British Military Ethos and Christianity1
Stephen Deakin Ph.D. MBA. Cert. Ed.
Department of Defence and International Affairs,
The Royal Military Academy Sandhurst,
Camberley, Surrey, United Kingdom.
GU15 4PQ
Military: (9) 4261 2186
Civilian: +44 (0) 1276 412186
Fax: +44 (0) 1276 412129
E mail: s.deakin@rmas.mod.uk
Published as: “British Military Ethos and Christianity”, British Army Review
No 138. Winter 2005. pp. 97-105.
1 - Introduction
“…the English Army is essentially a Protestant one….we may fairly assume
further that it is a Church Army.” (Anonymous, 1845: 406)
“Provided a ship has a good Commander and a good Chaplain you will never
find anything much wrong with her.” Admiral Sir John de Robeck, C in C
Atlantic Fleet 1922-4. (Taylor, 1977: xix)
Ethos is a concept that came into common usage in the British military
in the 1990s. The word ethos began to appear frequently, in military
publications and on the lips of military personnel. An important Army policy
document in 1993, the Discipline and Standards Paper, which was
concerned with the behaviour of Army personnel was subtitled ‘The Military
Ethos (The Maintenance of Standards)’ brought the concept to particular
prominence. Field Marshall Sir Peter Inge, Chief of the Defence Staff, argued
in 1995 that, ‘...ethos is very important. It is, I find, a very difficult subject to
talk about....but is something that is fundamentally important for Armed
1
The views expressed here are those of the author and they are not
necessarily those of the Ministry of Defence. I am grateful for the helpful
comments of Charles Garraway and Nigel de Lee.
Forces to believe in....’ (Inge1998: 4) Similarly, the Defence Secretary in
1998, said, ‘Nor will I be asking the Services to abandon the ethos and
traditions on which their success has been built.’ (Robertson: 1998) Those
using this term recognise something particularly distinctive in the British
military ethos, that they wish to preserve.
Ethos and ethics are closely related. Ethics is about moral principles
and philosophy and how people should live. Ethos is concerned with the way
in which people actually live and it presupposes community. Ethos is the
characteristic spirit of a community. The current frequent usage of the word
ethos in the area of British defence presents a challenge to give it substance.
Ethos can be a difficult term, but in the case of the British military ethos the
most important elements of it stand out as a trinity. British military ethos for
hundreds of years has consisted of three principal interwoven strands which
cannot easily be separated and which infuse each other. These three are
martial virtues, military allegiance to the state and Christianity.
The importance of Christianity to the British military ethos is not well
recognised: yet its importance as a contributor to the characteristic spirit of the
British military is great. What follows is not an attempt to detail the religious
history of the British military; rather it seeks to discern this Christian ethos in
the military.
2 - Christianity and the British Military
For long periods from the Sixteenth Century, a common understanding
amongst the civilian population was that soldiers and sailors were members of
a particularly godless, vulgar community. More recently, academic studies
have argued the case that religion was used by the authorities as a control
mechanism to inculcate obedience amongst military personnel. (Spiers, 1980,
Ramsay Skelley, 1977) Or, that Christianity was used as part of a policy in the
Nineteenth Century to integrate the Army and civilian society. (Hendrikson,
1998)
This paper argues that from the 1600s the British military was created
to be a church, similar to a diocese of the Church of England, and that this
policy was continued because Britons believed Christianity to be true –
however low the level of national spiritual life was for long periods. Military law
and procedures used to organise the modern military in the 1600s and
onwards provided a Christian framework for the military. At times of Christian
revival this framework was brought to life and clothed with further Christian
developments. This was particularly the case with the Christian revivals in the
mid - Nineteenth Century that were part of a movement that saw the military
further Christianised and the good soldier, by the end of the Century, was now
a Christian soldier. (Anderson: 1971) The Christian Generals, Havelock and
Gordon, became Christian soldier heroes of the nation. (Hendrikson 1998: 94142)
Christian principles, for example the Bible’s Ten Commandments,
became the ethos of the British military. The Ten Commandments are; first,
worship and acknowledge God; do not have false gods; do not blaspheme;
keep the Sabbath day as a day or rest; honour your father and mother; do not
murder; do not commit adultery; do not steal; do not lie; do not be jealous.
(The Bible: Exodus 20: 1-17) Add the Biblical prohibition against sodomy,
(The Bible: Romans 1: 24-27) which a Christian military would require, and
these principles form a vital part of the British military ethos from the Sixteenth
Century.
Following the Reformation, and the religious and political turmoil that
surrounded it, Protestant Christianity provided a foundation for the modern
British State. In the Coronation Oath Act 1689 Kings and Queens have since
then been asked by the Archbishop or Bishop to make an oath whilst placing
their hand on the Bible:
Will you to the utmost of your power maintain the laws of God, the true
profession of the gospel and the Protestant reformed religion established
by law, and will you preserve unto the bishops and clergy of this Realm,
and to the churches committed to their charge, all such rights and
privileges as by law or shall appertain unto them, or any of them? (1689,
Section 3)
Parliament pledges to support the Sovereign in doing this. The state religion
was Protestant Christianity expressed through the state church, the Church of
England. This state church was organised around an assumption that all
Britons were Christians and it provided through the clergy and the parish and
diocese system spiritual guidance and leadership for all. Protestantism,
together with a fear of war with Catholic neighbours provided the British selfidentity and the glue that united the British nation. (Colley, 1996) Slowly,
Catholics, Methodists and others gained official recognition in the military.
(See, Edghill, 2002: 36-57)
From the beginning of the modern military in the 1600s, the Navy and
Army were required to defend this Christian British state. The British Navy, the
Army and later the Royal Air Force were created by the state to be Christian
churches. Accordingly, the martial and social fabric of the British military was
imbued with Christian spirituality and ethics. This was perhaps most explicit in
Scotland where the Church of Scotland established its spiritual authority in
each Regiment. The first part of the Articles of Militaire Discipline 1639
established Chaplains, Deacons, Regimental Kirk sessions and Elders in
each Regiment. It sought to provide uniformity of church discipline and
worship in the whole Scottish army. (Dow 1962: 84-89)
The martial virtue and allegiance to the state strands of the British
military ethos were closely interwoven with the Christian one and they were
often inseparable. For example, the execution for desertion of British soldiers
in World War One sprang from the martial virtue and obedience to the state
ethos. Yet the Christian ethos was also apparent. Christian chaplains were on
hand at the execution, and earlier, to pray with and support the condemned
man. A Divisional directive in 1915, at a double execution, reveals clearly, for
example, that the spiritual welfare of the prisoners was prominent: ‘A Chaplain
of the prisoner’s denomination should be present and have access to the
prisoners until the time of their execution. The Chaplain must be near at hand
so that the prisoners can see him just before their execution, if desired.’
(Babington 1983: 46) The military ethos operating here, whilst punishing the
soldiers, was mindful of their Christian needs and desired to support them at
this difficult time. The aim was to provide comfort to them and to help them
prepare themselves spiritually to meet God.
Christianity was the spiritual and ethical public language of the military.
Each Service followed a similar way of ordering its affairs and these rested on
Christian principles. This public language meant that military personnel
routinely participated in many Christian celebrations, rituals and symbols and
that they were disciplined by military law and governed by organisational
procedures that brought Christianity into their daily lives.
3 - Military Law and the Worship of God
Military law exists because it is recognised that military life is different
from civilian life. Military law in Britain, in the modern period, dates from the
Articles of War 1639 for the Army and from the Naval Discipline Act 1661 for
the Navy. (See, The Manual of Military Law Part 11 1989. Clode 1874) The
Royal Air Force, formed in 1917 by the Army and Airforce (Annual Act) 1917,
drew largely on the legislation governing the Army. There is considerable
continuity in language over the Centuries in these pieces of legislation with
legal draughtsmen often simply modernising older formulations. (Dicey 1959:
299) This legislation allowed for substantial delegated legislation and detailed
administrative instructions. In addition, some matters remained governed by
the Royal Prerogative, the best example of which is perhaps Queens
Regulations. Together, this legal framework provided the basis of every day
discipline and organisational practice in the British military. Military law and
the practice that derived from it communicated the three strands of the military
ethos; Christianity; martial virtue, and allegiance to the state.
With the State’s authorised worship, detailed in the Church of
England’s Book of Common Prayer 1662, that was required to be used under
military regulations, these legal initiatives provided a Christian legal
foundation for the British military. Other legislation also contributed to this
ethos. For example, the Act of Union 1801 authorised that Christian
Presbyterian Chaplains should always be maintained at the military castles of
Edinburgh, Stirling and Dumbarton. (Anonymous, 1845: 412) The Mutiny Act
1689 Section 9 prohibited a death sentence being given at a military court
martial without the officers present trying the case: ‘shall take an oath upon
the Evangelists [the authors of the four Christian Gospel accounts of Jesus
Christ’s life, Mathew, Mark, Luke and John] before the Court … Soe helpe you
God.’ (Clode 1874: 209) By 1997 this oath had become: ‘I swear by Almighty
God that I will well and truly try the accused before the court according to the
evidence.’ (Courts Martial (Army) Rules 1997 Schedule 3) The oath of
allegiance in 1640 was: ‘I doe sweare before the almighty and ever-living God
that I will beare all faithful allegiance. And this oath I take voluntarily in the
true faith of a good Christian and loyall subject…’ (Clode 1869: 429) By the
end of the Twentieth Century the oath had become: ‘I, ..... swear by Almighty
God, that I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to Her Majesty Queen
Elizabeth the Second, her heirs and successors, ...’ (Manual of Military Law
1989: 423)
Christianity gave an ethos to the British military that viewed man as
created by God and returning to him: of man whose ultimate responsibility
was to his Maker. For example, Article 13 of the Articles of War 1639 stated:
“For the better Government of His Majesties Army Royall…No enterprise shall
be taken in hand, but the company that are to execute the same shall first
commend themselves to God, and pray to Him to grant them good successe.”
(Walton 1894: 339.) Article 1 of the Articles of War made it a duty for the
military to “diligently frequent Divine Service and sermon.” (Walton 1894: 809)
This requirement was for many years Article One until in 1847 it was moved to
another part of the military code. (Clode 1874: 76) Worship of God was at the
heart of naval military law. Article 1 of the Naval Discipline Act 1661 stated:
That all Comanders Captaines and other Officers at Sea shall cause
the publique Worshipp of Almighty God according to the Liturgy of the
Church of England established by Law…to be performed in theire
respective Ships And that prayers and preachings by the respective
Chaplaines in holy Orders be performed diligently and that the Lords
Day be observed according to Law….
A powerful original Article that was included in the revision of the Naval
Discipline Act 1886 punished sailors who were: ‘…guilty of any profane oath,
cursing, execration, drunkenness, uncleanness or other scandalous action in
derogation of God’s honour and corruption of good manners.’ The Church of
England’s Book of Common Prayer 1662 contained a special chapter
entitled “Forms of Prayer to be used at Sea”. Morning and evening Service
was to be said daily at sea accompanied by special daily naval prayers. This
Christian ethos continued over the years, for example Royal Navy
administrative regulations in 1957 stated:
…the British way of life is founded on the Christian faith and in the Royal
Navy life is conducted according to Christian principles. Religious faith
where it exists is the strongest and greatest activating force there is.
Officers and men are strongly urged to have a religious faith and practise it.
It is the duty of officers to see that the spiritual needs of their subordinates
are met…(BR2138 in Officers Christian Union:1998)
4 - Chaplains and Officers as Chaplains.
Large Christian military churches require spiritual leaders, chaplains, to
support them. Such were often at the centre of the ceremonies and rituals that
embodied the Christian ethos of the British military. For example the Articles
of War 1662-3 gave the duty of every chaplain: ‘The Chaplains to the Troops
of Guards and others in Regiments shall every day read the Common Prayers
of the Church of England to the Soldiers respectively under their charge, and
to preach to them as often with convenience shall be thought fit….’ (Walton
1894:809) By the 1970s this had become, in Queen’s Regulations, which
applied across all three Services: ‘Chaplains are commissioned by Her
Majesty The Queen to provide for the spiritual well being of Service personnel
and their families. They are to be given every assistance to fulfil their ministry.’
( Queens Regulations 1975: JS261) The use of Chaplains in the British
military varied; at times they were very numerous, at other times they were
not; although military law always gave them prominence.
From the earliest days of the Navy many of Britain’s larger warships
carried resident chaplains to attend to the spiritual welfare of the crew.
Thirteen chaplains were in the British fleet at Trafalgar and fifty one were at
Jutland. (Taylor 1978: pviii) Nine chaplains were at Waterloo. (Smyth
1968:47) The British Expeditionary Force in 1914 had sixty six chaplains
attached to it. (Brumwell 1943: 16) The total numbers in the Chaplains
Department in 1918 was 3,475 of several denominations. (Smyth 1968: 202)
The aim in the Army during the Second World War was to have a chaplain for
every 1,250 men; or sixteen chaplains to a Division. (Brumwell 1943: 30)
There were fifteen chaplains at Arnhem with the 1st Parachute Division.
(Johnstone 1996:241)
Chaplains led worship, taught the Christian faith and the Christian
ethos identified here. The result of their work was billions of hours of Christian
worship, teaching and spiritual encouragement, to many millions of service
personnel and their families. The Chaplains’ parishes were the military
churches set up in the 1600s and their legal authority to proclaim Christ to
them was enshrined in military law. Chaplains often showed great Christian
concern for the spiritual and moral welfare of their charges. Many Chaplains
died as they accompanied their men in battle: 96 of them during World War
Two. (Smyth 1968: 307) In battle their place was often with the medical officer
tending the wounded or accompanying stretcher-bearers. Often they buried
the dead and searched the bodies and removed personal effects to pass on to
relatives. Writing a letter home for wounded men and writing a letter of
consolation to the relatives of a dead man was a common task. At the beach
landing at Gallipoli in 1915 one Chaplain, recounts:
The whole beach was soaked in human blood, and for fifty yards out the
sea was crimson. But it was not time for looking around; it was time for
action. I went at once to the wounded, and assisted the RAMC as best as I
could….From man to man I went….With many a man I repeated a last
prayer to God, and over many said the Last Prayers of the Church. (Taylor
1978: 348)
Chaplains were often greatly appreciated by personnel about to go into battle.
Field Marshal Alexander, shortly before the end of his life, and in private
correspondence, wrote; ‘…what a strength and comfort it was to me when, as
a young subaltern in the Irish Guards during the First World War, I knelt with
my men on the battlefield before the attack and received that spiritual support
given to us all, both Protestant and Catholic, by our Regimental Chaplain.’
(Brooks 1983:29)
Since the beginning of the modern British state in the 1600s all officers
have had a responsibility according to military law for the spiritual welfare of
their subordinates, as the following from Queens Regulations indicate:
While the responsibility for encouraging religious observance in his ship or
establishment rests primarily with the Captain, the example given by
officers is of paramount importance in leading others to a Christian way of
life. All Christian officers should recognise a moral obligation to give this
lead by joining in the worship of Almighty God. All officers, both senior and
junior, are encouraged to attend Christian leadership courses, details of
which are promulgated from time to time in Defence Council Instructions.
(Queens Regulations 1975: 0843)
The officer military academies at Dartmouth for the Navy and
Sandhurst for the Army and Cranwell for the Royal Air Force all emphasised
Christian leadership. Each academy has a Christian Chapel for worship of
God and permanent uniformed chaplains employed to attend to the spiritual
welfare of students and staff. At Sandhurst the motto is “Serve to Lead” which
echoes the servant leadership of Christ who for example said in Mathew’s
Gospel that he “did not come to be served, but to serve, and to give his life”.
(The Bible, Mathew’s Gospel: 20:28) All this is in accord with Queen’s
Regulations which by the latter part of the Twentieth Century stated:
‘Commanding officers are to ensure that the curricula of training and
educational establishments provide for appropriate religious instruction to
young personnel…’ ( Queens Regulations 1975:5.269) and, ‘…it is important
that all who exercise authority should set a good example in order to lead
others to an intelligent acceptance of Christian principles in the life of the
Armed Forces.’ (Queens Regulations 1975: J 1426 and 1427)
5.- A Christian Way of Life in the British Military
Military service is a way of life in a tightly knit community and recruits to
the British military joined a Christian military that was greatly involved in its
members’ lives. Many military organisational procedures and much military
ethos was inspired by the Bible. For example, Queen’s Regulations in the mid
1970s, included the following:
The reverent observance of religion in the armed forces is on the highest
importance. It is the duty of all concerned to make adequate provision for
the spiritual and moral needs of all personnel. Commanding officers are to
encourage religious observance by those under their command and are
themselves to set a good example in this respect. (Queens Regulations
1975: J5.262 and 263)
Public Christian worship was a common feature of life in the British
military. Most military establishments had their own Christian church buildings
that acted as strong symbols of religious allegiance. An order made by the
War Office in 1845 instructed that no new barracks was to be built unless it
contained a Christian chapel. (Anonymous 1845: 424) Whilst an Order in
Council of 4th March 1812 required that a copy of the Church of England’s
Book of Common Prayer and the Bible’s New Testament should be placed in
each mess in a Royal Naval ship. (Taylor 1978: 233) A remarkable testimony
to the importance of Christianity in the Navy, given the shortage of space on
board warships, was the creation of chapels especially for Christian worship.
The first one was built in 1913 on board the battle-cruiser Queen Mary.
(Taylor 1978: 362) Several other ships had chapels including one on the
Rodney, completed in 1927, which was known as ‘The Cathedral of the Fleet’
and could seat up to ninety. (Taylor 1978: 363) Many military personnel were
confirmed as communicant members of their Church after being prepared by
their Chaplain. The children of ship’s crew were often baptised as Christians
in the ship’s bell.
Saying Christian grace, prayerfully thanking God for food before a
meal, was commonly observed. The Loyal Toast to the Sovereign was
another common event; sometimes in the form ‘God save the Queen’ at other
times, ‘The Queen, God Bless Her’. (Edwards 1954: 40) The Sunday
Christian Sabbath was often kept. During the Boer War, at the siege of
Mafeking, the Boer General, a Christian, and Colonel Baden-Powell, also a
Christian, made an arrangement that no fighting should occur on a Sunday.
(Flower Smith and Yorke 2000: 79) However a naval diarist of the 1870s
records a period of intense sea training on the Northampton, captained by the
active Christian, and later Admiral Lord Fisher, which included working on a
Sunday except for a short break at 0930; ‘…for divisions, Captain’s
inspections and short prayers. These were followed by reading the Articles of
War (Naval Penal Code) …The first of the Articles of War enjoins that the
Sabbath day is to be strictly observed. A brief smile went around when that
was solemnly read by the Captain.’ (Bacon 1929: 65)
During the Second World War in 1941 two special orders of the day
were made that emphasised the place of Christian worship in the military:
‘The Army Council, … direct that, so far as the exigencies of the military
situation permit, every facility should be given for public and private worship.
…’ (Brumwell 1943: 42) The Royal Navy issued a similar order: ‘…in the
practice of the Christian Religion may be found to-day the same support
experienced by our Forefathers in establishing in the Royal Navy those ideals
of service and sacrifice which we have inherited. … Their Lordships, wish to
emphasise the need for Divine Service and Prayers. …They further direct that
in battleships and cruisers all possible steps should be taken to provide a
space set apart for the worship of God.’ (Brumwell 1943: 42)
The Christian state, the state Church, the Church of England, and the
Christian military were interwoven and the cloth was particularly apparent at
state occasions such as coronations, royal marriages, state funerals and the
like where the military played an important ceremonial role. At times of
national crisis in war time the state called special days of national prayer for
victory which of course embraced the military. One was called by Prime
Minister Lloyd George on Sunday 4th August 1918 which was followed four
days later by a successful British attack and by the end of the war in
November 1918.
Christianity also provided an agreed sense of right and wrong and
acceptable and unacceptable behaviour for the military. So much was this the
case that there were comprehensive and unspecified prohibitions in military
law. Officers, for example, could be convicted of ‘Disgraceful Conduct’,
defined as behaving ‘in a scandalous manner, unbecoming the character of
an officer and a gentleman’ they were to be cashiered. (Army Act 1881: 16)
The Army Act 1955 reduced the punishment to a maximum of two years.
Such legislation is evidence of an ethos that was so widely known and
accepted that everyone knew what bad behaviour was without it being
codified. It large part it was behaviour that was against Christian principles.
The use of battle flags, or colours, goes back to ancient times and in
the Bible the Israelites carried a sacred standard into the fight. (The Bible
1973: Exodus 15:11) British regiments have their own colours, a flag, often
listing battle honours, symbolising the spirit and ethos of the unit. These were
consecrated with Christian prayers before being used and in retirement they
were often laid up in a Church. Colour’s ceremonies frequently involved the
military, the Chaplains and representatives of the State, often a member of
the Royal family. At the local level regiments often presented their colours to
the Church of England church of their home town for safekeeping. Prayerful
consecration of colours was common, but it is perhaps not until 1899 that the
military Chaplains devised official religious services for Protestant and
Catholic regiments to do this. (Edwards 1953: 68) Sailors have traditionally
launched new ships with prayers and religious ceremonies which have been
analogous to Christian baptism ceremonies for a new baby. The Archbishop
of Canterbury in 1875 wrote an official prayer for the launching of Royal Naval
ships. (Campbell 1956: 34)
The Christian ethos in the military also found expression in the areas of
family life and sexuality. In Christianity marriage is only between men and
women; and lasts until the death of one of the partners, whilst adultery and
fornication between single people, is forbidden. This is the ideal of a
heterosexual covenant family involving mutual support and sacrifice at
whatever cost; rather than a contract that can be broken in adverse
conditions. (Deakin 1995: 27-34) Such a covenant has obvious appeal to the
military since it is the key to morale in battle. It is common for people in the
military to think of their unit as a family. Field Marshal Wavell wrote, ‘to the
soldier the team to which he belongs is his family during his service’. (Wavell
1948: 49) In the context of a family such a covenant necessitates a good deal
of sexual self-control and the wider community is required to help by
practically supporting these principles. A Christian community will therefore try
to organise itself in a manner that supports this ethos of sexuality and family
life. There is a good deal of evidence of such organisation within the British
military ethos.
From the beginning military law expressed this Christian ethos as it
prohibited offences against the family. The amendments of 1677 to the
Articles of War added to Article 37 that adultery or fornication deserved
banishment from the Army plus such punishment as a court martial awarded.
(Walton 1894: 812) The same Article punished anyone beating or abusing his
wife or children or servant with being put in irons and rape was awarded the
death penalty. Homosexuality was also brought into the Articles and
prohibited and it also merited the death penalty.
Support for these ideals continued down the centuries. For example, in
the 1990s, as a result of growing concern within the Army about its ethos, it
produced an internal statement of what was expected of its personnel. The
Discipline and Standards Paper 1993 encouraged good behaviour and
emphasised that certain activities were not to be tolerated. What is striking
about this 1993 document is how similar it is, certainly in ethos, to the original
Articles of War 1639, and later versions. Christianity is not explicit in the 1993
document, rather it emphasises the need for the military to behave in a way
that supports group cohesion and trust, but the ethos of the Discipline and
Standards Paper is recognisably Christian. It prohibited homosexuality,
dishonesty, indebtedness, drunkenness, adultery within the military
community and, for officers, adultery outside the community if it brought the
military into disrepute.
Christianity distinguishes between male and female sexuality on the
basis that God created men and women for different purposes. The role of
women is especially one of supporting men and of bearing children, whilst that
of men is especially one of protecting and supporting women and children.
Fighting is, with rare exceptions, a masculine activity from which women
should be excluded. This Christian differentiation of sexual roles in the British
military was challenged by the need for labour in the First and Second World
Wars but even here women were almost exclusively employed in roles
supporting men. As the Christian ethos in Britain faded after the Second
World War women were employed increasingly in the military, but not in direct
combat roles. Although by the Twenty First Century, the Parliamentary Select
Committee on Defence argued that the ban on women in the military killing
and being killed could no longer be justified on grounds of “moral distaste”.
(Evans: 2001)
Military accommodation was divided at least from Victorian times
onwards into single sex accommodation. The practice of married soldiers
sleeping with their wives in rooms with single men for example was brought to
an end by Christian reformers during the Nineteenth Century. It was normally
an offence under Standing Orders to enter the accommodation area of
another sex. Heterosexual, or homosexual, liaisons in military accommodation
between unmarried military personnel were forbidden. It was common
practice for the military guard to search single accommodation at night to
check that illicit sexual activity was not occurring.
Within Christianity marriage is seen as a God ordained covenant
relationship that gives strength to the man and to the woman and to their
children and to the wider community. Married quarter’s accommodation,
public housing for serving military personnel, was provided in accordance with
this prevailing Christian ethos in the military. It was available to married
heterosexuals and not to cohabitees or to homosexuals, since both practices
are prohibited by Christianity.
Known homosexuality was illegal in the British military from at least the
1600s until 2000 when it was permitted. (Deakin 2000: 119-138) No Christian
military church could allow homosexual practice among its members because
it is forbidden in the Bible. Also, the practice threatened the established
Christian male and female roles. Because of this it was thought to disrupt the
unity of the community and to decrease its fighting performance.
Pay and pension rules and entitlements, whilst often complex, also
reflected the Christian ethos within the military. Until 1970 when the military
salary was introduced there existed a system where married and singles
received different pay, with the married receiving more to help them with the
extra costs associated with supporting a family. (Jolly 1992:18)This practice
sprang out of the Christian ethos where the community protected families and
children and where single individuals were expected to make this sacrifice for
the sake of the wider community. Pension entitlement reflected the ‘till death
us do part’ ethos of the Christian faith and pensions were available to the
surviving married spouse on the death of the main pension holder. However,
these pensions ceased on remarriage or on cohabitation by the survivor
because another union had thereby been established in the eyes of the
Christian ethos that therefore made the original pension arrangement invalid.
Cohabitees were rarely entitled to benefit from pension arrangements and
homosexual liaisons were not recognised.
6 – Morale, Victory and Providence
Many works on military strategy and the art of war have emphasised
the importance of religious belief to successful military activity. The Duke of
Wellington wrote in 1811, whilst in the Peninsula wars: ‘I am very anxious
upon this subject, not only from the desire, which every man must have, that
so many persons as there are in this Army should have the advantage of
religious instruction, but from a knowledge that it is the greatest support and
aid to Military discipline and order.’ (Wellington Life: Vol. iv p.584 1811) ???
Field Marshal Slim led the victorious Second World War Army campaign in
Burma and deliberately fostered a spiritual foundation among his troops to
improve their, initially very poor, morale. He argued that morale was a state of
mind that rested on spiritual, intellectual and material foundations:
Spiritual first, because only spiritual foundations can stand real
strain….Religion has always been and still is one of the greatest
foundations of morale, especially of military morale. Saints and soldiers
have much in common….The Christian religion is above all others a
source of that enduring courage which is the most valuable of all the
components of morale. (Slim :?? 182-3)
Field Marshal Montgomery also believed strongly in the importance of morale
arguing that it is the most important factor in battle and that the essential
condition for good morale is; ’such men must have faith in God and they must
think rightly on the moral issues involved’. (Montgomery 1958:227)
Christianity is functional for the military since it encourages the qualities
required of the successful warrior. The Bible presents the Christian as being a
participant in the battle between God and Satan. The Christian must exhibit
the characteristics of a good soldier. Hence the Christian is told to ‘Endure
hardship with us like a good soldier of Jesus Christ.’ (The Bible 1993: 2
Timothy “:3) and to ‘Fight the good fight of the faith’. (The Bible 1993: 1
Timothy 6:12) The Christian is enjoined to be brave, honest, hardworking,
trustworthy, and obedient to those in authority and to trust God however
adverse the circumstances. There is also the comfort for the Christian
combatant of knowing that he will go to heaven when he dies. Above all there
is the example for the Christian of Jesus, doing his duty and sacrificing his life
for others, regardless of the cost to himself. Chaplains made much of this kind
of thinking as they aimed to raise and sustain morale amongst service people.
(Brumwell 1943: 55)
Many commanders held Christian worship services to celebrate
victories. Lord Howe gathered his ships around his flagship in calm weather a
few days after he defeated the French fleet in 1794 for a service of
thanksgiving for the victory. (Cordingly 2004: 88) Nelson saw victory at the
battle of the Nile in 1798 as being given to him by God. In his despatch
afterwards he wrote ‘Almighty God has blessed his Majesty’s arms in late
battle by a great victory over the fleet of the enemy,…’ (Douglas 1971:890)
After Nelson’ death at Trafalgar in 1805 Vice Admiral Collingwood’s despatch
similarly gave credit for victory to God; ‘…it pleased the Almighty Disposer of
all events to grant his Majesty’s arms a complete and glorious victory.’
(Douglas 1971: 906) After the battle of Omdurman in 1898 Major General Sir
Herbert Kitchener, later Field Marshal, is reported to have said, ‘I thank the
Lord of Hosts for giving us victory at so small a cost in our dead and
wounded’. (Pollock 1998: 137) Admiral Sir David Beatty took the surrender of
the German High Seas fleet in 1918 and signalled to the British fleet: ‘It is my
intention to hold a service of thanksgiving at 6 p.m. today, for the victory which
Almighty God has vouchsafed to His Majesty’s arms, and every ship is
recommended to do the same…’ (Taylor 1978:358) Montgomery concluded
his personal message to his officers and men before the Battle of Alamein in
1942 with the exhortation; ‘Let us pray that “the Lord Mighty in battle” will give
us victory’. (Montgomery 1958: 128) After the victory in another message to
his officers and men he referred to this and wrote of God, ‘He has done so,
and I know that you will agree with me when I say that we must not forget to
thank Him for His great mercies.’ (Montgomery 1958: 340) Churchill, after
announcing victory in Europe to the House of Commons on 8th May 1945,
turned to the Speaker and said, ‘I therefore beg, with your permission to move
“That this House do now attend at the Church of St Margaret Westminster, to
give humble and reverent thanks to Almighty God for our deliverance from the
threat of German domination.”’ (The Times: 9th May 1945)
War is brutal, yet many in the British military have had a Christian view
of Providence: the Christian doctrine that regardless of the circumstances
God is still in control and loves those who trust Him. The preamble to the
Naval Discipline Act contained the famous words, ‘the Navy, whereon under
the good Providence of God, the wealth, safety and strength of the kingdom
do chiefly depend.’ (Naval Discipline Act 1661) There is no doubt a fine line
between a belief in God’s providence and fatalism, yet it is one that many
seem to have drawn. General Gordon of Khartoum for example worried a
good deal in his journals, but as he argued, ‘If we could believe it, we are as
safe in the fiercest battle as in a drawing – room in London.” (emphasis in the
original) (Gordon 1885: 106) Wellington after victory at Waterloo in 1815
remarked that ‘The finger of providence was upon me, and I escaped unhurt.’
(Longford 1970: 490) He may have been echoing Cromwell who told the
Speaker after the battle of Naseby, ‘Sir, this is none other but the hand of
God; and to him alone belongs the glory.’ (Herspring 2001 :66) Nelson as he
lay dying in 1805 is reported to also have trusted in God’s providence: ‘I know
I am dying. I could have wished to survive to breathe my last upon British
ground, but the will of God be done.’ (Douglas 1971:908) King George V1
broadcast to the nation and to the Empire on 3rd September 1939 when the
Second World War began and concluded his speech with an appeal to God
and His providence: ‘But we can only do the right as we see the right and
reverently commit our cause to God. If one and all we keep resolutely faithful
to it, ready for whatever service or sacrifice it may demand then, with God’s
help, we shall prevail. May He bless us and keep us all.’ (The Times, 4th
September 1939)
8 - Death and Remembrance
Death from disease and also in battle was common place for members
of the military community. The Christian ethos of the military is particularly
evident in this area. It was expected that British personnel and their families
would have a Christian burial. Many naval sailors were buried at sea, with the
corpse wrapped in a shroud and covered in a Union Jack, to the special
prayers for sailors in the Church of England‘s Book of Common Prayer 1662.
If the ship did not carry a Chaplain the Captain would take the service. Military
funerals on land had their own strong Christian symbolism. The three rifle
volleys represent the Christian Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit. (Wells
1930: 71 and Edwards 1954: 192) The carrying of rifles in the reversed
position acknowledges the shame of killing whilst the Union Jack is laid on the
body to show that ‘he died in the Service of the State, and that the State takes
responsibility for what it ordered him to do as a soldier.’ (Wells 1930: 72) The
sounding of the Last Post is the deceased’s farewell to the world and the
Reveille signifies the hope of waking in a new world. ‘The Last Post is the
Nunc Dimittis of the dead soldier. It is the last bugle call…but it gives promise
of reveille… of the great reveille which ultimately the Archangel Gabriel will
blow.’ (Wells 1930: 72)
The military had their own Christian cemeteries for example at the
Royal Military Academy Sandhurst a cemetery exists for the use of students
and staff. In Naval ports such as Portsmouth there are dedicated naval
cemeteries, as at Gosport. The Commonwealth War Graves Commission was
created to deal with the enormous number of deaths that occurred in the First
World War and afterwards and it provided Christian burials or remembrance
memorials for most of them. There was considerable debate about the
architecture of the new cemeteries and memorials and the extent of religious
symbolism that they should express. Churchill wrote to the Archbishop of
Canterbury, ‘I am very anxious indeed…to do everything that is possible to
emphasise the distinctively Christian and religious character of these
memorials…’ (Longworth 1985: 51) In the event the symbols of the
Commission’s memorials were solidly Christian with crosses on individual
tombstones and often Biblical inscriptions in the cemeteries. A simple
monument in the form of a stone Christian cross with a symbolic sword on its
face was agreed and it became known as the ‘Cross of Sacrifice’. For those
dead who could not be identified the words, ‘A soldier of the Great
War…Known unto God’ were adopted. (Longworth 1985: 43) The memorial
tablet to the Unknown Soldier in Westminster Abbey began: ‘To the Glory of
God and to the memory of one million dead of the British Empire who fell in
the Great War 1914 – 1918’. Memorial services to the military dead were
Christian ones.
Whilst the Commission was going about its work, individual towns and
villages throughout the United Kingdom produced their own memorials to their
military dead and these were added to because of the Second World War and
later conflicts. These memorials are often rich in Christian content and
symbolism and frequently they use Biblical texts. Often the trinity of British
military ethos identified here; martial virtues, allegiance to the state and
Christianity are blended together in one inscription. For example on the
memorial at Lynton in North Devon, beneath the stone Cross of Sacrifice, are
the words:
‘1914-1918
REMEMBER THOSE WHO
AT THE CALL OF OUR KING
Died the noblest death
men may die, fighting for
God, for right and for liberty.
Such death is immortality.’
8 - Conclusion
This Christian ethos in the British military explains why the British
military became so concerned about its ethos at the end of the Twentieth
Century. Christianity faded gradually from national life in the Twentieth
Century. Secular humanism slowly took its place producing a society that
moved from Christian standards in such areas as marriage, family, divorce,
abortion, pornography, capital punishment and the like. Currently, the ethos of
British secular humanism is highly individualistic, rights oriented, morally
relativist and in that it supports a vision of a pluralistic society has a limited
common public language. Yet military leaders in their contemporary concern
for the British military ethos reveal, perhaps unconsciously, a lack of
confidence about whether this secularism can provide the ethos that a
successful British military requires. Britain’s history suggests that its military
requires an ethos that is spiritual, communitarian, duty oriented, morally
absolutist and with a strong public language. Christianity provided these
qualities for the British military.
This argument for a Christian military ethos also provides an insight
into some of the recent literature about British civil - military relations and
military ethos. It is common in this literature to criticise the military for its ethos
of old fashioned practices that are no longer supported by civilian society and
to urge it to modernise. Examples of this appeal to modernise include support
for heterosexual cohabitee relationships and for homosexual relationships to
be allowed in military accommodation, pension rights for unmarried and
homosexual partners and greater employment of women in the military. (Jolly
1992; Jolly 1996; Jessup 1996) This literature can be viewed as part of the
movement of secularisation; replacing the Christian ethos in the British
military with a humanist one.
In the Twenty - First Century the British military continues in its
Christian ethos; chaplains are still employed, military law promotes many
Christian principles. Yet there is evidence that this ethos is under growing
pressure from the ethos of secular humanism. A powerful symbol of this
movement towards secular humanism was the decision in 2000 to remove the
prohibition on known homosexuals serving in the British military. This decision
revoked a policy that had been part of the British military Christian ethos since
at least the 1600s. The Ministry of Defence began a review of the Armed
Forces Pension Scheme in 1999 and it announced in 2003 that pensions are
to be paid to unmarried partners and to homosexual partners of service
people. (Smith 2002, 2003) In 2004 a Royal Navy sailor obtained permission,
using equal opportunity policies, to practise Satanism on board ship. (Day
2004) These new policies are outside the boundaries of the Christian ethos
that has shaped the British Military for so long.