Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control
By: Nadera Shalhoub-Kevorkian
From: Israel Social Science Research, 12(1), 1997: 59-72.
J. Geffen
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Introduction
1.
The problem of wife and female abuse is not a culture-specific problem but a
universal one (Schuler, 1992). Although violence perpetrated against females is given
an increasingly high profile in the West, it remains unaddressed sufficiently in
developing (Third World) societies. It is hypothesized that violence against females is
a socially constructed problem that serves the interests of male dominance in order to
maintain patriarchally structured ideologies designed to control and subordinate
women.
2.
This article examines social control and policy toward wife abuse in Palestinian
society in East Jerusalem. It will attempt to demonstrate from a gender perspective
that social control policies regarding wife abuse are influenced, if not determined, by
a patriarchal, male-centered ideology. To accomplish this, I will first address the
feminist theoretical frame of reference which I plan to utilize as the basis for my
analysis. I will then discuss the status of Palestinian-Arab women in order to shed
light on the cultural and structural factors influencing social control policy toward women.
Social Control, Feminism, and Wife Abuse
3.
Feminists, cross-culturally, have been grappling with the phenomenon of
violence against women for many years, both in their writings and political activism
(Al-Sa’adawi, 1995; Sabbah, 1984). Historical analysis of violence against girls and
women tended to avoid the introduction of the concept of male power as an influential
factor in interpersonal encounters or structural dimensions of society. Feminists
remedied this deficiency through their contributions to research that focuses on, and
introduces the concepts of, male power, the significance and centrality of gender
relations in our understanding of violence toward women, and the effect of patriarchy
on the structural and ideological underpinnings of violence against women (Barrett,
1980; Dobash and Dobash, 1979; Linddle, 1989; Schecter, 1982; Walker, 1979).
Thus, feminists have posited that the use of violence against women is a method of
social control (Pagelow, 1981; Walker, 1984). Furthermore, they have demonstrated
that social reaction to violence against women, characterized by under-reporting and
gender neutral approaches to the problem, has led to the misunderstanding of female
criminal victimization.
4.
Wife abuse is one form of violence against women which has been discussed
extensively in the West. Emphasis has been placed on the different problematic issues
in treating the social construction of wife abuse as a social problem in terms of
definition, social policy, and reaction to wife battering (see e.g., Davis, 1988; Loseke,
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1987; Loseke and Cahil, 1984; Pamas, 1971; Schecter, 1982; Smith and Klein, 1984;
Straus, Gelles and Steinmetz, 1980; Tierney, 1982). Issues such as gender, power, and
patriarchy, raised by feminist scholars in the Western literature, have not been
examined thoroughly in non-Western societies, despite their importance in shedding
light on the relationships between violence and social control within a cultural-socialstructural context (Gagne, 1992).
5.
Western women are not alone in being victimized. A cross-cultural study of
family violence found that domestic abuse occurs in 84% of the 90 societies examined
by Levinson (1988). Women and girls have been reported to have been battered and
abused by their intimate partners in Canada, Guatemala, Chile, Columbia, Belgium,
Sweden, and countries of the former Soviet Union. Similar findings have been found
in feminist studies conducted in third world countries (Afkhami, 1995; Schuler,
1992). Although control of females through violence and abuse has been found to be a
universal phenomenon, each society and culture manifests its social control by
utilizing different methods and techniques; i.e., methods of social control of females is
culture-specific. This paper discusses social reaction to wife battering in PalestinianArab society in an attempt to analyze the socio-cultural and political origins of the
problem within the context of Palestinian society as a traditional society in transition
(Ata, 1984, 1986; Zureik, 1977). To help us grasp the full meaning and ramifications
of the power structure of Palestinian society and its relation to female victimization, a
description of the status of Palestinian-Arab women in society is necessary.
Palestinian-Arab Women
6.
Palestinian-Arab society is not an exception to other societies in terms of discrimination practiced against women along class, gender, and sexist dimensions. It
differs from other societies, however, in terms of its patriarchal practices and methods
of controlling women. As an integral part of the larger Arab-Muslim World, it
acquires its unique quality of dealing with abuses against girls and women (Hussein,
1984). This attribute will be highlighted by an examination of the literature on Arab
women in order to serve as the basis to our understanding of the socio-cultural policy
toward wife abuse.
7.
Any analysis of the status of women in the Arab World will reveal that it has
been influenced largely by the Arab-Islamic heritage. Researchers and Arab Feminists
show that conflicting Perspectives exist within the Arab World regarding women.
This diversity has been reflected in the manner in which scholars have perceived
issues such as women and marriage, polygamy, domesticity, motherhood,
employment, sexuality, and veiling (Al-Sa’adawi, 1995; Afshar, 1995; Ahmad, 1992;
Mughadam, 1993). In general, however, women are perceived in the Arab World as
lesser beings than men socially, culturally, and politically (Kandiyoti, 1991). Similar
perceptions have also been noted in terms of legal rights accorded to men and women.
The nature of Arab-Muslim societies facilitates control and abuse of women through
issues such as honor, shame, female virginity, female genital mutilation, and women’s
Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 3
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sexuality (Al-Sa’adawi, 1995; Makia, 1993; Sabbah, 1984). Arab thinkers, feminists,
and writers have shown how social, cultural, legal, and political systems affect
women’s daily lives and cause abuse and control of girls and women. Furthermore,
Al-Sa’adawi clearly showed in her book, Women at Point Zero, that publicizing
sexual abuses results in policies of blaming and revictimizing the victim. Ahmad
(1992) claims that fear of losing the indigenous “authentic” Islamic-Arab culture is
used by society to control women further.
8.
Palestinian women, despite their involvement in the political struggle of the
Palestinian national resistance movement (particularly following the Arab-Israeli war
of 1967 and the Intifada of 1987) continue to be burdened by the Arab-Islamic legacy.
Palestinian scholars claim that, although the political involvement of Palestinian
women has promoted their status at the public level, their private-family status
remains unchanged (Ata, 1981, 1984; Giacaman, 1989; Jad, 1990). The patriarchal
structure of Palestinian society is translated into cultural, legal, and socio-political
practices that disempower women, subordinate them, and weaken their status. Only
recently has the topic of female victimization or wife abuse been discussed at the
public level in Palestinian society. The first workshop to address the problem was
held in Ramallah in 1991. Furthermore, Palestinian researchers have just begun to
tackle the issue of wife abuse and methods of dealing with it (see e.g., KevorkianShalhoub, 1993; Haj-Yahia, 1995).
9.
The present study examined societal perception toward wife battering. It
focused specifically on the cognitive frame of reference directing the perception of
social control agents in reacting to wife abuse. Initial analysis was directed toward
examination of the awareness level existing in Palestinian society to the nature of wife
abuse, followed by an analysis of the etiological factors influencing this perception.
Levels of Consciousness
10. Nearly all (64 of 66) social control representatives were cogently clear that wife
abuse exists in Palestinian society as it does in other societies. Differences arose,
however, regarding the manner in which the problem was perceived and dealt with, as
seen in Figure 1.
Wife Abuse
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| ______________________ | ______________________ |
Deniers
No awareness.
Problem does not exist
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Neutralizers
Keep problem private
Freeze problem
Conceal problem
Tolerate problem
Blame the victim
Advocators
Seek legal help
Seek reforms
Seek punitive action
Seek therapeutic action
Figure 1: Perception of wife abuse and methods of reacting to it among social control
agents
Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 4
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Only two social control representatives felt that wife abuse does not exist in
Palestinian society. Despite their small number, we identified them as the “Deniers”
group. It can be interpreted that this group, for psychosocial reasons, opted to deny or
ignore the existence of the problem, thus stripping themselves of any form of awareness of the phenomenon. Most social control representatives, however, fell within the
“Neutralizers” group. Although this group was aware of the existence of the problem,
their proposed methods of dealing with it served to “neutralize” the issue; i.e.,
“justifications” were given for their lack of intervention. Thus, some felt it best to
keep the problem a private issue, while others neutralized it by stating that it is
prudent under the present political conditions to defray (freeze) social action to
remedy the problem. Some representatives, however, proposed that women should
“tolerate” the abuse for the sake of maintaining the coherence of the family. These
reactions, it should be noted here, tend to place the blame on the victim and perceive
the problem as the domain of the woman. It must be cautioned, however, that the
stance of the social representatives within this category shifted at times to fall within
the “Advocators” group. In other words, the perceptions of some social
representatives were fluid and vacillated at times between the “Neutralizers” and
“Advocators” categories. This shift was not observed between the “Deniers” and
“Neutralizers” groups.
11. “Advocators” constituted the third category, in which awareness level was the
highest. This group of social representatives was made up mostly of young feminists,
mental health workers, and representatives of women’s organizations. Nearly all the
woman interviewees identified with the cases of wife abuse, discussed the severity of
the problem, and defined wife abuse as a criminal act. This group felt that wife abuse
in society should be dealt with through legislation, legal action, and punishment of the
offender (batterer). Furthermore, these social control representatives felt that society
should institute therapeutic programs to help the victim, the offender, and their
families.
Why Do Men Batter Women?
12. The nature of wife abuse is multidimensional in nature. The major disciplines
dealing with the phenomenon (e.g., sociology, psychology, criminology) have
formulated theories that differ in perspective (e.g., feminist) and school of thought
(e.g., behavioral). Furthermore, researchers have focused on differing aspects of the
problem (see e.g., Van Hasselt, Morrison, Bellack and Hersen, 1988). Consequently,
inconsistencies and incongruities are noted at times with regard to research results on
wife abuse. Our analysis of the perceptions of wife abuse of social control agents took
into consideration these “hindrances”.
13. When social control representatives were asked why men batter women, they
gave inconsistent answers, possibly because the topic had never been discussed with
them before. An analysis of their responses required, however, an understanding of
their cognitive frames of reference, terminologies, and beliefs. Emphasis was placed
Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 5
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on the socio-cultural and political factors that might have influenced their perceptions
and policies regarding wife abuse.
14. It was clear from the elaborate responses, explanations, and interpretations of
the reason why men batter women that there is a high level of social visibility of the
problem in Palestinian society. This visibility is even manifested in the group of social
control representatives who were in the “Deniers” category, as shown in the following
excerpt:
Men should not beat their wives. Men, however, have many
responsibilities within and outside the household. Therefore, women
should be understanding of their husbands and absorb their anger and
aggression. It is not the end of the world if a man beats his wife.
15. Similar responses were given by more than half of the respondents. This
suggests that women are a source of ventilation for men – a kind of “human”
punching bag. The contradictions present in the above excerpt were also reflected in
the types of proverbs used. For example, while a proverb was used to degrade men
who beat their wives (e.g., Only a non-man beats a woman), other proverbs were used
to justify wife beating (e.g., A stick is the only medicine for the snake, daughter, and
wife). Despite these contradictions, analysis of the social control representatives’
attitudes toward wife battering could be grouped into four main and overlapping
categories: traditional, social-gender, psycho-social, and political.
16. The traditional-religious belief system is an outgrowth of the Arab-Islamic
legacy. It revolves basically around women’s status in society, particularly on their
role in marriage. Advocates of this belief system stated that a woman’s place is in her
home, as manifested by the proverb, “Behind my doorknob lies my ridicule.” Career
women were also seen as a danger to family life and stability. They believed that
employment of the wife outside her home causes tension and makes men feel
neglected in their homes. The interviewees stated that the importance of a woman’s
career should not be an obstacle to her husband’s happiness; therefore, the career
should be sacrificed if the two conflict; otherwise, violence could occur in the home.
An important finding was that, although men and women interviewees stated
indirectly that sometimes the incidence of violence occurs, it was presented as due to
wives not obeying their husbands. A family doctor stated:
Women in our country are narrow-minded. They keep crying, nagging,
shouting, etc. They are not tolerant at all. They keep their mouths shut
only if their husbands are harsh with them. I think that men should not
beat their wives. Every man who has a problematic wife should get rid of
her. No one should tolerate a rebellious woman. Men need an obedient,
loving, and caring woman.
17. This theme also could be seen in the following statement of a social conciliator:
The virtuous woman is the one who brings happiness to him when he
glances at her, obeys him when he orders her, and is faithful to his honor
Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 6
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and property when he is away from her. When a man beats his wife, it is
an indication that she is not conducting herself properly.
18. It is clear from the above excerpts that there is a clear, unwritten, cultural code
that directs men in their interactions with their wives. This belief system has the effect
of defining abused women as deviant and the abusing husbands as victims of their
wives’ deviancy. Consequently, the only mode of correcting such deviancy is through
violence.
19. Gender and social biases appear to be the second belief system influencing the
perception of social control agents. Once again we can use the statement of a female
educator to elaborate on the theme:
It is forbidden for men to batter their wives. If it occurs, it becomes
difficult for all parties (wife, husband, and social control agent) to deal
with the situation. Women have no backing; they do not have either the
legal or social systems which can defend and protect them. Family
members are not allowed to intervene if violence occurs. In addition,
women cannot allow themselves to cause harm to their family, especially
their children. They need to accept reality, and obey social rules.
20. The lack of a social and legal support system hinders the social control agents’
motivation and attempts to offer solutions to the battered wives. Acceptance of reality,
as demonstrated by the statement “This is reality”, leads to a situation where the
problem remains private despite the acceptance of the premise that women are victims
of this situation. Knowledge of the causes of battering will not lead to remediation of
the problem because the legal, socio-political, and cultural “reality” does not offer
proper solutions to victimized women. Thus, women are controlled by patriarchal
codes of culture and social beliefs, such as the duty of women to safeguard the family,
protect her children, and obey her husband. Women are, therefore, considered to be
responsible for family stability and unity. Social expectations and myths victimize
women indirectly.
21. Gender biases were found in claims that state that women are lesser beings than
men physically, mentally, and socially. For example, it is believed that Muslim
ideology advocates that men are divinely superior to women both mentally and
religiously. A woman director of a research center said that, “Muslim men think that
battering is one of their legitimate rights”.
22. The above statements reflect the duality in perceiving women. While woman are
perceived as strong beings and protectors of family unity and honor, they are also
perceived as weak creatures unable to control their behavior. Thus, they are to be
protected from themselves, particularly from their sexual instincts. Because women
are seen as lesser beings, men become their “rightful” custodians.
23. Psycho-social characteristics were the third category of explanations social
control representatives gave as the cause of women being battered by men, and
criticism of such practices will be seen as an attack on indigenous cultural
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authenticity, as Ahmad (1992) postulated (see also Haddad, 1980; Hijjab, 1988;
Najjar, 1992). Focus of the social representatives on preserving family reputation and
unity as a main concern of women reflects gender blindness, which has been observed
in other Arab societies (Al-Sa’adawi, 1995; Kandiyoti, 1991; Mernissi, 1985’ Sayigh,
1992). Such action serves to privatize, hide and freeze any social policy action toward
wife battering. On the other hand, it serves to empower gender discrimination,
inequality, and patriarchal control in society. The fact that nearly one-half of the
interviewees fell within the “Advocators” category, however, is a hopeful indication
that the issue will eventually be addressed publicly. The apparent contradiction leaves
Palestinian society at a crucial juncture. Future social policy toward wife abuse can
take one of two turns: privatization of the problem and maintaining the status quo, or
publicizing the issue.
24. Upon examination of the question, “Why do men batter women?” it was shown
that the respondents did not address the question posed, but gave explanations for
“why men are violent”. This response mechanism has the effect of removing the
meaning of violence from its context. Their use of political, pathological, cultural, and
other forms of stressors to rationalize violence against women gives violence a new
meaning; hence, violence perpetrated against women becomes a method of social
control. It is argued here that, although political, cultural, pathological, and other
factors may be individually stressful, they are not the cause of battering. It is batterers
who choose to deal with stress or personal problems in a violent manner, and the
society that chooses to consider such behavior as “natural”.
25. This study has shown that traditional and systematic approval of the use of
violence against girls and women not only exists in Palestinian and Western societies,
but that it also serves to reinforce gender inequalities. The institutionalization of male
dominance, which stems from the patriarchality of society, greatly affects the legitimization of violence against women. Battering is a method offered by the sociopolitical context to control wives.
26. The limitation of the present study and its exploratory nature require that its
findings be taken cautiously. Although the present study is descriptive in nature and
does not offer conclusive results, the issue of wife battering should not be shelved
until such studies are conducted. In the meantime, inconclusive studies such as the
present one not only could serve to raise public awareness of the phenomenon but,
more importantly, could lead to the institutionalization of better services for battered
women.
27. Culture, law, politics, and tradition continue to define and influence social
reaction to wife battering. The sexist socialization of men and women in Palestinian
society was found to support the universal ethos, which perceives men as the heads of
their households and women as the nurturers of their husbands and children. This
patriarchal legacy interacts with economic and political variables to institutionalize
social reaction and perpetuate male domination and violence.
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28. Powerless and oppressed groups such as battered women do not always possess
the socio-political power to institute social change. Therefore, social control agents,
due to the power invested in them to effect social change, are ethnically and morally
held responsible for their actions. They are not the victims of circumstances, but
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rather are choice-makers. Through a combination of theoretical and empirical
research, political action, and an attempt to effect social change, wife battering and
violence against women can be understood and dealt with within a Palestinian Arab
context.
Acknowledgements
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The author wishes to thank both Prof. Simha Landau, and Prof. Stanley Cohen
for their insightful comments and directions in conducting this research.
References
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Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 9
Answer in your own words.
1.
2.
Answer the following question in English.
To what does the title itself trace the prevalence of wife abuse?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in English.
What characterizes the attitude of the Third World – paragraph 1 – to the issue
of violence against females?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in Hebrew.
3.
What does the feminist contribution – paragraph 3 – to the study of male
violence against women consist in?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
4.
Answer the following question in English.
On what points do the studies of wife abuse in non-Western societies differ
from those undertaken in Western culture? (paragraph 4)
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in Hebrew.
5.
Would you accept the claim that the information provided in the first half of
paragraph 5 is a digression from the main topic? How would you account for
this digression?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in Hebrew.
6.
In what wider context must Palestinian society – paragraphs 6-7 – be placed in
order to be understood? Elaborate.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 10
7.
8.
9.
10.
Answer the following question in English.
What means are resorted to in order to facilitate control over women?
(paragraph 7)
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in English.
Could one draw an analogy between social attitudes to Palestinian women and
attitudes prevalent in certain sectors of Israeli society? Elaborate.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in English.
Discuss the contradictory aspects – paragraph 8 – in the conditions of and
functions performed by Palestinian women in recent years.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in English.
What measures did the majority of those engaged in the study – paragraphs 1011 – recommend?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Choose the best answer.
11. The majority of women interviewed by the investigators – paragraph 11 – felt
that wife abuse must not be dealt with as a (1)______________ matter and
should become part of (2)_________________.
(1) a. criminal
b. private
c. public
d. serious
(2) a. the public agenda. b. one’s private affairs. c. an emotional matter.
Answer the following question in Hebrew.
12. Sum up the views of those who felt that the outcry against wife abuse –
paragraphs 14-17 – was exaggerated and women should rest content with their
subordinate position.
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Wife Abuse: A Method of Social Control / 11
13.
14.
15.
Answer the following question in English.
What thesis does the information provided in paragraphs 18-19 reinforce?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in English.
What are the contradictory elements in the average Palestinian’s perception of
women? (paragraphs 21-22)
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in English.
What findings – paragraph 23 – does the author find encouraging?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________
Answer the following question in Hebrew.
16. What is the main idea in this article?
Answer: _____________________________________________________________