Chapter 5 Defining and Measuring Stress
neurons - Nerve cells which provide communication throughout the nervous
system. An electrochemical neural impulse travels through the neuron resulting
in the release of "neurotransmitters." Your nervous system contains billions of
neurons.
neurotransmitters - Chemical molecules (e.g., norepinephrine or acetylcholine)
are manufactured and stored within the neuron. The neural impulse (firing of the
neuron) causes release of the neurotransmitter.
synaptic cleft - The space between two neurons. The released neurotransmitter
travels across the cleft and attaches to "receptor sites" on the second neuron.
This, in turn, results in changes of the firing rate and in the release of
neurotransmitters in the second neuron.
nervous system - The network of neurons that provides communication
throughout the body. The two basic divisions are (1) the "central nervous
system" (CNS) and (2) the "peripheral nervous system" (PNS) (see Fig 5.1).
central nervous system (CNS) - consists of the neurons which comprise the
brain and spinal cord.
peripheral nervous system (PNS) - connects all other neurons of the nervous
system to the spinal cord and brain. The PNS has two divisions (1) the somatic
nervous system and (2) the autonomic nervous system or ANS.
somatic nervous system (SNS) - carries signals from sensory or "afferent"
neurons (those involved in seeing, hearing, etc.) to the brain. It also carries
messages via motor or "efferent" neurons from the brain to the voluntary muscles
of the body.
autonomic nervous system (ANS) - is responsible for carrying information from
the internal organs (e.g., heart, lungs) to the brain and from the brain to the
internal organs. It is of primary importance to an understanding of stress
responses. It has two complementary divisions (1) sympathetic and (2)
parasympathetic.
sympathetic nervous system - Its activation releases neurotransmitters and
hormones which ready the body to handle emergencies and stressful situations.
Heart rate and blood pressure increase, digestion stops, the "fight or flight"
response is triggered, and many other changes take place.
parasympathetic nervous system - is active under normal, non-stressful
conditions. Heart rate and blood pressure decrease and digestion resumes (see
Fig. 5.2).
acetylcholine - One of the major neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous
system. The other is norepinephrine.
endocrine system - The system of the body consisting of ductless glands that
release hormones into the bloodstream. E.g., the gonads release hormones
(e.g., testosterone) that control sexual and reproductive functioning.
hormones - are chemical messengers like neurotransmitters. However, rather
than jumping across a synapse from one neuron to another, they travel through
the bloodstream throughout the body. Their effect takes much longer to occur
(minutes vs. fractions of a second for neurotransmitters) and their effects are
more long lasting (minutes, hours, or longer).
neuroendocrine system - The system of particular endocrine glands (e.g., the
adrenals) and hormones (e.g., cortisol) that interact with and work closely with
the autonomic nervous system.
pituitary gland - Called the "master gland," because is secretes many
hormones. When stimulated by the hypothalamus, it releases
"adrenocorticotropic hormone" (ACTH).
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - Produced by the anterior portion of the
pituitary, it acts on the adrenal glands and is important in the stress response.
adrenal glands - are located on top of each kidney. They have an outer and an
inner layer that secrete multiple hormones.
adrenal cortex - The outer layer of the adrenal glands which secretes
glucocorticoids including cortisol (in response to ACTH).
cortisol - the most important glucocorticoid, is known as the "stress hormone."
Its level in the blood, which rises to maximum at about 20 to 40 minutes after a
stressor can be used as an index of stress level. It also provides a natural
defense against inflammation and regulates carbohydrate metabolism.
adrenal medulla - The inner layer of the adrenal glands which secretes both
epinephrine and norepinephrine.
adrenocortical response - The response of the adrenal cortex (to ACTH) that
results in the release of the glucocorticoids including cortisol.
glucocorticoids - including cortisol, raises levels of blood sugar to supply
energy to the cells so they can respond to the emergency or stressor.
adrenomedullary response - The response of the adrenal "medulla", prompted
by sympathetic nervous system activation. It results in the release of
"catecholamines" (1) epinephrine which is also called adrenaline, and (2)
norepinephrine.
epinephrine - Like cortisol, epinephrine is very closely associated with the
body's stress response and serves as a stress index. Its level can be measured
in the urine.
norepinephrine - is produced not only in the adrenal glands but in other places
as well. It functions "both" as a hormone AND a neurotransmitter.
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) Axis - Axis just means working
together. Stress causes the hypothalamus to release cortictropin- releasing
hormone which triggers the pituitary to release ACTH. This triggers the adrenal
"cortex" to release glucocorticoids which increase blood levels of sugar.
allostasis - The process by which the body maintains an appropriate level of
arousal in response to differing levels of stress. "Allostatic load" refers to a
weakening in the body's ability to adapt as a result of prolonged stress.
stressor - Selye's term for the event or situation that causes stress.
stress - Selye's term for one's reaction to a stressor.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) - Hans Selye's model of how the body
reacts to a stressor. The model includes three stages: (1) alarm, (2) resistance,
and (3) exhaustion.
alarm reaction - The first stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), in
which the body's defenses are mobilized against a stressor.
resistance stage - The second stage of the general adaptation syndrome
(GAS), in which the body adapts to a stressor.
"diseases of adaptation" - Selye's term for diseases caused by continued
stress during the "resistance" stage. Examples are ulcers, hypertension, AND a
weakened immune system which makes infection more likely.
exhaustion stage - The final stage of the general adaptation syndrome (GAS),
in which the body's ability to resist a stressor has been depleted. Illness and
death are possible.
John Mason on the GAS - He has criticized Selye for focusing exclusively on
the "physical" and not taking into account "human individual differences" such as
perception, interpretation, and emotional response to stressors. The fact that
Selye's research was done primarily with non-human subjects (animals) likely
contributed to this.
Richard Lazarus - Worked primarily with humans and concluded that the
"interpretation" of a stressor was key in determining how stressful it would
actually be. His "transactional position" refers to stress as a "relationship
between the person and the environment."
Lazarus and Folkman - believe people use three levels of "appraisal" in dealing
with stressors (primary, secondary, and reappraisal).
primary appraisal - refers to the person's initial impression of the stressor, and
its perception as one of the following: 1. "harm" (damage has been done), 2.
"threat" (anticipation of harm), or 3. "challenge" (the stressor or demand can be
overcome).
secondary appraisal - involves asking oneself three questions: (1) what options
are available, (2) can I successfully implement a strategy, and (3) will this plan
work?
reappraisal - Appraisal constantly changes as the situation changes.
physiological measures of stress - Heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, and
skin resistance (GSR) reflect stress. A "lie detector" or "polygraph" uses these
measures, though their accuracy for detecting lies is controversial. The
elaborate mechanical apparatus can itself induce stress.
chemical measures of stress - include stress hormones such as cortisol,
epinephrine, and norepinephrine. These can be measured via blood, urine, or
saliva.
stress and aging - Stress affects aging at the cellular level. "Telomeres"
(complexes of DNA and protein located on chromosomes) become shorter with
age. Epel et. al. found that chronically stressed subjects had shorter telomeres
than control subjects. They suggest the use of telomere length a possible index
of stress.
life events -Major events in a person’s life that require change or adaptation.
the SRRS - The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) was developed by
Holmes and Rahe in the 1960s and assesses significantly stressful major life
events (e.g., death of spouse). Despite extensive use, some consider it out of
date and question its psychometric properties and usefulness.
the Hassels Scale - was developed by Richard Lazarus and measures typical
daily events that are annoying and irritating. Lazarus claims it to be superior to
the SRRS.
cataclysmic events (natural disasters) - such as the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami are extremely stressful. Jane Gilbert, a counselor, has argued that well
meaning "Western" therapists who rushed to help without considering "cultural"
differences may not have given the survivors the best help they could have.
intentional acts - such as the assassination of John F. Kennedy, destruction of
the World Trade Center, and the Oklahoma City bombing produce "more"
widespread stress than do natural disasters.
posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) - An anxiety disorder caused by
experience with an extremely traumatic event and characterized by recurrent and
intrusive reexperiencing of the event.
daily hassles - Everyday events that people experience as harmful, threatening,
or annoying. Examples include poverty, crime, pollution, noise, arguing, etc.
urban press - Graig's (1993) term for the noise, crowding, crime, and pollution
that city residents experience. Christenfeld et. al. suggest these as contributors
to the high death rate from heart attacks in New York City.
population density - refers to the actual number of persons occupying a give
space (e.g., number of people per square mile).
crowding - is a person's subjective sense of discomfort in a high-density
environment. High density is necessary for, but does not guarantee, that one will
feel "crowded."
job-related stress - Surprisingly, "lack of control" is more stressful than the
burden of making decisions. Thus, it is more stressful to be a waitress or a
machine operator than to be an executive. Middle level managers are highly
stressed, having to meet demands from above and below. Working mothers
without partners are especially stressed.
coping - Strategies that individuals use to manage the distressing problems and
emotions in their lives.
social support - Both tangible (material such as help with tasks) and intangible
support a person receives from other people.
social network - Number and kinds of people with whom one associates; social
contacts.
social isolation - refers to the absence of meaningful social and personal
relationships.
the Stress Buffering Hypothesis - states that social support lessens the
harmful effects of stress and helps protect against stress-related disease and
death.
the role of marriage - Being married (if the relationship is reasonably happy)
provides support for both members. However, research suggests that this
benefit is not equal. Men appear to benefit more from marital support than do
women.
personal control - Confidence that people have in their ability to control the
events that shape their lives.
locus of control - According to Julian Rotter, those who perceive events to be
under their control (whether they really are or not) have an "internal locus of
control." Those who perceive events to be due to luck or situations (whether they
really are or not) have an "external locus of control." Having an "internal" locus is
generally associated with better psychological health. Unfortunately, new
research suggests that college students overall may be becoming more
"external."
Langer and Rodin - conducted a study with elderly nursing home residents.
They found that having more control over one's life (things as simple as choosing
recreational activities and caring for a plant) was associated with better health
and lower risk of mortality.
the "hardy personality" model - This theory (proposed by Kobassa and Maddi)
suggests that some people are buffered against the potentially harmful effects of
stress by their hardy personality. Kobassa's "hardy personality" concept is based
in a sort of "existential" strength and this view has been criticized. Your
professor agrees. A hardy personality probably has more to do with genetics
than with one's philosophical beliefs.
problem vs. emotion focused coping - Problem focused strategies are aimed
at changing the source of the stress (e.g., changing jobs). Emotion focused
strategies are aimed at managing the emotions that accompany stress (more of a
temporary fix).
proactive coping - A coping strategy that involves anticipating a problem and
taking steps to avoid stress before it happens (e.g., seeing unpleasant workplace
changes coming and finding a new job before things get bad).