Graduate Programs: The Neuroscience Paradigm
Anastasia S. Tsingotjidou
Lab. of Anatomy and Histology,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
and
Georgios C. Papadopoulos
Lab. of Anatomy and Histology,
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
ABSTRACT
The aim of this paper is to provide an insight on the
global organization of graduate studies in
Neuroscience and set an example for other
scientific disciplines. Neuroscience has been
growing rapidly the last decades; this review will
explain the reasons of the expansion on this
research field and document its importance. An
overview of the existing programs in the United
States, Europe, and elsewhere in the world will be
given. The Neuroscience paradigm will help the
interested academicians to harmonize their
scientific fields of interest while complying with
the Bologna declaration.
Keywords: Neuroscience, Graduate Programs,
Harmonization, Bologna Declaration, Global
Integration
INTRODUCTION
Bologna
Declaration
(1999)
was
the
implementation of significant educational reforms
in pre- and post-graduate level. Since the
establishment of these principles, some European
countries (France, Germany, Italy and Austria)
have introduced Bachelor’s and Master’s degree
programs as an alternative to their traditional onetiered systems of higher education. Others are still
debating on this subject. However, there is a
common desire to harmonize education in Europe
and to integrate it with the educational programs of
international institutions in the United States or
elsewhere. The Neuroscience Graduate Programs
offer an excellent example of this process.
The highlight of Bologna Declaration is based
on the following themes:
 Adoption of a system of easily readable and
comparable degrees
 Adoption of a system essentially based on two
main cycles, undergraduate and graduate
 Establishment of a system of credits
 Promotion of mobility by overcoming
obstacles to the effective exercise of free
movement
 Promotion of European co-operation in quality
assurance
 Promotion of the necessary European
dimensions in higher education, particularly in
regards to curricular development.
This article will give a quick review of
Neuroscience worldwide and focus on its aspects
that make this field an example for the tasks that
Bologna Declaration is aiming for.
NEUROSCIENCE
Neuroscience has become one of the major postgraduate choices worldwide. It investigates the
molecular and cellular levels of the nervous
system; the neuronal systems responsible for
sensory and motor function; the basis of higher
order processes, such as cognition and emotion.
This area provides the basis for understanding
the medical and veterinary fields that are
concerned with treating nervous system
disorders. These medical specialties include
neurology, neurosurgery, psychiatry and
ophthalmology.
The Society for Neuroscience (SfN), based in the
United States of America, is a non-profit
membership organization of basic scientists and
physicians who study the brain and nervous
system. Recognizing the tremendous potential for
the study of the brain and nervous system as a
separate field, the Society was formed in 1970. It
has grown from 500 members to more than 36,000
and is the world's largest organization of scientists
devoted to the study of the brain. The Society's
primary goal is to promote the exchange of
information among researchers. The Society works
closely with other scientific societies, disease
advocacy organizations, and the National Institutes
of Health. It relies on its 111 local chapters for
grassroots representation of the neuroscience
community. SfN chapters across North America
hold scientific lectures and other activities for the
educational advancement of local neuroscience
communities. The Society also produces a variety
of publications.
The number of neuroscientists in Europe is large
enough to match that of the neuroscientific
community in North America. However, the degree
of cohesiveness in the former is hampered by,
among other things, the lack of a common
language, the existence of geopolitical boundaries,
and the dearth of pan-European funding initiatives.
FENS, the Federation of European Neuroscience
Societies, represents a large number of national
European neuroscience societies and several
monodisciplinary societies. FENS was founded in
1998 at the Forum of European Neuroscience in
Berlin and is the successor organisation of ENA,
the European Neuroscience Association.
FENS was founded with the goal of advancing
research and education in neuroscience and
representing neuroscience research in the European
Commission, International Brain Research
Organization (IBRO), and other granting bodies.
FENS is the European partner of the American
Society for Neuroscience and has members the
following national societies:
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Armenian Neuroscience Society
Austrian Neuroscience Association
Belgium Society of Neuroscience
Brain Research Society of Finland
British Neuroscience Association
Croatian Society for Neuroscience
Czech Neuroscience Society
Danish Society for Neuroscience
Dutch Neurofederation
Georgian Neuroscience Association
German Neuroscience Society
Hellenic Society for Neuroscience
Hungarian Neuroscience Society
Israel Society for Neurosciences
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National Neuroscience Society of Romania
Norwegian Neuroscience Society
Polish Neuroscience Society
Russian Physiological Society Neuroscience
Center
Slovenian Neuroscience Association
Sociedad Española de Neurociencia
Sociedade Portuguesa de Neurosciências
Società Italiana di Neuroscienze
Societé des Neurosciences
Swedish Neuroscience Network
Swiss Society for Neuroscience
Turkish Neuroscience Association
This is indicative of a network well organized
based on local societies to form gradually larger
scientific groups both in Europe and the United
States, but elsewhere around the world as well. It
provides a promotion of mobility between
individuals, which is one of the prerequisites of
Bologna declaration. The flow of information is
moving easier among the groups and gives
opportunities for collaboration in research.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NEUROSCIENCE
The impact of Neuroscience can be easily
demonstrated by the following numbers: at the
annual fall meeting of SfN more than 28,000
participants present more than 15,000 reports of
new scientific findings. In the United States more
than 1,000 disorders of the brain and nervous
system result in more hospitalizations than any
other disease group, including heart disease and
cancer. Neurological illnesses affect more than 50
million Americans annually at costs exceeding
$400 billion [1].
In Europe, 3 out of 10 people suffer from brain
dysfunction, and 1 out of 5 from depression.
Neurological diseases cost over the 1/3 of the total
cost for any other illness in the European Health
Network. In 2004, this cost reached 386 billion
Euros [2].
The significance of Neuroscience is also shown by
the
activities
taken
place
during
the
congressionally designated Decade of the Brain.
From 1990 to the end of 1999, the
Library of Congress and the National Institute of
Mental Health (LC/NIMH) of the National
Institutes of Health sponsored a unique interagency
initiative to advance the goals set forth in a
proclamation by the President of the United States
designating the 1990s as the Decade of the Brain:
"to enhance public awareness of the benefits to be
derived from brain research" through "appropriate
programs, ceremonies, and activities." To achieve
this public recognition, the LC/NIMH Project on the
Decade of the Brain sponsored a variety of activities
including publications and programs aimed at
introducing Members of Congress, their staffs, and
the general public to cutting-edge research on the
brain and encouraging public dialogue on the ethical,
philosophical, and humanistic implications of these
emerging discoveries.
neuroscientists at all stages from undergraduate
students on up through senior faculty.
During this decade, neuroscience made significant
discoveries in the following areas: genetics, brain
plasticity and development, new drugs, imaging and
cell death. Apparently, the standardization of postgraduate studies in Neuroscience facilitates the
progress of research in this area and the continuation
of scientific accomplishments leading in translational
discoveries for treatment of many neurological
diseases, including Parkinson’s disease, Multiple
Sclerosis, Stroke and Stress. It is apparent that the
field of neuroscience has made startling discoveries
that have transformed our understanding of the
healthy brain and helped to deliver treatments for
disorders affecting millions.
SfN seeks to increase participation of scientists
from diverse cultural and ethnic backgrounds by
offering fellowships, grants and awards along with
workshops and poster sessions at the annual
meetings.
In addition to its scientific focus, the Society
administers a range of programs in support of the
neuroscience community's interests in government
relations, public information, educational outreach,
minority advancement, chapters and international
affairs. SfN also has a number of awards recognizing
excellence in neuroscience.
The Government Affairs Program, in conjunction
with the Governmental and Public Affairs
Committee, the Committee on Animals in Research
and the Social Issues Committee, informs legislators
and policy makers about recent developments in
neuroscience research and the implications of the
discoveries for public policy, societal benefit and
continued scientific progress.
The newly-created Educational Programs department,
in conjunction with the Education Committee, the
Committee on Neuroscience Literacy and the
Neurobiology of Disease Advisory Committee,
focuses on educational outreach programs including
Brain Awareness Week, Neuroscientist-Teacher
Partner programs, Short Courses taken place in the
annual meeting, and the Neurobiology of Disease
Workshop. Educational Programs also focuses on
bringing neuroscience in the news.
As outlined in the new SfN Strategic Plan, the
Educational Programs department is working to
create more professional development opportunities
for SfN members by offering career development
activities, information and educational resources for
SfN advances the public’s understanding of the
brain and the nervous system by producing
publications aimed at teachers, students and
members of the public, including Brain Briefings, a
monthly two-page newsletter explaining how basic
neuroscience discoveries lead to clinical
applications and Brain Facts, a 52-page primer on
the brain and nervous system.
This represents a nice model to compare and
follow for many different fields of research seeking
globalization as part of the objectives of Bologna
declaration.
NEUROSCIENCE PROGRAMS
In 1970, neuroscience barely existed
as a separate discipline. Today, more
than 300 training programs exist in
neuroscience alone, and neuroscience
is one of the most exciting areas of
biomedical research. Graduate Programs in this
field are given by schools relevant to the medical
profession (medical and/or veterinary medical
schools).
In USA, every state possesses more than one
Neuroscience Graduate programs. In the West
Coast areas more than 22 programs exist. The
Interdepartmental Ph.D. Program for Neuroscience
at the University of California at Los Angeles
(UCLA; http://www.neuroscience.ucla.edu) was
established in 1965 as one of the first
interdisciplinary
predoctoral
neuroscience
programs. As the educational arm of the Brain
Research Institute, the Program draws on the
research and teaching expertise of a neuroscience
faculty of nearly 150 individuals, one of the
world's largest and most diverse faculties in this
discipline.
(http://www.gradschools.com/programs/neuroscien
ce.html)
In Northeast side of USA there are 60
Neuroscience programs, given by different
Schools. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT)’s Department of Brain and Cognitive
Sciences stands at the nexus of neuroscience,
biology and psychology. This Department
combines these disciplines to study specific aspects
of the brain and mind, including vision, movement
systems, learning and memory, neural and cognitive
development, language and reasoning. Working
collaboratively, it applies its expertise, tools, and
techniques to address and answer both fundamental
and universal questions about how the brain and
mind work (http://web.mit.edu/bcs/).
At Yale, the Inter-departmental Neuroscience
Program
offers
flexible
but
structured
interdisciplinary training for independent research
and teaching in neuroscience. The goal of the
program is to ensure that degree candidates obtain a
solid understanding of cellular and molecular
neurobiology, physiology and biophysics, neural
development, systems and behavior, and neural
computation. The program investigates the
development, neuronal organization, and function of
the mammalian central nervous system. It represents
part of the Yale Combined Program in the Biological
and Biomedical Sciences
(http://info.med.yale.edu/neurosci/).
All Neuroscience Graduate Programs in the US are
highly competitive. Amongst other requirements for
acceptance is knowledge of mathematics through
calculus,
general
and
organic
chemistry,
biochemistry, physics, and basic biology, including
molecular and cell biology. From their side,
Universities offer interdepartmental programs,
meaning that they provide an integrated curriculum
of several disciplines. For example, at UCLA the
curriculum has six major components: core courses
(Cell, Developmental and Molecular Neurobiology,
Cellular Neurophysiology, Neuroanatomy, and
Systems Neuroscience), laboratory rotations,
literature-based
seminars,
advanced
courses,
teaching, and dissertation research.
In Canada, at least 20 Graduate Neuroscience
Programs exist, leading to Master’s and/or Ph.Ds
degrees. Usually, the program is run in conjunction
with numerous departments in the Medical School
(e.g.: Anatomy and Neurobiology, Biochemistry,
Pharmacology, Physiology, and Biophysics) and in
the Faculty of Science (Psychology). These
programmes offer opportunities for graduate studies
in a variety of clinically-applied neuroscience
disciplines. Others given solely by Psychology
Departments may deal with how we see and hear,
learn and remember, the development of perceptual
and cognitive abilities
(http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Canada/neuros
cience_canada.html).
In continental Europe there is an example of how
degrees can be given by two collaborating institutes
located overseas: The National Institutes of Health
(USA)-Karolinska Institute (Sweden) Scholars
Program in Neuroscience for predoctoral training
of graduate students is a collaborative research
program building on the excellence of both
institutions and a common interest in educating
highly talented individuals for careers as
professional scientists. The Scholars Program in
Neuroscience wishes to promote ground-breaking
research in fundamental areas of neuroscience and
psychiatry that could lead to a better understanding
of brain function and neuropsychiatric disorders,
new medical diagnostics and treatments, and the
advancement of methodology for human brain
imaging. This program provides the possibility for
graduate students from both the United States and
Sweden to divide their training for a doctoral
degree between the two participating Institutes. In
this manner graduate students in this program will
benefit from a broadened scientific experience.
Another example of multidisciplinary graduate
program is given in one of the some prestigious
European Universities: The International Max
Planck Research School for Molecular and Cellular
Life Sciences is jointly conducted by the Max
Planck Institutes of Biochemistry, Neurobiology
and Psychiatry in cooperation with the Ludwig
Maximilian University Munich and the Technical
University Munich. The interdisciplinary PhD
program, entirely taught in English, provides
comprehensive scientific training in a superb and
vibrant research environment, covering the areas of
modern biochemistry, cell biology, molecular
medicine, neurobiology and structural biology.
In United Kingdom and Ireland over 20
Neuroscience Programs exist; some were founded
many decades ago. Once again, all degrees can be
taken as part of multidisciplinary modular scheme
suitable for a range of professional groups, offered
by different Faculties, e.g.: Faculty of Natural
Sciences and the Faculty of Health and Human
Sciences. In some programs, this gives the
opportunity to students to select optional courses
according to their professional background and
interests
(http://www.gradschools.com/listings/UK/neurosci
ence_UK.html).
In Australia and New Zealand 12 Neuroscience
Graduate Programs exist
(http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Australia/ne
uroscience_Australia.html),
and elsewhere in the world, including India, China
and Korea 20 more programs are taken place
(http://www.gradschools.com/listings/out/neurosci
ence_out.html).
In the veterinary medicine schools many
Departments conduct research in neuroscience, e.g.
the Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies in
UK. The Division of Veterinary Biomedical
Sciences of this School has a strong research record
and is particularly active in the areas of neuroscience
and studies at the single cell level, with many
programs cutting across these two major areas.
The Department of Veterinary & Comparative
Anatomy, Pharmacology & Physiology of Veterinary
Medicine School of Washington State University
offers a Graduate Program in Neuroscience.
Neuroscience plays an important role to advance
medical science for both humans and animals. The
mission of the Graduate Program in Neuroscience is
to formalize this study through research and graduate
education
(http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/depts-vcapp/neurosci/).
Graduates of the Neuroscience Program are prepared
for careers in teaching, research, and public service.
Potential employers of Program graduates include
colleges and universities, pharmaceutical and
biotechnology companies,
and governmental
agencies. Graduates are capable of teaching
neuroscience, physiology, and pharmacology to
professional and graduate students in the health
sciences. Graduates are trained to pursue research in
neuroscience with a specialization in an area of their
choice. Upon graduation, they are credible experts in
the areas of their thesis research. Graduates can
identify significant research problems and formulate
logical, comprehensive strategies for studying these
problems. They have extensive knowledge of the
scientific method and an appreciation for the
demands that this method makes on the integrity of
scientists.
All Neuroscience Programs, within the years, have
been more or less integrated, although their research
areas have broaden, including: Molecular and
Cellular Neuroscience; Systems Neuroscience;
Developmental
Neuroscience;
Behavioral
&
Cognitive Neuroscience; Clinical Neuroscience;
Imaging in Neuroscience; Neuroengineering.
What is apparent in Neuroscience Programs in
different Universities is the promotion of appropriate
interdepartmental communication, initiation of
development of grant proposal and new program
activities as needs and opportunities arise. These
characteristics strengthen the integration of the
studies which is based on promotion of mobility, cooperation in quality assurance, and promotion of the
attractiveness of the European Higher Education area.
CONCLUSIONS
THE NEUROSCIENCE PARADIGM
From the time of Hippocrates who first stated that the
brain is involved in sensation and is the seat of
intelligence, neuroscience has been a very exciting
and fascinating field for research. Over the years,
neuroscience network has grown to become a
global association of scientists and/or educators.
National Neuroscience Societies have been
established, including Society for Neuroscience in
the United States and comprise all together the
International Brain Research Organization.
Annually or biannually these societies are holding
meetings to present their new data; in some cases
(Society for Neuroscience meetings) the
participants are more than 28,000. Progress has
been made on the research field with new findings
and researchers have become Nobel laureates due
to the importance of their discoveries.
On the other hand, many Universities worldwide
have launched neuroscience graduate programs to
educate students in this field. Some of these
programs have been described in previous
paragraphs. One common characteristic they share
is their dependency on many different specialties,
so that courses of these programs are given by
many different departments. All these programs
provide students with access to diverse study and
training opportunities. Teachers, researchers and
administrative staff receive recognition and
valorisation of periods spent in a European context,
or elsewhere in the world researching, teaching and
training, without prejudicing their statutory rights.
In other words, this satisfies one of Bologna
declaration’s priorities which is the promotion of
mobility by overcoming obstacles to the effective
exercise of free movement.
Furthermore, mobility at higher levels has also
been achieved. In Bologna declaration:”Ministers
call for increased mobility at the doctoral and
postdoctoral levels and encourage the institutions
concerned to increase their co-operation in
doctoral studies and the training of young
researchers.” As explained in previous paragraphs,
cooperation at doctoral level exists in all
neuroscience graduate programs. Hence, another
fulfilled objective of Bologna declaration is the
promotion of the necessary European (and not
only) dimensions in higher education, particularly
with regards to curricular development, interinstitutional co-operation, mobility schemes and
integrated programs of study, training and research.
The same Ministers that constructed Bologna
declaration actively supported the development of
adequate quality assurance of integrated curricula
leading to joint degrees. This goal is apparently
achieved in almost every neuroscience graduate
program, since the degrees are given by different
departments of the same institution, and sometimes
by different universities located in different
countries. This gives the opportunity to develop
comparable criteria and methodologies.
In conclusion, in Europe and elsewhere citizens’
employability is being promoted through degrees
given by neuroscience programs as well as the
international competitiveness of the European higher
education system and livelong learning.
Overall, Neuroscience represents a paradigm as a
scientific field structured and organized in
compliance to Bologna declaration objectives. The
organizational experience gained in Neuroscience can
hopefully be transferred to other scientific fields.
REFERENCES
[1] Brain Facts (2002) Society for Neuroscience;
Editor: Joseph Carey, Washington, USA
[2] Meeting of Minds, European Citizens
Deliberation on Brain Science, Brussels (2005).
http://info.med.yale.edu/neurosci/
http://www.gradschools.com/programs/neuroscience.
html
http://www.gradschools.com/listings/UK/neuroscienc
e_UK.html
http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Canada/neurosc
ience_canada.html
http://www.gradschools.com/listings/Australia/neuro
science_australia.html
http://www.gradschools.com/listings/out/neuroscienc
e_out.html
http://www.neuroscience.ucla.edu
http://web.mit.edu/bcs/
http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/depts-vcapp/neurosci/