West Midlands Regional Research Framework for Archaeology, Seminar 5: Hurst
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Medieval industry in the west Midlands
Derek Hurst
Worcestershire Historic Environment and Archaeological Service
dhurst@worcestershire.gov.uk
Summary
Recent archaeological fieldwork has clearly uncovered much new material of
medieval date, and a wide range of industrial activities are represented. In many
cases this is the first occasion that evidence for a particular industry has come to
light, and even the limited scientific analysis that has been undertaken has provided
fresh insights into the processes being carried out. However, there are still major
regional industries for which little buried archaeological evidence has been found,
even when the industries should have left copious waste products. In some cases even
industries associated with large-scale earthwork remains (eg stone quarrying) have
not been adequately investigated in the field. Clearly there is a need for more and
targeted fieldwork, as well as synthesis of data from sites already known. The
application of historical evidence is not consistent, and the opportunities that this
offers to provide greater insight into the past have yet to be fully realised.
Introduction
Knowledge of the material remains of the medieval period has moved on apace in
more recent years where excavation in particular has produced large quantities of new
data, some relating to industrial activity. There has, however, been little opportunity
to synthesis these data, and much of the evidence remains rather scattered and largely
inaccessible due to tardiness in publication or to its being confined to grey literature.
As a result much of the following is based more on data held in SMR’s rather than on
published reports, as this was certainly the most accessible data source for any rapid
overview survey.
The west Midlands is a region of great mineral diversity, as well as having important
resources of fuel (both firewood and coal) in the medieval period. It is, of course, well
known that in the post-medieval period the region became a major centre for
industrial production of national and international significance. However, there is
some evidence to suggest that, in the preceding medieval period, there had also been a
strong industrial presence, at least in terms of metalworking especially in the central
part of the region and taking in, for instance, north Worcestershire.
The towns
It is clear that many major industries in towns would not be likely to leave much trace
in situ (for instance weaving, and cloth making generally). Those industries that show
up best are of course the ones that involved structures being set into the ground. This
would include tanning, for which examples are known at Warwick, Birmingham and
possibly Hereford, or activities such as bell founding where large quantities of
distinctive waste were produced (eg at Worcester and Ludlow). Other industries that
have shown up in urban settlements are miscellaneous metal working (Birmingham,
Dudley), floor tile manufacture (a kiln, for instance, has been recently discovered in
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Worcester), pottery making (Warwick), flax retting (Leominster), and possibly dyeing
(possibly Hereford; Shoesmith 1982).
Droitwich was an unusually specialised industrial centre, which supplied salt over a
wide area, and which by the medieval period, had already been in continuous
production for over 1500 years (Woodiwiss 1992). Recent excavations have revealed
much about the structures and equipment associated with the salt production,
including the site of the main brine well at Upwich (Hurst 1997). Both structural and
artefactual remains were preserved by waterlogging, and the saline conditions
preserved fragile vegetable matter that even in waterlogged conditions would not
normally be expected to survive. Documentary evidence for the medieval salt making
has also survived in great detail, and the industry has been well served by historical
research (Berry 1957), which has unravelled the curious way in which the industry
functioned. More documentary research, such as by Dyer (forthcoming), will continue
to provide a more vivid picture of the industry.
In some towns specific plots have been proven to be associated with specific
industrial activities. For instance, just within the south gate of Worcester (Sidbury;
Carver 1980), bronze metalworkers had established their workshops. Craftsmen
sometimes congregated together, and whole streets could be involved in a particular
craft or trade, which was usually reflected in street names. Sometimes, however,
excavation in towns has been quite narrowly directed. There have been occasions
where efforts were concentrated on the fronts of burgage plots with the intention of
recording building remains, while, in contrast, the back-plots were not explored with
as much care where evidence for industry might be particularly expected to have
accumulated. An example of this would be parts of Droitwich as excavated in the
1970s (Hughes and Hunt 1992).
The countryside
Many types of industry are still little represented by archaeological evidence, even
when they are well attested by medieval documentary evidence, and many of these
were based in the countryside. For instance, local pottery production is often not
precisely located on the ground, though the main source areas have now often been
defined through petrological study of the pottery. Even major pottery industries have
proved elusive on the ground (eg the Hanley potters of Worcestershire who produced
the Malvernian wares over at least 400 years). Here a campaign of fieldwalking and
geophysical survey over several years, in a collaboration with local enthusiasts,
finally located and sampled a 15th-16th pottery kiln structure (Hurst 1994). This
produced a surprising amount of partially fired pottery, which subsequently enabled
scientific analysis to shed some light on the glazing techniques that were in use (Hurst
and Freestone 1996). Another approach has been to compare documentary evidence
for potters (a term that some have seen as only applicable to the producers of metal
vessels) with the pattern of industries distinguished by archaeological methods, and
this has indicated that many small-scale rural potters over a large area might have
been working in a common tradition (Hurst 1990).
Even where such an industry has been more evident in a later period, its medieval
antecedents, though strongly suspected, have been difficult to prove. A case in point
may be the Deerfold/Lingen industry of north Herefordshire which is established as a
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17th century industry, whilst its origins are less well understood (Hurst 2002). The
regional importance of medieval pottery from the Stoke area is still to be appreciated
as a scientific fact, though it is strongly suspected by those working in this field.
The related brick and roof tile industries were also a feature of the medieval period.
These must have been considerable industries, and they seem to have been based in
mainly rural contexts, with their products often conveyed (as in the case of pottery)
over long distances. The recent discovery of a tile kiln close to the city of Worcester
will no doubt reveal much more about how this industry was organised (Miller pers
comm). The production of floor tiles required similar kilns, and examples have been
discovered typically within the grounds of conventual churches (eg Malvern Priory)
or parish churches (St Mary’s, Droitwich).
In the medieval period it is likely that the division between agriculture and industry
was not as sharply defined as by the modern-day observer. Crafts, such as pottery
making and iron production were often undertaken at scattered sites in rural isolation,
in these cases often in a woodland setting (Birrell 1969). They were often undertaken
in combination with farming, and it is even possible that some farmers were erstwhile
potters who had used their profits to buy land and then financed others in their
potting. Factors such as these may account for some of the difficulty in locating the
production areas for industries which were important enough to be of significance for
the local and regional economy. Unfortunately even where some pottery making sites
have been revealed, for instance at Weobley in Herefordshire, and Deritend in
Birmingham, these sites, despite the local and regional significance of the material,
remain very imperfectly understood.
Certain industries may also be seen as having a particular association with the west
Midlands. One such would be the salt industry in Droitwich (see above), but others
would be the iron industries of south-east Herefordshire (Forest of Dean), north
Staffordshire, and the Dudley area, which were also notable regional industries at this
time. The latter has a great significance as a direct precursor to the ‘Black Country’.
However, in most cases the ‘archaeological’ evidence is largely documentary in
nature. It is evident that some of the more innovative of these industries were under
the control of Abbeys, for instance some of the bloomeries of Herefordshire were
exploited by the Cistercian monks of Tintern. Abbeys in general stimulated industrial
activity as they demanded building materials of a high standard (eg ceramic or stone
roof tiles, decorated ceramic floor tiles, and metal fittings), but they also often became
the centres of industry in themselves, for the purpose of exploiting their granges and
of generating income. For instance Bordesley Abbey seems to have had both agribusiness and industrial enterprises under way (wool (Hilton 1966, 80-2) and iron
founding (Astill 1993) respectively).
One of the most outstanding areas where data has not been collected is the
identification of stone quarry sites. Shropshire has been fortunate that its building
stone has attracted study, and this has led to the identification of relevant quarries
(Scard 1990). Other parts of the region are far behind on this subject. Here odd
quarries have been recorded, but there is no overall understanding of this industry,
which had associations with the more impressive buildings that were raised in the
medieval Midlands. Mineral quarrying was also widely practised, with iron ore, for
instance, being mined in the Clee Hills of Shropshire, and lead and silver being
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extracted in south Shropshire, and iron ore and coal in Staffordshire. Coal was also
available in north Worcestershire and south Shropshire, but the early exploitation of
all these deposits is still largely unknown. Though Dyer (forthcoming) has recently
demonstrated that coal was used in the Droitwich medieval salt industry from an
earlier date than has been previously thought.
Many other smaller-scale rural industries, for instance treen manufacture, flax retting
and basket weaving, remain under-represented by archaeological evidence, but also
little mentioned in documentary sources. Any archaeological discovery relating to
these processes would, therefore, be proportionately more valuable.
Agricultural production should not be omitted from this ‘industrial’ scene. Corn
growing was a major feature of the Severn valley, but, more distinctively, wool
production was of first importance, particularly for the west (ie in south Shropshire
and in north Herefordshire), and in the extreme south of our region (south
Worcestershire and south Warwickshire). The wool from these areas was some of the
most valuable produced in this country at a time when English wool was largely
exported to north-west Europe, and was the main national export commodity in terms
of value in this period. Little archaeological trace of this is understood to survive, and
as a result it has not coloured our archaeological appreciation of the past history of
these areas. However, some evidence may in fact already be obvious, for one
indicator may be the presence of medieval fulling mills (eg at Broadwas and
Childswickham in Worcestershire; Ludlow, Ludford, and Corve in Shropshire)
suggesting that at least some of this most valuable of wools was being turned into
textile more locally.
Use of documentary evidence
For the medieval period the possibility of documentary sources providing much more
information about the past makes for a much more complete picture. This interplay of
sources makes the medieval period particularly attractive for those that like to keep
their archaeological feet on the ground. Both types of evidence have their particular,
and sometimes surprising, contributions to make. For instance, the earliest
documentary dates for processes can sometimes turn out to be quite misleading, such
as when the water-powered metal working mill at Bordesley turned out to predate any
documentary evidence for this process by over a century (Astill 1993, 303).
Though recent archaeological fieldwork may have uncovered a great deal of medieval
remains of all types, the integration of this data with relevant historical sources has
often not been attempted, as the archaeological data is too fragmentary and limited.
However, much archaeological reporting is too orientated towards description and
categorisation of the material culture of a period for which the wealth of medieval
documentation can do much to help provide a more rounded and developed view of
the past, that goes beyond the objects or remains that the archaeologist has uncovered.
An agenda for the future?
The following are some general points about current professional practices, and some
of the strategies which may benefit research on medieval industry, if more
consistently developed, and applied in future:
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It is still very difficult to establish scientific programmes of research for
investigating materials such as pottery, in order to establish trade routes and
areas of economic connectivity. Period specialist groups could perhaps
usefully play a bigger role in promoting local and regional research projects.
Sites are still proving elusive, since research is not generally possible within
the practice of archaeology as a development-led process. More pro-active
fieldwork, including especially fieldwalking and extensive geophysics, is still
needed to chart the extents of some of the more major industries such as
pottery making.
Where site locations are unknown, and where sites are possibly being
inappropriately managed as a result, then damage for instance by ploughing is
extremely likely. This is a general problem in archaeology, whatever the
period (Darvill and Fulton 1998).
The industries that produced much of the material culture of the medieval past
are not known in terms of their technological development, nor is their impact
on their surroundings and hinterlands presently known with any certainty. For
instance what was the impact of the Droitwich salt industry on the surrounding
woodland areas, in terms of its fuel supply over 2500 years? (Hurst
forthcoming).
A substantial number of processes were mechanised in the medieval period,
such as fulling and corn milling which were operated by water-powered mills.
It is quite striking that one of the commonest types of industrial site was the
watermill (for instance there were about 100 mills in medieval Herefordshire),
and yet a large number of these cannot now be located. The remains of these
structures must be concentrated on river banks, and could now be encased in
alluvium and, therefore, well preserved. Walking up stream-beds in order to
look for remains in the banks of streams might be one way to rediscover some
of these sites. Such a streambed survey could be combined with looking also
for small deposits of peat, which have been overlooked by geological
mappers, but which incorporate a unique record of past landscape in the local
area despite their size (Pearson and Williams forthcoming).
There are particular problems with investigating specific themes such as the
iron industry in a heavily urban modern environment (eg Dudley), where the
local economy has an effect on the extent of funding, and where development
is piece-meal. This situation calls for a consistent application of carefully
thought-out recording strategy, though the outcome may be less valuable for
research purposes simply due to the difficult working circumstances.
Much greater account should be taken of documentary evidence when
reviewing the medieval town or countryside in terms of its industry.
Archaeology may indicate only a fraction of the real extent of industrial
activity, and is only useful for revealing specific types of activity. In some
cases only documentary sources can provide the data that illuminates the past,
and so an integrated historical and archaeological approach provides the
best way forward to the study of medieval sites.
There is a need for more synthesis of those sites already known about where
trends could already be apparent in the data already collected.
Some/most SMR’s do not pay sufficient attention to distinguishing the
specific activities represented by the archaeological evidence. For instance, the
term ‘metalworking slag’ is often used without indicating whether smelting or
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smithing is meant. There is a need for SMR’s to make more careful
reference/inventory of material found during fieldwork, and subsequently
identified by specialists.
Acknowledgements
Thanks are owed to all the west Midlands Sites and Monuments Record officers for
providing the data on which this survey is based.
Bibliography
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