PEOPLE,
LAND MANAGEMENT AND
ENVIRONMENTAL
CHANGE (PLEC)
KENYA SUB CLUSTER
FINAL PLEC PROJECT REPORT – PHASE 1
1998 - 2002
R..R.C-Embu,
P.O Box 27,
Embu, Kenya
Tel: 0161-20116
E-mail: Kariembu@salpha.co.ke
Compiled and edited by
J.N. Kang’ara
Ezekiah Ngoroi
Charles M. Rimui
PLEC PROJECT FINAL REPORT
KENYA SUBCLUSTER
By J.N. Kang’ara , E.H. Ngoroi, C.M. Rimui , Kajuju Kaburu and B.O.Okoba
Executive summary
EAPLEC was one of the five fully funded cluster by GEF of UNEP through United Nation
University (UNU) Tokyo. The Kenya sub-cluster had selected two sites based on ethnic
communities, richness in biodiversity, Agro-ecological zones (AEZ) and socio-economic factors
by 1998. After initial characterisation of the sites through PRA methods and biophysical
survey, the Kenya sub-cluster reorganized its activities on advise of the PLEC technical advisor.
This involved discontinuing of the Kiambu site and scaling down the 45 km long Embu site to a
focal area of about 11 km2 , instead of spreading thinly with minimal coverage of the landscape.
Therefore demonstration site was confined to Nduuri as the Kenyan site which lies between 0
25South and 37 33 East in the upper midland 2 (UM2) Agro-ecological zone (AEZ) as
classified by Jaetzold and Shmidt (1983) within the Kirimiri-Karue catchment. Administratively
Nduuri falls under Mukuuri sub-location, Kagaari South location, Runyenjes’ Division, Embu
District of Eastern Province. Mukuuri sub location has a total population of 5978 inhabitants
(CBS 1999), comprising 2928 male and 3050 female. This was followed by a focused PRA to
identify and monitor good indigenous farming practices adopted by individual farmers. The
indigenous technologies’ scientific rationale was studied and farmers with successful
technologies selected as experts to teach others. Therefore farmer to farmer visits were
encouraged and field days organized to facilitate the dissemination. In areas where researchers
found a production gap , new production technologies compatible to their land use system were
demonstrated in the area and the farmers made the choice on what to try on their farms.
The biodiversity and agro diversity data was collected and database established for this area
as well as characterisation of households. Other focused survey on fruits and vegetables,
botanical knowledge gap and home gardens were conducted and information obtained from this
survey was discussed with the cluster members on how to solve some of the problems identified
in farmers workshops. The principal production constraints in the area were identified as:
declining soil productivity due to continuous cultivation without adequate soil nutrient
replenishment, declining soil productivity due to cultivation of steep slopes without adequate
soil and water conservation measures, shortage of livestock feeds especially during dry season
and inadequate tree-crop interactions. Some of the identified technologies include incorporating
fig tree in coffee plantation and addition of farmyard manure to enhance soil fertility. Terracing
and mulching is also practised to control soil erosion. Other technologies demonstrated included
indigenous technical knowledge to control coffee stem borers, top working on Ruiru 11 disease
resistant coffee onto older susceptible varieties, enhancing biodiversity in coffee field to increase
land production and strategic horticultural production under irrigation.
1. Section one
EAPLEC has been one of the five fully funded cluster by GEF of UNDP through United Nation
University (UNU) Tokyo. After re-organisation of EAPLEC in 1998, two multi-disciplinary
teams were formed to carry out PLEC activities in two different ethnic communities in different
Agro-ecological zones (AEZ) in Kenya viz. Lari division of Kiambu district of Central Kenya
and the Embu and Mbeere districts of Eastern Kenya.
1
The Kenya Sub-cluster started with a country planning meeting in July 1998 held at the Kenya
Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) Headquarters under the chairmanship of Dr. R. Kiome
the EAPLEC Cluster co-ordinator. The activities and the work plans were discussed and
implementation started immediately
1.1 Site selection
The choice of the site was based on the population pressure, ethnic communities, richness in
biodiversity and AEZ which is also based on agricultural potential, soil types, climatic condition
and agro-biodiversity. Also considered in site selection was socio-economic factors and
proximity to the market. Initially a quick reconnaissance was made to the areas which had met
the selection criteria. In Embu this included two sites with high biodiversity viz. from Njukiri
forest down to Gachoka traversing 5 AEZ and the Kirimiri forest down to Gitaru and Kamburu
Dams on Tana River. The Kirimiri Tana river site was finally selected for PLEC activities.
The Kiambu site is located on two Transects in Lari administrative division of Kiambu district.
The division lies between 3635’and 36 43’East and 0 50’ and 1 40’south. One of the
transects ran along the Kamae forest/Kijabe axis while the other started at Kimende to Maai
Mahiu on the old Nairobi-Naivasha road. The division is between 1760 m and 2610m above sea
level (masl). The average annual rainfall varies between 700 mm and 1400 mm. The soils are
Ando-calcaric Regosols, Ando luvic Phaeozems, Lithisols, Chromic Acrisols and humic
Nitosols according to Jaetzold and Schmidt (1983).
The Embu-Mbeere site, which initially was to cover a large transect running from the lower
Kirimiri volcanic footridges (1790 masl) in Manyatta and Runyenjes Divisions, Embu district, to
the Gitaru and Kamburu dams on the Tana river in Gachoka Division, Mbeere district (793
masl), was later scaled down and limited to the northern end of the transect to include only
Mukuuri sub-location where the demonstration site was eventually located.
1.2 Initial Characterisation
1.2.1 Transect through the site
In Embu, a PRA was conducted along the transect with the objective of having an insight of the
attributes that characterize the agro-ecological zones (AEZ) from the upland, coffee-dairy midaltitude zone, to the low altitude semi-arid sorghum-millet extensive livestock zone. The goal
was to inventory different land-use and management systems within each AEZ, using existing
land-use maps, informants and observations while travelling through the area. Specifically the
upper transect boundary, began with the identification at the upland mid-altitude area of a cover
of an indigenous, well preserved existing forest, with a form of taungya/shamba system of
cultivation (planted with exotic trees), and diverse land use systems down the altitudinal
gradient. Further down various strategies were being developed by farmers, in light of the
decreasing land sizes and increasing population. The boundary of the lower section of the
transect was identified as the recently built Kamburu and Gitaru dams which were deemed to
have had a great influence on the lifestyle of the people. Emphasis was to be placed on the
dams’ influence on the surface hydrology and the influence of the fishing activities on the
peoples livelihood - shifting from purely subsistence cultivators of land and extensive livestock
keepers to supplementary fishing and horticultural farming by irrigation techniques.
2
The whole Embu-Mbeere transect area covered approximately 450 km2. The main NairobiMeru road crosses though the transect area in the north. The transect cuts across seven agroecological zones - the upper midlands (UM) 1, 2, 3, 4 under the coffee-tea, main coffee/dairy,
marginal coffee, maize-sunflower land use systems respectively, and the lower midlands (LM) 3,
4 and 5 under the cotton, marginal cotton and extensive livestock-millet land-use systems
respectively. Due to low economic returns, sunflower and cotton production in the area is of low
priority.
The boundary ran from Kianjokoma, Manyatta, Itabua, then along the Embu - Gachoka road to
the Kianjiru Hills and into Thiba river and then ends at the Kamburu dam while the Eastern
flank runs from Kirimiri hill to Runyenjes - Siakago - Igumori ending into Gitaru dam.
In Kiambu, the PRA was conducted early 1999 in Lari division by researchers from KARI,
extension personnel of Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock Development and the local
community. The data was collected through observations and individual and group interviews
along two transects traversing the whole division from the natural forest in the upper highland
zone (UH0) through the cultivated and settled areas to another natural forest in the lower
highland Zone (LH3). The interviewees were the local station forester, the water development
officer, farmers, community leaders and prominent practising herbalists.
The issues recorded were: household or personal data, socio-economic data, resource
endowment, soil and water management, infrastructures, land use system trend lines on climate,
land management, migrations, animals and plants change .
1.2.2 Biophysical characterisation
At the same period when the PRA was being conducted, biophysical survey was initiated. The
site evaluation was carried out within the transect in order to: characterize the site in terms of the
soil, agro-ecological zones, landscapes and their management problems, and examine the
biophysical status of land resources on each landscape and within each agro-ecosystem under
different management and conservation practices. The characterization involved literature
reviews, aerial photo interpretation and detailed analysis of biophysical land characteristics using
conventional soil survey procedures.
1.2.3 Household characterization
The Nduuri household family sizes are between 2 and 15, with a mean of 6.8. Most of the labour
force comes from the family. However, it was found that 55 per cent of families hire labour to
supplement family labour especially for coffee related operations. Family income is wholly
dependent on farm income. Sixty four per cent of families are male headed. Household land
sizes vary between 0.2 and 2 hectares (0.92 hectares as the average size).
1.3 Determination of focus sites
In the next planning meeting, it was decided that Kiambu site be discontinued and concentrate
on Embu site which was far much ahead of Kiambu in PLEC activities at the end of 1999.
After a visit by Prof. Michael Stocking in 1999, the Embu PLEC team was advised to reduce the
site which first covered Embu and Mbeere transect as this made the team too spread thinly and
could not cover that area intensively. The team then focused on the upper part of the site at
Nduuri sub-location Runyenjes Division Embu District as the demonstration site. A
3
reconnaissance survey was undertaken along the Kirimiri - Karue axis of this area with the aim
of identifying the vegetation, major land use, land management practices, cropping systems and
household characteristics at an exploratory level. The survey was conducted by researchers from
Embu Regional Research Centre in collaboration with the extension personnel from the Ministry
of Agriculture (MoA), a forester, herbalists and the farmers in the area.
1.4 Progress of work and involvement of scientists and other collaborators
The core PLEC team initially was made up of three scientists, an agronomist, soil scientist and a
livestock scientist, and one technician. From time to time specialists from other disciplines were
co-opted for a particular purpose. For this reason a soil surveyor was incorporated to do the
biophysical characterisation in 1999 and a demographic specialist was co-opted (see Table 1).
Similarly in 1999 PRA socio-economist, a veterinary officer, and two herbalist were involved.
During the regular monitoring of farmer experiments/demonstrations a biometrician was
involved. At the beginning of year 2000 the need for a home economist / nutritionist was felt and
the first female member of the PLEC team was recruited.
4
Table 1. PLEC work progress and collaborators
Date
Activity
Participants
farmers
1994
1998
Start of EAPLEC
PLEC team reconstituted with Embu and
Kiambu sites
July 1998
1st sub-cluster planning meeting at KARI
Hq
August 1998
1st reconnaissance for site selection
August 1998
Transect identification and mapping
November 1998
Demonstration site selection and
characterisation
December
1998
and PRA
January 1999
1.Group meeting
2.Individual meeting
February 1999
Demographic studies
September 1999
Agrodiversity Characterisation
February 1999-Nov 1999
Biophysical characterisation
1999-2001
Identification and monitoring of good
practises by expert farmers
Feb 1999-Aug 1999
Household characterisation
July 1999
Farmers group tree nursery
July 2000
Field day
June 2001
Survey on vegetable distribution
Feb 2000-July 2001
Data base development
Dec 1999
Botanical Knowledge gap survey
Oct.2000
home garden survey
Jan. 1999-Nov 2001
Regular monitoring of demonstrations
July 2001
Meru tour to area of high agrobiodiversity
August 2001
Field day/Meru tour follow-up
April 1999- Nov.2001
Farmer to farmer tours
November 2001
PLEC Arusha workshop
research
extension
Field
asistant
students
Other
collaborators
10
8
20
2
3
3
80
6
2
30
3
2
4
3
1
2
1
2
2
2
3
73
51
6
22
2
3
4
5
4
5
5
6
3
2
3
2
4
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
123
44
1
3
3
4
3
2
1
1
2 . Herbalists
1
5
40
26
53
43
5
5
1. Dr Mungai
One of the main difficulties experienced was that of the scientists themselves due to KARI
orientation on Farming Systems Approach to Research, Extension and Training (FSA-RET)
where problems are identified, prioritized and intervention made either through research or just
extension to solve the problem. Here, the scientist and the extension worker are the experts and
the source of technology. This differed with PLEC approach as the roles were reversed: to
appreciate the farmer as the expert, while the researcher and the extension worker were to learn
from him and use him to teach other farmers. It took very long for the researchers and the
extension officers from Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development to adjust to the PLEC
approach.
Promotions for scientists are based on the number of scientific papers published in refereed
journals and presented in the conferences from their hard science. Where the farmer is the expert
and the scientist is a student, the fear was that papers emanating from this work may not qualify
for publication in recognized journals and this may not contribute to career advancement of the
scientist. However, KARI has developed an evaluation scheme which is now recognising such
publications for advancement.
The other problem is historical. Non governmental organisations (NGOs) have made extension
by the government arm very difficult. This is because they issue handouts in form of tools, seeds,
food and even money to the farmers as they disseminate technologies. This therefore, made the
extension officers from Ministry of Agriculture who come after the NGOs have left to be
ignored by farming communities since they had nothing to offer. It then became the policy of
Ministry of Agriculture not to give any thing free to the farmer to discourage that dependency
syndrome. So it was difficult for PLEC to break out of this policy and reward the expert
farmers. This was not just a farmer but was an expert who rendered service to other farmers and
to the scientists and needed to be encouraged or motivated to spend some of his farm time to
teach others. This would have encouraged the expert farmers to do even more for the benefit of
his/her community. We therefore had a very slow start with the expert farmer.
2. Section two – Sites
2.1 Location
The Nduuri demonstration site is located at Nduuri village, 0o25’S and 37o33’E in the Upper
Midlands 2 (UM2) Agro-ecological zone (AEZ) as classified by Jaetzold and Shmidt (1983)
within the Kirimiri-Karue catchment. Administratively Nduuri falls under Mukuuri sub-location,
Kagaari South location, Runyenjes’ Division, Embu District of Eastern Province. The nearest
urban centre is Runyenjes town 3 kilometres east of Nduuri village while Embu town the
provincial capital is 25 kilometres to the west. Two major landmarks dominate the area - the
forested Kirimiri hill (1790m ASL) in the north and Karue hill (1591m asl) in the south (Figure
1).
2.2 Area and population
Mukuuri sub location has a total population of 5978 inhabitants (CBS 1999), comprising 2928
male and 3050 female. Within an area of 11.2 square km Mukuuri has a population density of
534 inhabitants per square kilometre. There are 1235 households. The inhabitants of the area are
the Embu ethnic group.
6
2.3 Physical characteristics
The demonstration site is characterized by gentle slopes at the top of ridges to steep slopes of
between 15 and 50% (see topographical map, Figure 1) The area is marked by ridges and
valleys and is endowed with permanent streams originating from Kirimiri hill and Mt Kenya
forest about 7 km to the north. Soils at the demonstration site are classified as humic Nitosols
developed on tertiary basic igneous rocks. There is variation in soil type as one moves from one
village sub-unit to another (Figure 2). They are well-drained, extremely deep, darkish brown
with friable clay. Altitude ranges between 1200-1790 masl. Rainfall has a bimodal pattern with
the amount varying between 1000 – 2000 mm per annum with distribution in March-April, long
rains, and October-December, the short rains. The vegetation ranges from conserved natural
forest to agro-forestry farmlands. Both exotic and indigenous trees make a dense cover of the
landscape.
7
Figure 1. Topographical map showing the two land mark hills
Scale 1:50,000
8
Figure 2. A sketch map of Nduuri Demonstration site showing streams and village sub units
Kamugere area
Kirimiri forest
To Kevote
9
10
Karue
Hill
R.
Ena
7
From
Embu
NEMBURE
DIVISION
1
3
R.
Kamiu
gu,
5
R.
Karii
8
Shops
4
2
11
Factory
R.
Nthu
ngu
Sch
12
NDUURI
UNIT
6
Nthenge njeru
Falls
Nduuri C. Factory.
R.Ena
9
Nthungu
Falls
KEY
Feeder road
Tributary
Main River
Boundaries
Main River
Tarmac Road
Tarmac Road
Village Sub-units
Figure 2 Key: The village sub-units in the farmers’ resource map.
(Soil types and topography as described by the farmers)
1) Kianjogu The soils are of two types. Some are mixed with sand and others are light soils
due to long cultivation. The soils in the area are of medium fertility. The light soils have a
good water-holding capacity. Some areas are sloped and others are flat.
2) Gaturi. The soils are red and not sticky and are medium in fertility. Some areas are sloped
and others are flat.
3) Central Muthege. The colour is medium between red and dark-red but sandy towards river
Ena. The land is moderately sloped.
4) Gichaki. The soils are of low fertility, which are red and dark in colour and are not sandy.
The land is sloped with some flat areas.
5) Gachagori. One area on the eastern side has dark soils that are comparatively fertile than the
eastern side soils that are reddish in colour. The upper side of the area is steeper on the
eastern side.
6) Kagea. The soils are light and infertile. The area has steep slopes towards Ena River.
7) Kianjeru. The soils in the area are dark in colour but reddish infertile towards the Kamiugu
River. The land steeps towards the river.
8) Lower Muthege. The soils are stony and sandy as well as light but fertile. The lower areas
especially the valley-bottom near the river junction are quite fertile.
9) Upper Muthege. Like lower Muthege.
10) Kirimiri. These are sandy soils with ferns growing on them. They are poor and little maize
grows there. The area is Hilly.
11) Karii. The soils are sandy depositions from Kirimiri and thus rendering the soils to be poor.
Topographically, the area is flat.
12) Kiambogo. This area is covered with light soils that are infertile with the lower area being a
little bit fertile. The area is hilly.
11
2.4 Land use system
Most of the farmers have settled in the area for the last 40 years when land holdings were
consolidated and registered. Prior to this period the community practised shifting cultivation.
Significant changes have taken place in the cropping system as the years have passed. Whereas
earlier the two main seasons (long rains and short rains) were predominantly for dolicos beans
and millet/sorghum respectively, the introduction of coffee, maize and other short maturity
legumes replaced the millets and dolicos beans. The second rains season is still referred to as the
mbura ya mwere i.e millet season although there is no longer any millet grown. The predominant
farming system is now mainly coffee/dairy, maize/beans. Maize and beans are now grown
during the two seasons.
A total of 33 cropping systems were recorded. Coffee was found inter-cropped in 40% of the
crop combinations, for example as sole coffee, coffee-cassava, coffee-banana, coffee-sweet
potatoes, coffee-banana-macadamia, coffee-cowpeas, coffee-tobacco, coffee-passionfruit,
coffee-miraa-banana, and coffee-pumpkin (Plates 1 and 2). Other crops like maize and beans
were inter-cropped with sorghum, cassava, bananas and macadamia. Miraa (Catha edulis) is a
crop that is becoming prominent within the coffee fields. Macadamia is an established cash crop
in the area.
Cocoyams, sugarcane, bananas, kale and onions were concentrated in the valley bottoms.
Sugarcane and cocoyams take the largest area of the valleys.
Plate 1: Coffee variety Ruiru 11, intercropped with cassava and beans.
12
Plate 2: Coffee intercropped with bananas, tomatoes, and macadamia.
Most of the income in the study area has traditionally been generated from coffee, dairy and sale
of food crops such as maize and beans. As a result of poor coffee marketing and co-operative
society management, returns from coffee sales have decreased and farmers are paying less
attention to coffee management.
In cultivated areas the indigenous trees have been replaced with exotic tree species such as
Grevillea robusta.
Of the farms visited 54 per cent had open stall type of cow sheds. Other than dairy cows, other
livestock types included goats and pigs also kept in open stall sheds. Bee hives were generally
found in valley bottoms. Traditional poultry was predominant and purely for home consumption.
Timber and fruit trees are predominant in the farms. Grevillea was the dominant exotic tree
followed by macadamia, mangoes (unimproved varieties) and avocados. Twenty agroforestry
trees were identified. Seventeen indigenous trees were recorded, some of which are becoming
very rare within the area. The predominant uses of the trees and shrubs included timber, fruits,
medicinal purposes, and fencing. (Table 2)
13
Table 2 Agroforestry trees and shrubs
Indigenous species
Mururi
Mukuyu
Mutundu
Muringa
Mukwego
Muu
Mugumo
Kariaria
Mukambura
Muvuti
Mubuthi
Murubaine
Muthiriti
Murerema
Mukau
Mubiru
Muchakuthe
%
14
12
10
10
10
7
7
5
5
5
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Exotic species
Grevillea
Macadamia
Mangoes
Avocados
Pawpaw
Guava
Passion
Castor
Eucalyptus
Cypress
Croton
Miraa
Locquarts
Nandi flame
Euphobia
Mulberry
Lemons
Calliandra
Acacia
Jack fruit
%
16
14
12
11
8
6
5
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2.5 Production constraints
The principal production constraints in the area were identified as:
 declining soil productivity due to continuous cultivation without adequate soil nutrient
replenishment
 declining soil productivity due to cultivation of steep slopes without adequate soil and water
conservation measures
 shortage of livestock feeds especially during dry season
 inadequate tree-crop interactions.
With regard to these constraints the conventional measures recommended include: use of
inorganic fertilizers, farmyard manures, and implementation of physical soil and water
conservation measures stabilized by grass strips; use of fodder banks along farm boundaries; use
of pure stand cash crop trees (coffee); and crop rotation to overcome the disease/pest effect on
different crop combinations.
Due to inability to adequately adopt the recommended measures, the farmers have modified and
also introduced other measures that are compatible with their knowledge and ability. In addition
cultivation and exploitation of the Kirimiri forest has adversely affected the water catchment for
the Karii, Kamiugu and Nthungu streams. This could adversely affect the irrigation activities
planned for the area. A government ban was imposed on further exploitation in 2000.
Poor coffee price is the major constraint for the community who has always depended on the
commodity. Crop and livestock pests and diseases are constraints resulting from the poverty
14
occasioned by the failure of the coffee industry. Occasionally, as in 2000, famine resulted from
prolonged drought and many turned to the valley bottom for irrigated crop production.
The young and educated have moved to the urban areas in search of opportunities leaving the
older and least educated in the area. Teachers form the bulk of the more educated still living
within the community.
Work was started for a brief period at Mvangua village also in Embu in 1999. This was a site in
the upper midland 3 (UM3) agro ecological zone. The area is a major maize producing area with
more gentle slopes than Nduuri and with different soil management approaches. For example
due to the relatively lower rainfall farmers predominantly use maize stover as mulch for Irish
potato production. This site was closed down on recommendation of the technical advisor when
it was realized that we lagged behind in setting up the first demonstration site.
3 Section three - Activities at the site
The Nduuri demonstration site was started by first mobilizing the community by the local chief
for a meeting with a multidisciplinary team of researchers, agricultural and forestry extension
personnel, and renowned herbalists. Virtually all the farmers in the village turned up during this
first meeting. This was an induction meeting at which the PLEC concept was explained to the
farmers and other collaborators.
A reconnaissance walk was undertaken along the Kirimiri - Karue axis of this area with the aim
of identifying the vegetation, major land use, land management practices, cropping systems and
household characteristics globally. From this survey we came up with a profile of several
farmers, diverse vegetation and management techniques that the PLEC team was to monitor.
3.1 Collaborating farmers
Among the first farmer practices to be identified were those using the fig tree as a shade tree and
for soil fertility replenishment. From the initial three farmers more farmer practices were
identified and the number of farmers rose to 32. By the end of the project PLEC had drawn
together a cluster of 60 farmers with enthusiasm on the activities. During one of the activities
investigating botanical knowledge gap between the age groups the whole of the Ndurri
community was involved including the younger members. Other practices monitored were the
use of irrigation for vegetable production, introduction of miraa into the cropping system,
planting of indigenous trees, mulching coffee plantation with banana leaves and Grevillea
leaves, intercropping coffee with irrigated vegetables (spinach, kale, onion, tomato),
intercropping coffee with tomatoes (Plate 3), bananas, sweet potato and Irish potatoes,
modifying bench terraces into basins for irrigation, and using maize and sugarcane stover,
banana pseudo stems and leaves for fertility enhancement. Some farmers were also found to
control soil erosion and maintain soil fertility by mulching without the use of bench terraces.
Other farmers were using trash lines of banana leaves and banana pseudo stems for soil erosion
control.
15
Plate No. 3: Tomatoes under mulch, intercropped with coffee.
3.2 Expert farmers
Gradually expert farmers were selected after several visits to their farms and the farmers had
demonstrated to PLEC that the practice was viable. Preliminary findings were reported to the
farmers in one of the several farmer meetings held. In the meeting expert farmers described the
practices they were demonstrating. After the initial meeting farmers were encouraged to visit
and learn from those farmers whose practices had been selected. Expert farmers were each
provided with a notebook for recording all visiting farmers who came on a learning mission. In
this way PLEC could evaluate the extent to which farmers were exchanging visits. More contact
was also achieved between expert farmers and the rest during seminars organized at Nduuri
Primary School.
3.2.1 Use of fig tree (Ficus sycomorus) as a shade tree in coffee (by Njue Ndungo, Francis
Muriuki and Rweria Muruanjuki).
Farmers in Nduuri have devised several methods of replenishing soil fertility by the use of sweet
potatoes in rotation, use of farm yard manure, use of crop residues and planting fig trees (Ficus
sycomorus) in coffee farms. PLEC initially identified 3 farmers who had planted fig trees in their
coffee farms. The farmers claimed the fig tree modified the microclimate and improved soil
fertility. Later six other farmers were spotted and included in the monitoring of this activity.
Although the results of the observations indicated no significant difference in yield or soil
quality under the fig tree or outside there was a strong indication of benefits especially during the
severe 2000 drought. Coffee berries developed only under the fig tree canopy. Farmers using this
practice are also contributing to the conservation of biodiversity.
3.2.2 Control of stem borers in coffee (by Mbaka Njuranio and Njue Ndungo)
In the recent past coffee pests such as the white borer (Anthores leucotonus), black borer (Apate
monacha) and yellow-headed borer (Dirphya nigricornis) have multiplied due to lack of
spraying of the crop as a result of low financial proceeds from the commodity. Farmers have
16
devised a technique of plant to plant inspection and spot application of paraffin or other
chemicals to destroy these devastating borers. They check for the symptoms such as yellowing
of leaves, frass and tunnelling made by the borer at the base of the stems. Soil is excavated from
the base of the stems of the suspect plants and when tunnels are noticed a piece of cotton wool
soaked in insecticide or paraffin is inserted into the tunnel using a bicycle spoke and the larvae
die on contact or through fumigative effect of the insecticide. This method of control was found
to be effective in the control of these pests since there was a low rate of recurrence of the pest
after treatment. This practice has been widely adapted by the farmers as their own invention.
Spot application of the chemical according to the farmers is cheaper and also it avoids
environmental pollution.
3.2.3 Top working Ruiru 11 onto SL34 coffee (by Bernard Njeru M’ Thungu)
Successful coffee cultivation is dependent on control of three major diseases namely: Coffee
Berry Disease (CBD) caused by Colletotrichum coffeanum, leaf rust, caused by Hemileia
vastatrix, and Bacterial Blight of Coffee (BBC) by Pseudomonas syringae. CBD and Leaf Rust
are fungal diseases while BBC is a bacterial disease. If not controlled field losses due to these
diseases can be very high. Spray programmes using various fungicides have been recommended
and the number of sprays can range from 8 to 14 depending on the prevailing weather condition
and the type of disease being controlled (Coffee Booard of Kenya, 1996). Other recommended
practices to reduce incidence of these diseases include pruning and use of shade trees. In Nduuri
BBC does not occur and the farmers have only to contend with the fungal diseases. PLEC
spotted one of the Nduuri farmers trying to deal with the problem by top working the CBD and
rust tolerant Ruiru 11 onto the susceptible variety SL34.
Four other farmers from Nduuri and its neighbourhood have started to adopt the technology
from the first farmers but many are waiting to see the results before making a decision on
adoption.
3.3 Farmer-to- farmer training
Use of fig tree as a shade tree in coffee generated interest among farmers. Useful exchange took
place between farmers and most agreed that the practice was beneficial to coffee. Expert farmers
allayed fears expressed by their colleagues on the possible increase in coffee berry disease, leaf
rust and coffee thrips as a result of shading. The participating farmers advised trimming away
the lower branches of the fig tree leaving the canopy high over the coffee trees to reduce
humidity. They observed that in July/August when the weather is cold and conducive for
outbreak of coffee berry disease and leaf rust the fig tree will have shed its leaves thus leaving
bear twigs. The shading effect will therefore be minimal. During one of the seminars, interested
farmers requested fig tree seedlings which some of the expert farmers were willing to provide.
Many farmers adopted the control of stem borers in coffee as PLEC expert farmers demonstrated
that there was low recurrence of the borers after the treatment. Miraa cultivation as
demonstrated by one farmer was found to be a good alternative source of income by the
community in the prevailing low coffee prices. However adoption of the crop was subject to
overcoming socio-religious complications since this stimulating drug was unacceptable to some
members of the community.
17
From a visit to a farmer in another district farmers learned the use of various trees species for
fruit, medicine and other specialized uses such as water purification. This experience acted as a
motivation to the tree nursery team and they were eager to add more tree species to their
collection.
Initially only one farmer was identified intercropping pumpkins with coffee. By the end of the
project there were 6 farmers using pumpkin as a cover crop in coffee and augmenting their farm
income through sale of the pumpkins. In this technology, common beans (Phaseolous vulgaris)
and the pumpkins were planted at the same time under coffee crop (Plate 4). As the season
progressed beans matured fast providing a ground cover which enhanced water percolation,
reduced soil and moisture loss and smothered weeds. Meanwhile pumpkins catch-up and started
to spread on the surface just when beans were ready for harvesting. As soon as beans were
removed pumpkin spread all over the coffee field and continued to provide ground cover. The
farmer harvested 500 pumpkins from the coffee/banana/pumpkin inter-crop on one acre of land.
These were then sold locally in a road-side kiosk or to buyers who took them to the capital city
150 km away. The pumpkin also had an added value of increasing the organic matter in the soil.
Thus from a plot of land which originally only produced coffee the farmer was able to harvest 3
crops and enhance household food security and income and at the same time conserve soil
fertility.
Plate No. 4: Coffee intercropped with bananas, pumpkins, and beans.
Another farmer practice among the Nduuri community was synchronizing the crops produced
under irrigation in the coffee field with peak market prices. In this practice the farmer lopped
coffee and planted maize in the off-season. The maize matured during a period of maize scarcity
and was harvested green to fetch premium prices. The land was prepared immediately and
planted with kale, tomatoes, chillies, spinach and onions in the middle of the rainy season. The
18
vegetables mature under irrigation during a period of scarcity in the local market to fetch good
market prices (Plates 5 and 6).
Plate No. 5: Heaped cattle manure from zero-grazing unit ready for vegetable growing.
Plate No. 6: Continuously trimmed coffee, intercropped with onions, Catha edulis, bananas, and
tomatoes.
The experience from this farmer and as a result of a tour to Meru District the farmers formed the
Nduuri water project. The objective was to use the Ena river for irrigation purposes. The
farmers were motivated by the Meru farmers who had earned much from production of
horticultural crops such as green beans and green maize.
Farmers have developed interest in improving their soils using various methods that were
monitored by PLEC. These included use of fig tree and mulching. These were adopted from
farmer’s own innovations.
PLEC has introduced diversity in crop production by exposing farmers to new crops and new
crop varieties of bananas, maize, soybeans, climbing beans, sweet potatoes. These were
19
introduced to the community and the new crop utilization was demonstrated during a field day at
the local primary school.
3.4 Agrobiodiversity assessment
Several aspects of management and bio-physical diversity were looked at. The investigation
revealed that farmers are important agents of biodiversity conservation. There is evidence of a
community that has evolved into successful crop variety selectors especially of traditional food
crops as depicted by presence of old varieties that have tolerated adverse biotic factors for many
decades and that are used for specialized needs.
3.5 Investigation into botanical knowledge gap
A study was made to assess whether there were differences in botanical knowledge between age
groups among the Nduuri community. The study found that the Nduuri community had diverse
ways of utilizing the species in their surroundings. Species serving very specialized uses are
evident within the locality. The investigation revealed apparent gaps in general knowledge as
well as in utilization of species. The study generated interest among the community and raised
awareness on the need for a concerted effort towards conservation.
Section 4. Biodiversity analysis
Quantitative analysis is contained in the database with the summary in Tables 3-7.
Table 3 shows the analysis of forest biodiversity. The Pinus plantation and Natural forests had a
higher species diversity than the other forests with Magalef index (Dmg) of 0.28 and 0.23
respectively. The least diversity was found in the agroforest field attributed to deliberate weed
control in the crops. The natural forest had higher heterogeneity Shannon index (H) 2.8 while
among the plantation forests, Cypress forest allowed more plant species to flourish under it than
the other kind of plantations. Eucalyptus forest had the least heterogeneity with H 1.58.
Table 4 contains the analysis of fallow versus cultivated land. The fallow land had higher
species diversity (Dmg 0.23) than cultivated land, but the home garden had higher heterogeneity
(H 2.98 ) due to mans’ deliberate effort to bring useful plant species closer to his homestead.
This was followed by fallow land.
Table 5 presents the analysis of the coffee land-use system. Coffee under Ficus had a higher
species diversity and also heterogeneity than the other systems. Probably due to inherent high
organic matter from the fallen Ficus leaves.
Table 6 contains analysis of the annual cropped fields. Higher species diversity was found in the
maize fields which were often intercropped with beans. The high species diversity was
attributed to various weed species. In fact some species are deliberately retained by the farmers
to serve as vegetables and fodder for livestock.
20
Table 7 compares fallow lands and forest. The natural forests and the fallow land had higher
species diversity than the agroforest land and the forest reserve which have been deliberately
cleared by developers. While the natural forest had the highest heterogeneity and forest reserve
had the least heterogeneity (H2.80 and 1.37 respectively).
21
Table 3: Forest biodiversity analysis
Cypress Eucalyptus Pinus
Grevillea Natural
Plantation Plantation Plantation Plantation forest
Forest
Forest
Forest
Forest
27
25
22
21
35
Species Richness
243
155
74
166
349
Individuals
0.11
0.15
0.28
0.12
0.10
Margalef Index
1.73
2.01
2.56
1.63
1.87
Menhinink
Index
0.11
0.16
0.30
0.13
0.10
Gleason Index
2.21
1.58
1.67
2.10
2.80
Shannon Index
Descriptions
Annual
crops &
trees
18.00
688.00
0.02
0.69
Agroforest
Natural
forest
46.00
646.00
0.07
1.81
17.00
70.00
0.23
2.03
0.03
0.48
0.07
2.38
0.24
2.36
Table 4: Analysis of fallow versus cultivated land
Descriptions
Species Richness
Individuals
Margalef Index
Menhinink
Index
Gleason Index
Shannon Index
Annual
crop
12
7567
0.00
0.14
0.00
0.82
Fallow Agroforest
Bush
Home
Fallow
Grass
Valley Fallow Fallow
shrubs
dominated garden
grass
dominated bottom
on
grass
dominated
valley
bottom
31
46
18
21
17
23
15
33
22
131
646
76
411
95
632
462
304
114
0.23
0.07
0.22
0.05
0.17
0.03
0.03
0.11
0.18
2.71
1.81
2.06
1.04
1.74
0.91
0.70
1.89
2.06
0.24
1.93
0.07
2.38
0.24
2.22
0.05
2.98
22
0.18
1.31
0.04
2.53
0.03
1.48
0.11
2.25
0.19
1.87
Table 5: Analysis of coffee land-use system
Descriptions
Species Richness
Individuals
Margalef Index
Menhinink
Index
Gleason Index
Shannon Index
Coffee
plantation
Home
garden
21
98
0.20
2.12
21
411
0.05
1.04
0.21
2.02
0.05
2.98
Coffee
Coffee
Coffee
under
under
without
Ficus 1 Mukuyu 2 Ficus1
20
31
23
110
107
228
0.17
0.28
0.10
1.91
3.00
1.52
0.18
2.18
0.29
4.20
0.10
2.06
Valley
bottom
Home
garden
Coffee
Coffee
Coffee Coffee Coffe Coffee
with SW without
under with without with
PV cover cover crop Ficus 3 Ficus 4 Ficus2 pumpkin
19
21
22
23
34
17
433
560
757
507
547
316
0.04
0.04
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.10
0.91
0.89
0.80
1.02
1.45
0.96
0.04
1.78
0.04
1.94
0.03
2.10
Table 6: Analysis of Annual crop field
Descriptions
Species Richness
Individuals
Margalef Index
Menhinink
Index
Gleason Index
Shannon Index
Maize
field
Annual
Home
crop maize garden
39
266
0.14
2.39
39
268
0.14
2.38
21
411
0.05
1.04
15
462
0.03
0.70
45
1208
0.04
1.29
0.15
2.88
0.15
2.88
0.05
2.98
0.03
1.48
0.04
2.47
23
Home Annual crop Annual
garden
crops &
trees
41
12
18
415
7567
688
0.10
0.00
0.02
2.01
0.14
0.69
0.10
2.34
0.00
0.82
0.03
0.48
0.05
2.37
0.06
2.05
0.05
2.15
Table 6: Analysis of fallow land, Natural forest and forest reserves
Descriptions
Species Richness
Individuals
Margalef Index
Menhinink
Index
Gleason Index
Shannon Index
Natural
Reserve
Agroforest Agroforest Natural
Bush
forest dominated
Natural
forest
Fallow shrubs
& grass
18
91
0.19
1.89
46
646
0.07
1.81
24
1587
0.01
0.60
17
70
0.23
2.03
18
76
0.22
2.06
35
349
0.10
1.87
31
131
0.23
2.71
0.20
1.59
0.07
2.38
0.02
1.37
0.24
2.36
0.24
2.22
0.10
2.80
0.24
1.93
24
Section Six
Introduction of new technologies and promotion of existing better farming practices that PLEC
has contributed to the demonstration site:
1. Due to very high incidences of potato blight, higher use of fungicide spray was a common
and expensive practice. The PLEC team through a field day introduced new varieties of Irish
potatoes – Asante and Tigoni – which are tolerant to late blight. This has resulted in increased
potato production, and enhanced food security and livelihood. This technology is popular and
is likely to continue beyond year 2002.
2. Introduction of several varieties of climbing beans which are high yielding, tolerant to bean
fly and bean anthracnose, and because their expansion is vertical they occupy a small area and
are suitable to smallholder farms. This technology is increasingly becoming popular and has
increased bean production in the in the area and is likely to continue beyond year 2002.
3. Top-working: Popularizing the top-working of Ruiru-11 onto SL varieties. The resultant
coffee plants come to production earlier and are resistant to coffee berry disease which
incidentally had made coffee production very costly. To change directly to Ruiru-11 from
seedlings takes a long time before realising any income because it may mean uprooting the
established SL varieties. This technology is gaining popularity and is likely to continue.
4. PLEC has popularized increased agro-biodiversity in the coffee land use system with high
value crops that were being planted by a few farmers in the area. But the impetus was
enhanced when the farmers toured Meru and realized how the could profit by having a well
organized self help irrigation group. This then has increased organisation ability to form
Nduuri self help group in addition to the existing poorly run Kamiugu self help irrigation
group. Also Kamiugu has started to improve its management after the Meru visit. This
development is likely to enhance livelihoods and is likely to continue even when PLEC
leaves.
However, all the above fledging project technologies still need PLEC backstopping for better
performance and up-scaling.
References:
CBS (1999). Central Bureau of Statistics Ministry of finance and planning, Nairobi, Kenya.
1999 population and housing census.
Jaetzold R. and Schmidt, M. 1983. Farm Management Handbook of Kenya. Vol. 2, Ministry of
Agriculture, Nairobi, Kenya.
Coffee Board of Kenya (1996). Kenya Coffee Vol. 61 No. 722 pp.2345-2346
Reports
1. Mangale N., J.N. Mwangi, J.M. Miriti, J.N. Chui J. M Njoroge, W.Gikonyo and J.M.
Njoroge. 1999. Participatory appraisal on People, Land use, Management and Environmental
changes in Lari Division, Central Kenya.
25
2. Okoba, Barrack O., Ezekiah Ngoroi and Charles M. Rimui. 1999. Survey and preliminary
evaluation report by
3. Muya, E.M. and R.M. Kiome. 1999. Analysis of biophysical constraints to agricultural
production in Embu PLEC site
4. Ngoroi, E.H., J.N. Kang’ara, B.O.Okoba and C. M.Rimui. 2001. Botanical Knowledge gap
between age groups in the Nduuri community of Embu, Kenya.
5. Ngoroi, E.H., B.O.Okoba, C.M. Rimui and J.N. Kang’ara. 2001. Effect of the fig tree (Ficus
sycamorus) on the soil and yield of coffee.
6. Kang’ara, J.N., E.H. Ngoroi, J.M. Muturi. S.A. Amboga, F.K. Ngugi and I. Mwangi. 2001.
The Role of livestock in soil fertility, biodiversity, land use, cultural and welfare change in
Nduuri Embu, Kenya.
7. Kaburu, Kajuju, E.H. Ngoroi, J.N. Kang’ara, Seth Amboga, I. Mwangi and C.M. Rimui.
2001. The Vegetables and fruit biodiversity and seasonal distribution trend in Nduuri.
8. Rimui, C. M., E.H. Ngoroi, J.N. Kang’ara and B.O.Okoba. 2001. Household Diversity of the
Nduuri community Embu Kenya.
26