‘Should I get angry? Or should I remain happy?’:
The thought underlying a strategy for developing the education of emotions
Hsing Chiung Lin
University of Cambridge
Paper presented at the British Educational Research Association Annual Conference
University of Warwick, 6-9 September 2006
Abstract
This paper aims to examine the place of emotions in children’s schooling and also
describes a strategy for developing a meaningful education of emotions. In this paper,
firstly, I examine that emotions are easily placed by the educators as an invisible,
minor and irrelevant position. Besides, emotions are possibly negatively labelled and
used as a tool to control children’s emotional behaviour. Secondly, I clarify the
meanings of popular conceptualization of emotions, for example, Emotional
Intelligence and Emotional Literacy. The concerns of using these popular terms in
various curricula and programmes are discussed. By this clarification, it is hoped that
the purpose, the content and pedagogy of children’s learning of emotions can be
continually challenged, reflected and refined by educators. Finally, I suggest a concept
of a meaningful education of emotions. Following, I propose to use curriculum
developing as a strategy to develop this education. A curriculum for educating
children’s emotions is regarded as a framework to challenge but not a fix blueprint to
implement.
Introduction
Educating children’s emotions has become an explicit theme in the past two decades
(Gardner, 1999). Many curricula and programmes have particularly devoted to
improve children’s emotional learning in schools (for example: Durlak, 1995; Shure,
1996; Steiner and Paul, 1997; Bar-On et al., 2000; Cohen, 1999, 2001; Elias, et al.,
2002; Caruso & Salovey, 2004; Maurer et al., 2004). These curricula and programmes
are shown as a form which is ready to be consumed, transferred and disseminated to
schools. It is often found that these programmes regard ‘educating children’s
emotions’ as an unproblematic and urgent business that schools should take it into
account. In one sense, there is no doubt that educators should pay great attention to
children’s emotional learning. However, in anther sense, it also runs a risk of leading
children’s emotional learning to a wrong direction when educators simply implement
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them to their schools without challenging the educational aims, content and pedegagy
that these curricula or programmes impose.
In essence, the aims of each curriculum/programme, the choice of the content and the
conduct of pedagogy involve a set of values, attitudes and preference. When a school
or a teacher plans to ‘teach’ children emotions or to help children to learn emotions,
no matter use ‘ready-made’ curricula/programmes or the one that is designed by the
teacher himself/herself, he/she cannot escape considering these values, attitudes or
preference underneath that curriculum/programme. Because these values, attitudes or
preference will have an impact on the direction of children’s emotional learning. It is
important that educators carefully examine that impact and reflect upon their aims of
educating children’s emotions.
In this paper, I do not attempt to examine the educational aims, content, pedagogy of
any specific curricula/programmes. Instead, this paper aims to examine the rationales
underlying the idea of educating children’s emotions in general. Then the
contemporary conceptualization of emotions such as Emotional Intelligence (Golman,
1995), Emotional Literacy (Steiner et al., 1997) and Emotional Competence (Sarnni,
1999) will be discussed in particular. It is hoped by this examination that the aims of
educating children’s emotions can become clearer. Moreover, I will introduce an idea
about a meaningful education of emotions and a strategy for developing it. The
strategy I proposed here is a designed curriculum draft. This curriculum draft is not a
fix blueprint but a framework for educators to reflect, challenge and refine
continually.
1.1 Emotions in schooling
When we talk about Mathematics, Literature, Art, or even Moral education, we have
some ideas about what kind of education that subject or activities may involve (e. g.
calculation, reading, appreciation and the justification of right or wrong). In
comparison, what the education of emotions is may make us pause for a while and
ponder what it could be.
It seems clear that we do not have a subject named emotional education in schools.
Also, we are not very clear about what activities count as the teaching of or learning
about emotions. However, when people are asked to talk about one memorable
moment/person/event in their schooling, it is not unusual for them to recall things like
what they struggled with, were proud of, or touched; people they loved, appreciated,
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were disgusted with, hated; occasions when they felt scared or overwhelmed. It
appears quite difficult to forget each emotional moment. The emotions are, as Gibson
(1983: 56) comments, “in every classroom-whatever is being ‘taught’- feelings are
inevitably in play and are affecting what is being learned. In every human encounter
feelings pervade and underpin experience and constitute the spur to action”.
In other words, we encounter emotions or feelings all the time in our schooling and
daily life. As Griffiths (1984: 223) claims, ‘education is an emotional matter, and it
deals with emotional matters’. In a wider sense, the education of emotions uses these
encounters to help the students to become aware of their own and others’ emotions
and facilitate them to express or regulate their emotions in a productive way. One
child may feel that it is ‘unfair’ because he/she was misunderstood by the teacher.
He/she felt upset because he/she has fallen out with his/her good friend; he/she felt
satisfied and proud because he/she helped someone, etc. All of these encounters
include emotional elements and have an impact on the children’s experience. In
particular, as Greenhalgh (1994) emphasizes, there is a relationship between the
children’s emotional experience and learning. He suggests that ‘effective learning is
dependent upon emotional growth’. For example, the children need to feel safe and
accepted in order to undertake the exploration which is necessary for learning.
In school, the teachers have great chances to teach or affect the students’ emotions.
The problems that emerged here are how far the teachers have considered consciously
that they are educating the students’ emotions; to what extent the teachers have
grasped the opportunities; and, most importantly, what the teachers’ understanding is
in relation to the education of the students’ emotions. Emotions in schooling may
easily fall into invisible, minor or irrelevant components when teachers are
overwhelmed by their busy timetable, endless assessments and teaching preparation.
To compare other components, such as cognitive or intellectual learning in schools,
emotions are either neglected silently or become the victim of the failure of
‘achievement’.
Dunlop (1984: 1) has observed this phenomenon; ‘the cognitive or intellectual
components of education are usually first thought of in terms of achievements, the
emotional or affective components are normally thought of first in terms of
deficiencies’. Students are often rewarded and encouraged by their various
achievements in the ‘acquisition of knowledge, of ways of looking at things, of
theoretical procedures and methods, of concepts, languages and forms of discourse’
(Dunlop, 1984: 1). In contrast, students are rarely valued and praised for their
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achievements when they are able to understand emotions, are capable of expressing
their emotions, and solve problems with an appropriate emotion. Emotions coming to
the light are often accompanied with certain symptoms, such as apathy,
self-centredness, emotional volatility, over-excitability, sentimentality, lack of
self-control and self knowledge. The place of emotions in schooling is not only
becoming invisible but even negatively labelled. The deficient tendency traps
emotions into a pathological symptoms’ hole, which point Boler also echoes (1999:
48).
In a lengthy analysis, Boler (1999: 38) traces the history of emotions in Western
schooling. She explains how emotions are displayed in schools in a great detail. From
the literature review, she notes that ‘the overriding goals of education [were]
“establishing a stable, orderly classroom, in which academic standards received a
prominent position” ’ (Boler quoted in Tyack and Hansot 1982: 176). She continues
that the ‘goal required that individuals internalize self-control of their emotional
behaviour’. To self-discipline emotional behaviour and follow certain display rules,
students could become good citizens and workers. It appears that emotions in her
analysis are a tool for making students conforms to the school norms and dominant
social values (e.g. rationality).
Although we encounter emotional experiences all the time in schools, the role of
emotions in schooling seems to be invisible, minor, irrelevant or occurring in a
negative image or instrumental forms for social control. There may be many reasons
contributing to why and how emotions have been placed in that position, such as
religion, rationality, industrialization, the market economy, materialization, and the
scientific movement. It is not my intention to analyse these factors any more deeply
and also it would need another thesis to fully understand it. Here, the point that I focus
on is that, although emotions vividly exist in the students’ school life, they do not
have a clear or promising status in their learning experience. For example, a child may
express how he/she learnt how to count to 100 today but it is rare to hear a child says
that he/she learnt from a happy experience. The place of emotions in schooling is
uncertain and problematic. When one starts to consider the meaning of the education
of emotions, the track one should follow invites further contemplation. Before I
continue to elaborate on the idea of educating emotions, it is necessary to discuss one
newly emerged concept, that of ‘Emotional Intelligence’, at this point.
1.2 The popular conceptualization of emotions – Emotional Intelligence…
Although research into emotions has been conducted for many decades already, the
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attention it attracts is growing and spreading in many fields, such as personal potential
exploration, interpersonal behaviour, organization empowerment, business
management, and education, due to two trends. One is ‘Emotional Intelligence’
provoked by Daniel Goleman’s bestseller title in 1995. The other is the wide use of, as
Giddens (1992) observed, the language of psychology and therapy. It appears that the
language of psychology and therapy has increased in many cultures as new informal
interpersonal codes that have increased the attentiveness to feelings. Therefore, it is
essential to examine this concept (Emotional Intelligence) and the language people
commonly use in relation to the learning of emotions in order to further unfold the
meaning of children’s education in emotion.
1.2.1 Clarification of Emotional Intelligence/Emotional Literacy/Emotional
Competence
The notion of “Emotional Intelligence” (EI) was originally coined by Salovey and
Mayor (1990), who stated that ‘emotional intelligence as the ability to perceive and
express emotions, to understand and use them and to manage emotions so as to foster
personal growth’. In general, they view these abilities as a set of skills or
competencies concerned with the processing of emotion-relevant situations.
Also, many scholars and practitioners have adopted another popular notion,
“Emotional Literacy” (EL), which was coined by Clause Steiner in 1979. In his new
revision of ‘Emotional Literacy: Intelligence with Heart (2002: 4)’, he claimed that
“‘emotional literacy’ is love-centred emotional intelligence, which includes some
skills such as to understand and express emotional experiences, to analyze the causes
of these emotions, to develop empathic intuition capacity, and to amend (apologizing)
for the damage caused by one’s emotional mistakes”. It appears that Steiner’s view of
‘Emotional Literacy’ is that it helps people effectively to regulate their emotions and
achieve a greater sense of well-being.
Saarni (1999) directly searched for the key to ‘Emotional Intelligence’ or ‘Emotional
Literacy’, namely, ‘Emotional Competence.’ (EC) In her view, ‘Emotional
Competence’ consists of eight skills which help people to manage their emotions, and
enhance their self-esteem and adaptive resilience in the face of stressful
circumstances.
Therefore, it can be seen that these terms, ‘Emotional Intelligence’, ‘Emotional
Literacy,’ and ‘Emotional Competency’ all comprise a set of skills which start from an
awareness, understanding and expression of one’s own and others’ emotional state, to
develop the skills of coping with and regulating one’s emotions. There is a great
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emphasis on learning empathy and optimism. Also, the intention to view emotions as
a motivation facilitating personal growth or well-being is manifest. It appears that
different researchers or practitioners place different emphasis on particular effects of
learning these skills. For example, enhancing self-esteem (Saarni, 1999,; Cooper and
Sawaf, 1998; Higgs and Dulewicz,1999); the capacity of self regulation of affect
(Salovey et al, 2000, Goleman, 1998), emotional self-efficacy (Saarni, 1999),
emotional resilience (Saarni, 1999, Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999), adaptability
(Goleman, 1995, 1998, Higgs and Dulewicz, 1999), and goal orientation and
accomplishment (Salovey, 2000, Higgs and Dulewicz,1999, Cooper and Sawaf, 1998)
can be found in different models. Furthermore, aiming to improve one’s social skills
and the pursuit of smooth interpersonal relationships are addressed implicitly or
explicitly in most of these skills.
Although terms such as ‘Emotional Intelligence’ and ‘Emotional Literacy’ seem to be
used interchangeably in education, researchers and practitioners either skip the step of
defining them (Rudd, 2001; Rae, 1998) or take it for granted that they can employ
them in a mixed way (Schilling, 1996) or try to define them at different levels
(Bocchino, 1999).
Also, when one examines the educational programmes [e.g., Promoting Alternative
Thinking (Greenburg et al., 1995), I Can Problem Solve (Shure, 1996), and Reach Out
of School (Seigle, 2001)] that aim at promoting students’ social and emotional
learning, it is possible either immediately to detect the usage of these terms
(‘Emotional Intelligence’, ‘Emotional Literacy’ and ‘Emotional Competence’) or the
effort in engaging with various ideas, the skills to which these terms relate. In other
words, the contemporary education of emotions appears to be linked strongly with the
objectives of EI, EL, or EC. Inevitably, the educational aims (e.g., higher Emotional
Intelligence), content (e.g., activities for managing emotions) and evaluation (e.g., EQ
test) may relate to the constructs of the meaning of these terms.
Here, we may need to take a further step in considering the application of these terms.
My concern is whether the education of emotions is equal to the popular
conceptualization of EQ, EI or EC, and what sorts of precautions educators or
curriculum planners need to take when they include these concepts in their curriculum
and teaching. It is hoped that the following discussion can clarify some viewpoints
and directions.
1.2.2 Further thoughts on Emotional Intelligence/Emotional Literacy/Emotional
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Competence
Firstly, the emotional components that are claimed by EI, EL or EC are widely
detected in various emotional literacy curricula. However, it appears that the elements
that make up the various programmes in educating emotions are not new. Boler (1999:
85) points out that ‘conflict resolution dates back to the 1920s industrial psychology,
discourses of racial tolerance and management date to the 1950s and 1960s, and
‘affective’ education developed in the 1960s and 1970s’. Each of these roots is visible
within contemporary emotional literacy. In other words, even if the programmes aim
at different purposes, it is not unusual to find that the content includes emotional
components. For example, Grossman et al.’s (1997) conflict resolution programme,
the Second Step, aims to reduce or prevent children’s aggression by teaching anger
management, empathy, and impulse control.
The different usages of these emotional components between the past and current
children’s schooling need to be examined. From Roderick’s (1998) analysis, the
difference could merely be that the working scale for emotions nowadays is wider
than before. He points out that the concept ‘Emotional Intelligence’ becomes ‘one
umbrella’ which collects various foci from different programmes. What ‘Emotional
Intelligence’ involves is not only ‘violent prevention’ skills but ‘life skills’ such as a
general view of ‘respect for people’.
Moreover, Roderick (1998) claims that ‘Emotional Intelligence’ has provided a new
‘authority’ for many emotional literacy programmes. The terminology appears to be a
popular doctrine. Its popularity can easily become the new banner for an organization
or a label for individuals.
It seems that the popularity of ‘Emotional Intelligence’ has attracted enormous
attention at the turn of the last century. Many may celebrate the fact that the emotions
have obtained their justified platform and so can recover from the uneven status that
was imposed by other dominant cultural and social norms, such as rationalism.
Nevertheless, on the one hand, for educators, the impact of ‘Emotional Intelligence’
on children’s schooling is the one that has been anticipated for a long time and
deserves continually to expand and develop. On the other hand, suspicions arise
concerning whether Emotional Intelligence only ‘explicitly’ reveals ‘the message’
about the importance of emotion to our children’s growth, to the nurturing of good
citizens and cooperative workers, but in reality it still conveys another doctrine,
whereby emotion becomes the ‘means’ to serve the dominant ideology, cultural norms
and social values in order to control our emotional behaviour.
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It is not my intention to discuss here in detail the role of emotions as a ‘social control’.
However, it is crucial to be aware of the risks of the misuse of the education of
emotions. The fields of religion, rationality, science and capitalism (Boler, 1999)
demonstrate how emotions have been used in education in order to serve the purpose
of different dominant discourses. Boler emphasizes that emotional skills, as emotional
literacy curricula/ programmes promote them, are not value neutral. On the contrary,
emotional skills are disciplined by emotional rules which ‘… are historically and
culturally specific and shift accordingly to political and economic needs and climate’
(Boler, 1999: 43). She demonstrates how inappropriate it is that the concept of
Emotional Intelligence portraits emotions as universal and individual but entirely
neglects the context, such as the differences of culture and gender. Her analysis
inspired me to become aware of the importance of context when I started to design a
curriculum for educating primary school children’s emotions in Taiwan.
There is one more point I want to make here. Since the education of emotions is
closely linked with terms such as Emotional Intelligence (or Emotional quotient),
there is increasing interest emerging in this newest measure of intelligence (Goleman,
1998). The usage of Emotional Quotient (EQ) is becoming popular. The problem here
is to what extent that researchers can measure ‘Emotional Intelligence’ reliably,
although some validity work has been carried out; for example, Bar-On’s Emotional
Quotient Inventory. According to Salovey et al. (2000), ‘Emotional Intelligence’ can
be used to represent various aspects of the human condition. The development of
‘Emotional Intelligence’, in the sense of ‘intelligence’, ‘personality’ or ‘character’ still
has a long way to go. How we can really ‘measure’ or identify the difference in
individuals’ ‘Emotional Intelligence’ remains problematic.
Also, it reveals that the connotation of ‘Intelligence’ is argued for persistently in the
IQ test. Although Goleman (1995:xi) claims that the research in emotional
intelligence challenges “those who subscribe to a narrow view of intelligence, [those
who argue] that IQ is a genetic given that cannot be changed by life experience, and
that our destiny in life is largely fixed by these aptitudes”, it appears that the term
‘Emotional Intelligence’ still implies genetic theories of innate intelligence that are
centrally based on neurobiology. Boler (1999) argued that the new packages of
‘Emotional intelligence’ ignore the argument of genetic theories but stress the
possibilities of change and improvement through self-control and individual choice,
which can lead to ‘success’ and ‘self-improvement’. It is crucial to scrutinize how the
term may have been used that the myth of IQ may not need to be encountered again.
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Perhaps, it would be better that educators give up attempts to link ‘intelligence’ with
people’s capacities in emotional understanding and regulations.
1.3 The development of a meaningful education of emotions
So far, I have tried to recognize the place of emotions in our everyday schooling and
also examine the popular conceptualization of emotions. The former searches the
emotions from our daily school experiences. The later looks for emotions constructed
by some specific ‘emotional programmes’. Both provide me with an insight into what
should be involved in a meaningful education of emotions. In the final section of this
paper, I shall focus on two issues, one is what a meaningful education of emotions
should be; the other is a strategy that I propose to develop it.
A meaningful education of emotions
A meaningful education of emotions may need to consider what I imply by
‘meaningful’ first. Csikszentmihalyi’s (2002) three illustrations of ‘meaning’ is useful
here. Firstly, he argues that it reflects the assumptions that events are towards the end,
purpose or an ultimate goal. Secondly, it reflects one’s intentions, whereby people
reveal their purposes in actions and extend their effort to reach their goals. Lastly,
and importantly, the meanings from different events have established order and
harmony relationships. Therefore, a meaningful education of emotions must have its
directions, purposes and goals. In order to reach its goals, the actions and efforts need
to be taken. That is to say that the goals cannot be achieved if it only stays as a theory.
Practice needs to be involved. And crucially, within the education of emotions,
educational aims, components, principles or conflicting elements need to come
together in harmony. This will be explained in more detail below.
Firstly, I suspect that a meaningful education of emotions needs to have two ultimate
goals. One is as a means to guide students to reality or the real world (Dunlop, 1982:
1). The other is as a means to help students recognize their own potential and achieve
healthy and fulfilled life.
A means for guiding children to reality
Dunlop (1983: 7) claims that ‘feeling, then, is our ultimate or foundational guide to
reality, because it is only in direct feeling-experience that we actually encounter
reality’. He emphasizes that our experience is not just cognitive but also conative and
affective. If our knowledge of the world is only obtained by objective reasoning and
rational judgements, the knowledge is incomplete. Students who merely focus on
their thoughts without understanding the world of their real feelings may become
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‘split into an unreal “academic” self’ (Dunlop, 1983: 7). The reality cannot be
captured only by ‘thought’ that includes logical concepts and ideas but direct
‘experience’ which involves a whole range of feeling elements needs to be added.
Dunlop’s (1983) statements indicate that the direction of the education of emotions is
to guide students towards reality. Also, he justifies the fact that feelings and thoughts
should be intimately connected, because by experiencing feelings our thoughts can be
more fully developed. Thought is the proper extension of feeling. It appears that
feelings or emotions should receive a justified status in our everyday life. Emotions
should not maintain the image of being invisible, minor and irrelevant in children’s
schooling. It is important to recognize the status of emotions and then the goal of
guiding children towards the real world can be achieved.
A means for helping children recognize their own potential and achieve a healthy and
fulfilled life
The other goal of a meaningful education of emotions is to help students be able to
become healthy and fulfilled beings. Instead of focusing on human’s pessimistic,
negative and limited nature, Maslow (1968) proposes that people have impulses
towards growth and the fulfilment of potential. There is good or neutral human nature
waiting to be explored. To develop human’s positive or neutral nature is similar to
Eastern wisdom, such as Confucius’ educational thought (Huang, 1997: 163).
However, the discussion of pursuing fulfilment or actualization is often based on
Western aspects of the self which regard the individual as an independent,
self-contained and autonomous entity that is able to self control and manage each
encounter experienced in his/her life. In Eastern society, it may be not enough to
perceive the self merely from this perspective. Markus and Kitayama (1991) suggest
that people in different cultures have different ‘construals of the self’. Many
non-Western cultures do not value such a strict separation or ‘independence of the
self’. Instead, certain cultures, such as many Asian countries, consider the self to be
made meaningful in reference to the relationship of which the self is part. It is this
connectedness or ‘interdependence’ between individuals that makes his/her self
becomes strong and significant.
In Taiwan, Lu et al. (2001) investigate how Westerner’s independent self and
non-Westerner’s interdependent self contribute to the two group of people’s
happiness (Taiwanese and British). Their results show that people who have an
independent self had a strong correlation with ‘control belief’, whereas those who
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have an interdependent self had a very strong correlation with ‘harmony belief’. Both
beliefs had an impact on their feelings of daily social experience which led to a sense
of happiness. Mono-cultural analyses discover that people in Taiwan might have
greater negative and conflicting feelings when they have a stronger independent self.
In contrast, the British did not have this correlation or had less of it. They suggest
that the differences may illustrate the cultural sanctioning of one’s belief systems,
which benefits the assertiveness of oneself or maintenance of communion
respectively.
Therefore, from the above, it appears that the goal of a meaningful education of
emotions cannot be separated from its context in terms of its culture and society,
because every culture determines the very nature of individual experience, and every
experience contains the domains of emotional understanding and the rules that each
emotion should display in that specific culture.
Secondly, the term ‘meaningful’ needs to put into practice. It is necessary to find an
entrance for the education of emotions to be put into children’s schooling.
‘Meaningful’ involves actions: it could be educational reform, the examination of
school policy, programme intervention or the introduction of new classroom practice.
The action that I suggest here is to develop a curriculum for educating children’s
emotions and study this curriculum development in order to find a way to achieve a
meaningful education of emotions. The curriculum either can be adopted from other
resources or designed by the teachers themselves.
Finally, a meaningful education of emotions needs itself to achieve the status of
harmony. There are various educational theories and a number of perspectives on
emotions. Therefore, to develop a meaningful education of emotions may produce
more chaos than certainty. The arguments between the different educational aims,
components, teaching principles and debates in relation to the nature of emotions
need to find a way to harmony. It is important to explore an approach which can
achieve this harmonious condition. I particularly use the term ‘condition’ to reflect
the fact that harmony is not still. The condition is dynamic and prepared to be stirred
up again in order to achieve the next status of harmony.
Conclusion
In this paper, I argue the importance of examining carefully the place of emotions in
children’s schooling. Emotions are not only easily placed by educators as an invisible,
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minor and irrelevant position, but also can be negatively labelled or used as a tool for
behavioural control. Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize a meaningful place of
emotions in children’s schooling. This emphasis can be found from many current
curricula/programmes that stress children’s learning of emotions.
However, I also argue that the risk of leading children’s learning of emotions to a
problematic direction when the schools merely implement a certain emotional lessons
without challenging their educational aims, content and pedagogy. While many
curricula/programmes use Emotional Intelligence or Emotional Literacy as their
educational aims, it is possible, again, to place emotions in a problematic position in
children’s schooling. Because, for example, Emotional Intelligence can become
another authority such as Intelligence Quotient (IQ) to judge children’s capacity of
understanding and expressions of their own or other’s emotions. Yet, it ignores that
these emotional understanding and expressions are highly bounded with social and
culture values that the person lives in. As my title shown in this paper, ‘should I get
angry? Or should I remain happy?’, the understanding of emotions and emotional
displays is impossible to become a neutral skill. There are complex factors in relation
to social and culture values, which influence people’s awareness, understanding of
their emotions, and their decisions of emotional expressions.
I, therefore, suggest developing a meaningful education of emotions by curriculum
development. The development of a curriculum for educating children’s emotions can
be used as a strategy to help educators to understand what a meaningful education of
emotions can be for them, and also find the passage to achieve it. In this sense, any
curricula or programmes for educating children’s emotions should be regarded only as
a framework but not a fix blueprint to follow.
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