey and
Interest Assessment, second edition [OASIS II]), and

Vocational aptitudes (assessment tools include the Differential Aptitude Test (DAT),
the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB), and the Occupational
Aptitude Survey and Interest Assessment, second edition (OASIS II).
Strengths (advantages) and weaknesses (disadvantages) in each area should be identified and
inferences made about how these factors will affect the student’s ability to make a successful
transition from school to work and community living. The information should then be used to
help establish realistic occupational and independent living goals for the student.
Roles of Professionals in Assessment and Planning
Team members’ roles in the assessment and transition planning process will vary according
to their interests, expertise, and the amount of time each has to devote to the process (Jonsson
& Wiman, 2001). School authorities can encourage and establish links with community
agencies, promoting a trans-disciplinary approach to the assessment and planning process,
assisting in the development of specific policies and procedures relevant to the process, and
ensuring that adequate resources are devoted to assessment and planning. Although school
authorities may oversee the assessment and planning process in their schools, special
education coordinators and transition coordinators may share some of the responsibility for
case management and oversight of the process for individual students (Bennell, 1999).
School psychologists should also be involved in conducting psycho-educational assessments,
explaining assessment results, and making recommendations to the team. In particular,
school psychologists can assist in gathering information relevant to a student’s cognitive,
21
academic, and interpersonal skills. Kregel and Dean, (2002) stated that, counsellors can also
assist in data collection by administering vocational interest and aptitude measures, providing
career guidance, coordinating career days or career fairs, and matching the student with
appropriate classes.
State agencies such as representatives from vocational rehabilitation centres, mental
health/mental retardation, and social services, should be involved in the process. Such
agencies provide case management services and funding for services that students will need
when they leave school. Representatives from these agencies can help arrange community
living, job training, education, transportation and employment. For example, many
vocational rehabilitation agencies are involved in training students for employment (Burns,
Catty, Becker & Drake, 2007), helping students obtain and maintain employment, and
transitioning them into work settings. Further, these representatives can help students and
their families file the necessary paperwork and application materials to ensure that all
necessary services are available to the students when they leave school.
Vlachos (2008) highlighted certain aspects that must be considered when planning for the
future and job placement of individuals with intellectual disabilities. These aspects involve
Physical, Cognitive, Moral, Affective, Self-concept and Social aspects.
In terms of physical, individuals with intellectual disabilities reach their physical milestones,
like sitting, crawling and walking later than other children. This may have a disruptive
influence on the child’s normal flow of development. A learner’s surroundings can be
adapted to limit the effect of his/her physical disability, though he/she still needs an inner
drive to successfully complete tasks.
22
Also, cognitive aspect refers to the personal will to consciously and intentionally do
something, which is a driving force or motivation in a person’s life. To formulate a goal is a
cognitive exercise, but to actively follow the goal is a cognitive or motivational exercise. The
cognitive aspect of the individual with intellectual disabilities’ life has adversely been
affected by their continuous experiences of failure. They later expect failure in whatever they
do and tend not to set meaningful goals for the fear of failure. They often do not trust their
own abilities and rely on others (external sources) to solve their problems. Motivation plays a
role in making decisions about what one would really like to do and what will be acceptable
in the community.
Furthermore, moral aspect or moral judgment involves deciding between right and wrong
and is linked to the level of cognitive development. Individual with disabilities find it
difficult to predict the outcome of their actions and therefore find it difficult to avoid
negative outcomes. People’s values are the basis for what they find worthy in other people
and in themselves. Values undergird codes of conduct, preferences leading to choices, and
ideas leading to decision-making. Examples of positive values for all high school students are
courage, honesty, cooperation, respect, justice, hope, conservation, health, perseverance,
friendliness, trust, honour, integrity, efficiency, initiative, kindness, loyalty and
responsibility. As the learners are constantly bombarded in making the right moral choices,
they constantly come in contact with other people and choices in relationships are necessary
(Gumpel, Tappe & Araki, 2000).
Finally, the student should be actively involved in the transition planning process and attend
all meetings. It is the student’s future that is at stake, and he or she should begin to take
responsibility for important decisions about the future. Including students at transition
23
planning meetings also increases their self-determination and their ability to set goals and
make choices.
School Support for Post-school Planning
School administrators and staff members can help students prepare for the world of work in a
number of ways. To do so effectively, they should have a working knowledge of the stages of
career development and of the general career-related objectives that exist at these various
stages. In general, the three most important goals for students are to gain an understanding of
themselves and their abilities, interests and values; gain an understanding of the world of
work; and acquire effective decision-making skills. Each of these areas is important to
students’ ability to make realistic and informed decisions about work, and school-based
activities should focus on these three areas.
School authorities can promote the importance of staff members’ attendance and provide
input at transition planning meetings. Teachers are an integral part of forming and
implementing many of students’ goals, and they can pro provide valuable feedback and
recommendations about the strengths and interests of their students. It is also imperative for
teachers to support students’ career development. According to Fox and Gotestan, (2003),
many students tend to have unrealistic career expectations and either overestimate or
underestimate their potential for a certain career. Teachers can help encourage, guide and
redirect students with unrealistic expectations toward more realistic career goals. For
example, a student with intellectual disability may aspire to work at the mail office as a mail
distributor, but the teacher may know that the student has not attained the level of
achievement (e.g. not able to read labels) to be able to enter such a job. In this case, the
teacher might redirect the student to more attainable goals.
24
Again, a proper assessment and interview process can help to determine the basis of a
particular career interest. School authorities can encourage teachers to get students thinking
about realistic careers. For instance, when teaching maths or reading skills, teachers can
emphasize how those skills are necessary in everyday life and in most jobs. Teachers should
incorporate real-world applications into their instruction and discuss how the skills that are
being taught are used in occupations that are of high interest to students (Bellamy, Rhodes &
Albin, 1996). Teachers can also introduce a career theme for a day and talk about how the
subject they are teaching is used in that career. For example, if food service is the theme, a
teacher might talk about measuring quantities, keeping track of stocked goods, making
change, balancing the books, and even discussing such areas as statistics (e.g., calculating
what the busiest time of day is and trying to predict how much food will be needed).
Teachers can also provide students with work experiences by setting up a simulated work
environment in the classroom. Students can be “paid” for “work”, academic performance,
social skills or classroom chores (Hoopengardner, 2001). Field trips can be an effective way
to expose students to various occupations. Finally, teachers can have students read job
advertisements, fill out job applications, create résumés, and role-play job interviews and
provide feedback to students about their performance on these activities.
Encouraging Parent Support
School administrators can help set the tone for parent involvement in their children’s career
planning. Parents are important members of the trans-disciplinary team and should be
encouraged to provide input to the team about their child’s interests, aptitudes, strengths,
weaknesses, and goals. They should also be encouraged to actively participate in IEP
meetings and assist the team in developing their child’s IEP. In particular, they should help
25
the team develop specific goals and objectives regarding their child’s future education,
training and employment to be included in the IEP.
Schools can further help parents support their children’s career and vocational explorations
by offering presentations and workshops. Such training can encourage parents to help
increase their child’s occupational awareness by talking with them about their own work
experiences and career decisions and can provide parents with local resources to explore
various career options with their children.
2.6
Vocational Evaluation Processes
Formal evaluation of a vocational programme includes skills assessment evaluations,
simulated situational assessments, and comprehensive vocational evaluations (Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission, 1992). The Evaluation Phase is the second of three
phases in vocational evaluation process which includes both assessment and planning. The
evaluation is between the referral and the service provision phases and a stage in the
rehabilitation process that requires the most participation and the most collaboration between
students and their counsellor. The evaluation always begins with a comprehensive
assessment of students’ medical, psychosocial, and vocational status (Koch, 2000).
Skills Assessment Evaluations
Skills assessment evaluations are designed for students with special needs who may not be
appropriate for participation in a traditional vocational evaluation or work activity/sample
evaluation due to the severity of their disability or a combination of challenges involving
physical, cognitive, emotional, academic, or other functional barriers. Skills assessments are
intended to identify the students’ specific functional limitations including vocational
26
strengths, assets, deficits, weaknesses and life skills in order to distinguish specific work
tasks toward gainful employment outcomes. This evaluation may also result in an identified
need for a simulated situational assessment (also known as a vocational evaluation)
depending upon the students’ performance results in this area. Skills assessment evaluations
may also be used as a screening device for an employer and the student in identifying
appropriate areas for additional exploration. This evaluation may initially employ
commercial work samples as appropriate (though modifications and accommodations may be
frequently integrated into the assessment process) to assess the individual’s full potential.
Simulated Situational Assessments
A simulated situational assessment is an appraisal of a student’s proficiency towards a
specific vocational objective. Simulated situational assessments are helpful in determining
the appropriateness of particular vocational goals relative to students’ interests and abilities.
Situational assessments may also be recommended in cases where vocational potential
cannot be fully determined within the periods available in a short-term service option. Full
situational assessments may be pursued either in an appropriate training shop or with an
employer in the students’ home region.
Vocational Evaluations
Vocational evaluations provide an opportunity for students to participate in activities that are
similar to those described by Beveridge, Craddock, Liesener, Stapleton, and Hershenson
(2002). These researchers describe the status “informing” as a time for the individual to build
on their knowledge of the careers they thought of during the imagining status. Tasks include
exploring and gathering information about what certain careers entail. During this process,
individuals receive feedback from outside sources.
27
Career self-efficacy is the combination of these processes (i.e. the students’ knowledge about
abilities, knowledge of careers, beliefs about capabilities to fulfil career requirements, and
beliefs that abilities will not be futile due to environmental or attitudinal barriers). The formal
assessment of vocational skills can provide the student with an opportunity to explore
opportunities in a supportive environment, thus increasing career self-efficacy (Beveridge,
Craddock, Liesener, Stapleton, & Hershenson, 2002). During the assessment phase of the
vocational evaluation process, students can explore vocational aptitudes, abilities, and
interests.
The purpose of a vocational evaluation is to provide reliable and valid data on a person’s (1)
ability to work, (2) preferences for different types of jobs and work activities, (3) capacity to
perform in a variety of vocational roles, and (4) need for training in specific and general
skills required for success in employment (Caston & Watson, 1990). Vocational evaluations
are comprehensive evaluations of academic and vocational skills, interests, and aptitudes.
Techniques employed during the evaluation may include interviews, observation,
psychometrics, administration of work samples/activities, career exploration, vocational
guidance and counselling. Utilization of hands-on, experiential work samples provides a
unique opportunity for students to explore the world-of-work, to interact with work
samples/activities, and to acquire knowledge relative to individual vocational interests and
abilities. The primary assessment components of each work area include: (1) work behaviour
and social skills, (2) work performance skills and abilities, (3) strengths/assets relative to
successful employment outcomes, (4) barriers to employment, (5) assistive technology, and
(6) accommodation needs.
28
Vocational evaluators develop a cumulative listing of these assessment results and
recommendations for integration within the final vocational evaluation report. Following the
evaluation, a vocational plan is developed which combines the evaluator's knowledge of the
labour market and the useful skills and potentials of the students. This plan may include
immediate job placement, job training, or further education. The comprehensive vocational
evaluation report is therefore used for further rehabilitation planning towards successful,
sustained employment outcomes. The vocational evaluation report outlines the services
received and the students’ performance during the vocational evaluation process. It identifies
the students’ vocational interests, aptitudes, acquired skills, functional limitations, and
barriers to employment. The report also recommends services to enhance the students’ ability
to fully participate in a rehabilitation programme, achieve individual rehabilitation goals, and
maximize employment potential. Examples of services recommended to enhance
rehabilitation potential include (1) assistive technology/devices, (2) reasonable job
accommodations, (3) further physical restoration, (4) academic instruction, (5) work
adjustment training, (6) vocational training, (7) independent living skills instruction, (8)
mental health services, and (9) supported employment options.
Information and recommendations from the vocational evaluation may be used, as
appropriate, by the rehabilitation counsellor and the students in developing their Individual
Plan for Employment (IPE) or by school personnel, the student and the family in developing
the student's Individual Education Plan (IEP).
The reasons for performing an assessment depend on the individual needs of each student.
The evaluator has the responsibility for determining the level of assessment that will best
answer the questions from the referring source. Often, a brief evaluation process may be
29
sufficient to provide the necessary information. The vocational evaluations used in this study
are a comprehensive vocational evaluation, which lasts from three to five days. The
assessments are planned to meet the specific needs of the students. Vocational evaluations
also provide realistic and objective analyses of students’ vocational assets and needs. They
also give an accurate estimation of a consumer’s potential to return or enter and engage in
specific gainful employment and can identify different occupations for students who need to
or want to change occupations. The identification of barriers or obstacles to work (such as
doorways too narrow to accommodate wheelchairs, desk height) is also a useful product of
evaluations.
Power (1991) defined a vocational assessment as a comprehensive, intra-disciplinary process
of evaluating an individual’s physical, mental, and emotional abilities, limitations, and
tolerance in order to identify an optimal outcome for the disabled or handicapped individual.
The final goal of a vocational assessment is to provide an interpretation and synthesis of the
information from a variety of sources in an attempt to understand work related strengths and
deficits, identify occupations consistent with the individual’s interests and aptitudes, and
decide upon the objectives necessary to achieve the specific vocational goals.
Roberts (1992) outlines specific information sought during this assessment, including: (1)
whether or not the person can fulfil a vocational role and at what level, (2) the impact of
presenting disabilities upon the person’s return to work, (3) any behaviours or emotional
problems that may interfere with the person’s ability to maintain work, (4) motivation toward
work and rehabilitation, (5) additional medical or physical limitations, (6) whether or not the
expressed job interests are realistic, and (7) the capacity for the person to benefit from a skills
30
training programme. Even though the vocational evaluation report is considered the product
of the vocational evaluation, students’ entire experience should be taken into consideration,
as this can provide a more detailed view of the whole person.
2.7
Related Empirical Studies
Individuals with disabilities, especially those with intellectual disabilities have come to
expect that they should be able to participate as fully and as autonomously as possible in
social and economic life. Competitive employment is seen by most individuals as a major
and essential means of gaining income, enhancing self-esteem and increasing quality of life,
options and opportunities (Riches, 1993).
There is overwhelming research evidence which shows that the vast majority of individuals
with disabilities can function in open employment (Ghergut & Gavrilovici, 2007). However,
the present situation is quite bleak (Broad & Saunders, 2009). Russell (2008) also found that
74% to 85% of adults with intellectual disabilities in the U.S. are either unemployed or not in
open employment. Russell further indicated that the unemployment rate for young
individuals with intellectual disabilities was 58%; almost three quarters of those who were
employed earned less income per month; and most of those employed had gained their jobs
through family members or friends. In a more recent study, Vlachos (2008) found that only
6% of their samples of young adults with intellectual disabilities were competitively
employed.
Also, an earlier study, the Australian Bureau of Statistics data of 1990 indicated that the
labour force participation rate of individuals with disabilities was 46% compared with 72%
31
of all persons or all persons aged 15 to 64 years. Also, two years after leaving school less
than 50% of all young persons with disabilities had found employment (Vlachos, 2008).
Therefore, despite the development over the last fifteen years of a variety of approaches
(work experience, community service, subsidised work introduction, specialised units for
work introduction and transitional-employment programmes) overseas, we are far from
achieving the goal of obtaining and maintaining competitive employment for individuals
with disabilities. Extensive vocational programmes have been initiated to improve outcomes
for individuals with disabilities. However, as the success rate of these programmes is limited
there is a need to improve them. The social problems associated with long-term
unemployment of individuals with disabilities have serious implications for the community
and for policy making. A study of young adults with an intellectual disability who want to
move into the competitive work force revealed that, many young adults with disabilities do
not make the transition from school to competitive employment in spite of many innovative
initiatives (Gramlich, Crane, Peterson & Stenhjem, 2003). In an effort to address some of
these difficulties, governments’ initiatives have to lead to the establishment of competitive
employment and training programmes.
Nearly, all studies have concentrated on the evaluations of social competence. Few, if any,
studies have examined the perspective of individuals with intellectual disabilities who have
been successful in the competitive workforce. Human resource development improves
economic growth and productivity. This leads to economic emancipation, social mobility and
political stability. Training and skills development therefore play a vital role in individual’s
productive capacity and are integral part of Human Resource Development (Blackorby &
Wagner, 1997). Rapid economic growth demands a mixture of skilled workers. The
32
accelerated economic progress of the Asian Countries like China, Japan, Malaysia and also
Australia are the excellent examples in point. It is an established fact that technical education
and vocational training can help individuals with disabilities to generate income and
contribute towards economic growth and social development of a country by acquiring
knowledge and skills (Brown & Gerber, 1994).
The economic growth of a country crucially depends on skills for producing goods and
services (Brown & Gerber, 1994). Investment in physical and human capital leads to the
development of services sector, that invariably follows industrialization and modernization,
requires mid-level human resource duly possessing entrepreneurial, secretarial and other
skills (Gramlich, Crane, Peterson & Stenhjem, 2003).
Wang (2006) in a study mentioned three types of skills development: creative and cognitive
skills (problem solving and linking creativity to action), personal and social skills (conflict
resolution, refusal skills, peer mediation, coping skills, facilitation skills, and navigational
skills) and vocational and job skills (job and career options and entrepreneurship). These are
skills individuals with disabilities need to be functional in society.
33
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1
Introduction
This chapter discusses the methods that were used in collecting data for the study. It consists
of the research design, the population, sample and sampling techniques, procedures for data
collection, and data analysis. In addition, considerations that were taken to strengthen the
validity of the study and reliability of the instrument are described.
3.2
Research design
The research design used in this study was a descriptive survey. According to Robson (2003),
descriptive surveys are useful when a researcher intends to report participants’ views
descriptively the way they expressed them. This design allows researchers to easily describe
and provide an understanding of a phenomenon using simple descriptive statistics in
presenting data (Bell, 2003). Bell further pointed out that, survey is primarily for describing,
observing and documenting aspects of a situation as it naturally occur. The advantage of
using survey is that responses can be collected from a very wide range of people. The design
allowed the researcher to collect data from the sample used for this study, thus presenting
what had been found out without any bias.
3.3
Population
The population involved in the study included special educators at Dzorwulu and Castle
Road special schools.
34
3.4
Sample and Sampling technique
All thirty eight (38) special educators from two public special schools, Dzorwulu and Castle
Road Special Schools were purposively selected to participate in the study. The two schools
which are all located in Accra were selected from seven public special schools established in
Ghana. The selection of the two schools in Accra was informed by their convenience and
proximity to the researcher. This facilitated the quick collection of data and early completion
of the study. This corroborates Harris’ (2002) assertion that, most convenience samples are
reasonably representative of the population of interest.
3.5
Research Instrument
In this study, questionnaire was the main instrument used for data collection. The choice of
questionnaire was based on its strength in allowing anonymity and privacy of respondents to
be guaranteed, since no names were written on them. By using questionnaire, it was possible
for the researcher to gather data from a sizeable sample drawn from a target population. The
instrument was designed capturing the main issues raised in the research questions. A total of
twenty (20) questionnaire items were constructed to reflect the research questions. The
survey questions were cast in two sections. Section A elicited background information on
respondents, while Section B comprised of twenty closed-ended (Yes/No) dichotomous
questions that investigated the problem. These processes were thoroughly discussed with the
researcher’s supervisor and subsequently approved. The instrument was later pre-tested in a
school that was not part of the study.
Pre-Testing the Instrument
A pre-test of the instrument was conducted in one special school not participating in the
study. This was done to find out any difficulty or ambiguities that may be identified, and for
35
their rectification before administering them to the sample that was to participate in the actual
study. The pre-test involved five (5) special educators in Rev. Father John Special Unit,
Winneba. Twenty (20) fully structured closed-ended questionnaire items was administered to
the special educators to solicit their views on the issues under investigation.
Results of the Test of Instrument
Results from the test of the instrument informed the researcher on whether the participants
understood the questions they were being asked. This offered the researcher an opportunity
improve or modify the instrument. It emerged from the test that, some words or sentences
needed clarification. The questionnaire items were developed and fine-tuned based on the
outcome of the testing.
3.6
Validity and Reliability Considerations
The main validity consideration for this study was how to make the findings statistically
applicable beyond the sample and whether the instrument used really measured what it was
intended to measure. This was done by collecting and critically analysing the views of the
respondents. In order to strengthen validity, the sampling procedure and the extent to which
the final sample was representative of the population in the participating schools was
seriously considered. In order to ensure the reliability of data, the instrument was tested in a
school not participating in the actual study to investigate the feasibility of the questionnaire
to guarantee that it was free from ambiguities. The test results were thoroughly discussed
with colleagues and some lecturers at the Department of Special Education of the University
of Education, Winneba. This helped in fine-tuning the questionnaire for final administration.
After administering the questionnaire, the participants were asked to crosscheck their bio-
36
data before the questionnaire sheets were collected. This was to ensure that accurate
information was obtained.
3.7
Ethical Considerations
As the study involved special educators, certain ethical issues were addressed. The
consideration of these issues was necessary for the purpose of ensuring the privacy as well as
the security of the participants. These issues were identified in advance so as to prevent
future problems that could have arisen during the study. The significant issues that were
considered included consent, confidentiality and data protection.
Firstly, a letter of introduction (see Appendix A) from the Department of Special Education
of the University of Education, Winneba was sent to the participating schools indicating the
researcher’s studentship and willingness to conduct a study in the selected schools. Later, the
respondents were briefed about the study and were also assured of the necessary
confidentiality of the information to be gathered. After the study, an appreciation letter was
sent to the participating schools for their co-operation and full participation (Appendix B).
3.8
Procedures for Data Collection
This section involved all the processes the researcher undertook to gather data for the study.
These include:
Access
Before the researcher went out to collect data for the study, permission was sought from the
school heads, who subsequently informed the teachers about the study in order to solicit their
cooperation. Scheduled meetings were also communicated to the participants three (3) days
before each meeting time.
37
Data Collection
This process involved the administration and retrieval of completed questionnaire forms from
the respondents. After the researcher distributed the questionnaire to the participants, seven
days interval was given for completion and collection. Upon the elapse of the time given for
the completion of the questionnaires, the researcher went personally to retrieve them. In all,
a maximum of two (2) weeks was used by the researcher to put the completed questionnaire
together.
3.9
Data Analysis
To examine the views of respondents regarding the problem investigated, some statistical
methods were used. Descriptive statistics (frequencies and simple percentages) were used to
describe data on the basis of the reaction of the respondents to the survey items. The
questionnaire items were numbered 1 to 20 for easy analysis. Specific questions formulated
to investigate the research problem were categorized under specific headings. Appropriate
tables were used where necessary to clearly present data. The results were subsequently
discussed and supported with evidence from related literature.
38
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1
Introduction
This chapter describes the details of the quantitative study. It presents the results and the
analysis of the quantitative data generated from the teachers through the Closed-ended
questionnaire items administered to them. The first part presents the analysis of the data,
while the second part deals with the discussion of findings.
4.2
Analysis of Data
The preliminary analysis deals with the respondents’ bio-data, while the subsequent analysis
and discussions focus on the results obtained from the research questions. In all, data
analyzed and discussed represent the views of thirty-eight (38) respondents that participated
in the study.
4.2.1 Bio-data of Respondents
Table1: Respondents’ Demographic Characteristics
School
Dzorwulu
Castle Road
Gender
Male
Female
Age
30-39
40-49
50+
Academic
Master’s degree
Bachelor’s degree
Qualification
Others
Status
Director I
Director II
Principal Superintendent
Snr. Technical Instructor
No. of yrs teaching
5-10
in special school
11-15
16+
39
N=(38)
30
8
18
20
15
15
8
8
25
5
4
9
18
7
14
16
8
78.9
21.1
47.4
52.6
40.0
40.0
20.0
21.0
65.8
13.2
10.5
23.7
47.4
18.4
36.8
42.1
21.1
Table1 shows the bio-data of the teachers in the two special schools. The total sample used in
the study stood at 38 (30 and 8 drawn from Dzorwulu and Castle Road schools respectively).
The table shows that, 52.6% of the teachers were females, while 47.4% represents males.
This is an indication of a gender composition showing that there were more female teachers
than males in the two schools.
The age distribution of the respondents also shows differences in age of the teachers. As
indicated by the results, none of the teachers is aged below 30 years. 15 (40.0%) each of the
respondents were aged between 30-39 and 40-49 years in age. Only 8 (20.0%) of the
respondents were aged above 50 years.
With regard to academic qualification, it was encouraging to find majority (65.8%) of the
teachers in the two schools holding bachelor’s degree. While 8 (21.0%) of the respondents
were master’s degree holders, 5 (13.2%) of the teachers had qualifications other than
bachelor or master’s degrees.
In terms of respondents’ rank in their employment, 18 (47.4%) attained the rank of principal
superintendent, 9 (23.7%) had Director II, while 7 (18.4%) and 4 (10.5%) were at the ranks
of Senior Technical Instructor and Director I respectively. Also, the number of years the
teachers had been teaching in the special school shows that 16 (42.1%) of the teachers had
been teaching in their schools between 11-15 years, followed by 14 (36.8%) who had been
teaching between 5-10 years, while 8 (21.1%) had taught in their schools for 16 years or
more.
40
4.2.2 Vocational programmes studied in Dzorwulu and Castle Road special schools
Table 2: Vocational programmes studied in Dzorwulu and Castle Road schools
Dzorwulu
1
Castle Road
Yes
No
Yes
No
Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
%
Items
Is batik/tie-die part of the
30 78.9
0 0.0
0 0.0
8 21.1
vocational programmes offered
in your school?
2
Is any kind of weaving (e.g.
door mats and table cloths) done
in your school?
30 78.9
0
0.0
8 21.1
0
3
Do you teach your students how
to keep poultry?
30 78.9
0
0.0
0
8 21.1
4
Is bead-making studied in your
school?
Are students offering
dressmaking?
30 78.9
0
0.0
8 21.1
0
5
0.0
0.0
0.0
0
0.0
30 78.9
0
0.0
8 21.1
6
Is hairdressing a component of
the vocational programmes
offered in your school?
0
0.0
30 78.9
0
0.0
8 21.1
7
Does your school offer
woodwork or carpentry?
0
0.0
30 78.9
0
0.0
8 21.1
8
Do you think vocational
programmes offered in your
school are the same as those
offered in accredited vocational
schools?
24 63.2
6 15.8
5 13.2
3
7.8
Source: Field Data, (2011).
Data from Table 2 represents teachers’ responses on the vocational programmes pursued in
the two special schools. The results clearly show that, the vocational programmes pursued in
the two schools vary except two programmes (i.e. various kinds of weaving and beadmaking) that were common to both schools. While Dzorwulu had vocational programmes
such as batik/tie-dye and poultry in addition to the commonly taught programmes, Castle
Road special school had none other than weaving (door mat, coffee table cloths) and bead
41
making. The results also shows that, none of the schools study dress making, hair dressing
and wood work or carpentry.
The results regarding whether vocational programmes studied in the special schools were the
same as those in accredited vocational schools shows that, a total of 76.4% of the
respondents (representing Dzorwulu=63.2% and Castle Road=13.2%) shared the same view
that vocational programmes studied in the special schools were the same as those in the
accredited vocational schools. However, 15.8% and 7.8% of the respondents from Dzorwulu
and Castle Road special schools respectively thought that the programmes were not the same
as those taught in the accredited vocational institutions.
4.2.3 Preparation of Pupils for Employment
Table 3: Teachers’ views on preparation of pupils for employment
Dzorwulu
Items
9
Castle Road
Yes
No
Yes
No
Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
%
Are students given counselling
on their choice of vocations?
10 Are the vocational programmes
offered in your school meeting
the employment demands?
12 31.6
18 47.4
2
5.3
6 15.8
8 21.1
22 57.9
4 10.5
4 10.5
11 Do you think your students will
be accepted in an employment?
4 10.5
26 68.4
0
8 21.1
12 Do you think that, students who
have gone through a vocational
programme will have the prerequisite
skills
for
employment?
20 52.6
10 26.4
6 15.8
0.0
2
5.3
Source: Field Data, (2011).
Table 3 presents teachers’ views on preparation of the pupils for employment. The results
show that, a total of 24 (63.2%) of the respondents indicated that students were not given
42
counselling on their choice of vocational programmes in the schools. Interestingly, 22
(57.9%) and 4 (10.5%) of the teachers from Dzorwulu and Castle Road schools respectively
believed that vocational programmes offered in the schools were not meeting the needs of
their students. Also, a total of 34 (89.5%) representing the views of 26 (68.4%) and 8
(21.1%) of respondents from Dzorwulu and Castle Road respectively did not think that their
students will be accepted in any employment, even though it was their view that their
students had pre-requisite skills for employment.
4.2.4 Transitional Programmes Available in Dzorwulu and Castle Road schools
Table 4: Teachers’ views about transitional programmes in Dzorwulu and Castle Road
schools
Dzorwulu
Items
Castle Road
Yes
No
Yes
No
Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
%
13 Does your school transit
students into their choice of
employment?
14 Do you follow up on your
students in Employment?
4 10.5
26 68.4
0
0.0
8 21.1
4 10.4
26 68.4
0
0.0
8 21.1
15 Are the transitional
programmes effective?
16 Do you think the transitional
programmes in you school need
modification?
0
30 78.9
0
0.0
8 21.1
0.0
28 73.6
2
5.3
8 21.1
0
0.0
Source: Field Data, (2011).
Views expressed in respect of the transitional programmes available in Dzorwulu and Castle
Road Special Schools as in table 4 shows that, there are no clear programmes to transit
students into their choice of employment. The results indicate a total of 34 (89.5%) of the
respondents asserting that their schools did not transit students, hence no follow ups were
43
made on them. Even though, there appears to be no efficient transitional programmes
available in the schools, majority 36 (94.7%) of the respondents think that the schools need
such programmes or modify the existing ones to meet the need of students.
4.2.5 Views about how vocational programmes are meeting the future need students
Table 5: Teachers’ views about how vocational programmes are meeting students’
future needs
Dzorwulu
Items
Castle Road
Yes
No
Yes
No
Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
% Freq.
%
17 Do students express interest in
the vocational programmes they
study?
18 Do students practice the
vocations they learn in school?
16 42.1
14 36.8
6 15.8
2
4 10.5
26 68.4
1
7 18.4
19 Do you think the vocational
programmes studied in your
school will meet students’
future needs?
20 Do you think students will live
independently after graduation?
24 63.1
6 15.8
8 21.1
0
26 68.4
4 10.5
2
6 15.8
2.6
5.3
5.3
0.0
Source: Field Data, (2011).
Investigating how the vocational programmes were meeting the future needs of individuals
with intellectual disabilities, the results in Table 5 were encouraging. In response to the
question of whether students express interest in the vocational programmes they study, a total
percentage rate of 22 (57.9%) representing a little over half of the respondents agreed that
their students show interest in the programmes. Additionally, 32 (84.2%) of the respondents
thought that the programmes offered in the schools were meeting the future needs of their
students. Whilst 26 (68.4%) teachers from Dzorwulu believed that their students will lead
independent lives after graduating from school, 6 (15.8%) of the teachers from Castle Road
44
Special School thought otherwise. Interestingly however, majority 33 (86.8%) of teachers
from both schools indicated that their students did not practice skills learnt in the vocational
programmes in school.
4.3
Discussion of Findings
The present study sought to investigate the efficacy of vocational programmes offered in
special schools to find out how they connected students to appropriate job placement. In spite
of the limitations, the study yielded necessary and sufficient information which will be useful
for educators and other stakeholders involved in education for individuals with intellectual
disabilities. In the earlier part of this chapter, the results were presented and analyzed based
on themes generated from the research questions. In this part, the findings have been
discussed in more details under the research questions raised to investigate the problem.
Research Question 1: What vocational programmes are studied in the special schools?
With regard to the vocational programmes that were available in the schools, the study
revealed that in Dzorwulu special school, batik/tie-dye, poultry, door mat and table cloth
weaving, and bead making were offered, while Castle Road special school offer only
weaving and bead making. It was therefore evident that the vocational programmes offered in
the special schools were not uniform thereby varying from one school to another. These
programmes appeared too limited for students to choose from. This finding confirms Wood
(2000) assertion that, programmes studied in most special schools offer very few
opportunities in and limit the range of vocations that trainees can learn. Further, Cherono
(2003) in his study also found that, due to the lack of broader vocational options in special
schools, students are compelled to learn vocations that are not their interest areas. The author
added that, students in most cases are not allowed to make their own vocational choices. In
45
another related study, McCrea and Miller, (2004) asserts that as much as schools lack
qualified teachers, especially in specific skill areas schools are forced to introduce
programmes that teachers can teach.
Research Question 2: How are individuals with intellectual disabilities prepared
towards employment?
It is evident in the study that majority 34 (89.5%) of the respondents believed their students
will not be accepted in any employment even if the vocational programmes studied in the
schools were meeting their future needs. The findings are similar to those of Sitlington, Clark
and Kolstoe, (2000) who also found that vocational programmes studied in schools alone do
not in itself make students prepared for employment. These authors assert that, vocational
training should be attached with behavioural training, since students may find their way into
employment. In their view, Sitlington, Clark and Kolstoe, (2000) further posit that vocational
training if not linked to individuals’ future needs will not yield positive dividend as far as
students’ independent living is concerned. The position of Jones and Howley confirms those
of Thressiakutty and Rao’s (2001) who suggest that, there should be on-going support
services to help individuals with disabilities to continue vocational training programmes
consistent with what such individuals will do with the skill in future. According to Shearman
and Shearan, (2011), programmes that are not suited for students would create more
disruption in students’ lives.
Research Question 3: What transitional programmes are available to appropriately
place students in jobs for which they are trained?
It was evident in the study that, there were no transitional programmes for employment in the
two schools. This was the view of 34 (89.5%) of the teachers. The response in respect of 36
46
(94.7%) of the teachers who indicated that students needed to be transited, and also modify
the transitional programmes existing in the schools was overwhelming. These findings are in
line with those of Mwangi, Kerre, Wabuge and Mugo, (1999). These authors in their study
found that individuals with intellectual disabilities who graduated from school in most cases
were not found in any employment. The implication of the situation is that, such individuals
will remain in school or at home doing nothing. Earlier, a study conducted by Kniel (1995)
revealed that a vast majority (79.5%) of students who had gone through some vocational
training and had graduated from the special schools in Ghana were either assisting at home or
were doing virtually nothing.
Wang (2006) noted that transitional programmes are to help students, stakeholders and
parents to bring together the best possible outcome of individuals with intellectual disabilities
so that their transition into job settings is smooth and secured. According to Wang,
intellectual disabilities are not at all a hindrance for students to learn the behaviour of their
non-disabled counterparts and that they too have the right to education. Their transition from
school to an employment setting therefore is intended to develop such individuals to full
maturity as possible.
Research Question 4: How are the vocational programmes meeting students’ future
needs?
The results in respect of whether the vocational programmes were meeting students’ future
needs indicate that 32 (84.2%) respondents appraised the programmes that they were
efficiently equipping students with skills, thus meeting their future needs. Even though this
finding is contrary to the findings of Zhang and Stecker, (2001) and Morgan and Morgan,
(2006) that vocational programmes taught in special schools for individuals with intellectual
47
disabilities in South Africa and Kenya for instance did not appear to be meeting students’
future needs. Although the findings of this study cannot be contested, it however did not
imply that all was going well in the Ghanaian situation, since other finding point to the fact
that students were not transited into any employment setting.
48
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY OF RESULTS AND CONCLUSION
5.1
Introduction
This chapter provides the summary of findings, conclusion, recommendations and
implications for further research.
5.2
Summary of Findings
The purpose of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of vocational programmes that were
offered in Dzorwulu and Castle Road special schools to see how they connect students to
appropriate job placement after graduating from school. The study involved a sample of
thirty eight (38) participants purposefully selected from two public special schools. Closeended (Yes or No) questionnaire items were used to generate data for the study.
The outcomes of the study were as follows:

The revealed that Dzorwulu special school provided pupils training in batik/tie-dye,
poultry, door mat and table cloth weaving, and bead making, while Castle Road
special school offer only door mat weaving and bead making

On whether the vocational programmes studied in the schools were meeting students’
needs, the results of the study indicated that majority (89.5%) of the respondents
think that students will not be accepted in any employment even though the
vocational programmes studied in the schools appeared to be meeting the students’
future needs

Further, majority (89.5%) of the teachers indicated that students from both schools
were not transited to any employment.
49

Also, 94.7% of the teachers indicated that students needed to be transited into
employment, and also modify the transitional programmes that were existing in the
schools.

Lastly, 84.2% of the respondents indicated that vocational programmes studied in
both schools were sufficiently equipping students with skills, thus meeting their
future needs
5.3
Conclusion Based on the Results of the Study
Based on the findings of this study, it was possible to draw the following conclusions:
 Vocational programmes offered in Dzorwulu special school include batik/tie-dye,
poultry, door mat and table cloth weaving, and bead making. Students from Castle
Road special school also study only door mat weaving and bead making. However,
there appears to be too limited programmes for students to choose from based on
their individual interests.
 Even though vocational programmes studied in the two schools were seen to have
been meeting students’ future needs, they may not be accepted in any competitive
employment.
 Both schools did not appear to be running any transitional programme for their
students. The implication of this is that, students may remain in school for longer a
time or drop-out from school.
5.4
Recommendations
Based on the findings of the study, it is recommended that, more vocational programmes
should be introduced in the special schools to enable students make choices based on their
50
interests. Also, vocational programmes studied in the schools should be planned to link the
type of employment for which the child is trained. Further, transitional programmes must be
carefully designed to appropriately place students in employment after graduating from
school. However, it is suggested that training equipments, materials and logistic should be
regularly supplied to the two special schools by Government through the Ghana Education
Service to enhance the training skills of students. In addition, qualified teachers with
technical and vocational training background should be encouraged to teach in the special
schools after training. The researcher believes that when these recommendations are
implemented, individuals with intellectual disabilities will see positive results in terms of
their independent living.
5.5
Suggestion for Further Research
The findings of this study suggested a number of directions for further study. Firstly, there is
the need to conduct a study to explore ways of enhancing appropriate vocational and
transitional programmes in special schools in Ghana.
51
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61
APPENDIX A
LETTER OF INTRODUCTION
FROM UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
DEPARTMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF EDUCATION, WINNEBA
(UEW)
Our Ref:
……………………………….
……………………………….
……………………………….
March 1, 2011
Dear Sir/Madam,
INTRODUCTORY LETTER
Mr. Frederick K. Amedzake a Master’s Student of the University of Education, Department
of Special Education, Winneba is undertaking research on the topic “An Evaluation of Prevocational Skills Training in Two Special Schools in Accra”.
He would need your assistance to access data from your school. I would therefore, be
grateful if you could provide him with the necessary assistance.
Your cooperation in this regard is highly appreciated.
Thank you.
Yours faithfully,
P. O. Box 25, Winneba, C/R Ghana. Tel.: (0432) 22139/22140 Ext 138 headofdept20@yahoo.com
62
APPENDIX B
LETTER OF APPRECIATION
University of Education, Winneba
Department of Special Education
P. O. Box 25. Winneba.
Central Region
4th June, 2011.
………………………………
………………………………
………………………………
Dear Sir/Madam,
LETTER OF APPRECIATION
I am writing back in connection with data collection for my research in which your school
participated. Data collection may not usually be an easy task for researchers. In my case, it
was successful because I got maximum support and cooperation both from you as a school
head and from teacher colleagues in your school, all of whom willingly participated in the
research.
I would therefore like to convey my sincerest gratitude to all teachers, especially you for
making it possible for me to obtain data for my study.
May God bless your struggles in the service of our country.
Yours,
……………………..
Amedzake Frederick
63
APPENDIX C
RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE FOR TEACHERS
1
Items
Is batik/tie-die part of the vocational programmes offered in your
school?
2
Is any kind of weaving (e.g. door mats and table cloths) done in your
school?
3
Do you teach your students how to keep poultry?
4
Is bead-making studied in your school?
5
6
Are students offering dressmaking?
Is hairdressing a component of the vocational programmes offered in
your school?
7
Does your school offer woodwork or carpentry?
8
Do you think vocational programmes offered in your school are the
same as those offered in accredited vocational schools?
9
Are students given counselling on their choice of vocations?
10
Are the vocational programmes offered in your school meeting the
employment demands?
Do you think your students will be accepted in an employment?
11
12
Do you think that, students who have gone through a vocational
programme will have the pre-requisite skills for employment?
13
Does your school transit students into their choice of employment?
14
Do you follow up on your students in
Employment?
15
16
Are the transitional programmes effective?
Do you think the transitional programmes in you school need
modification?
17
Do students express interest in the vocational programmes they study?
18
19
Do students practice the vocations they learn in school?
Do you think the vocational programmes studied in your school will
meet their future needs?
Do you think students will live independently after graduation?
20
Total
64
Yes
No