History 112: Origins of the
Modern World Since 1500
Professor Thomas Madden
End of the Middle Ages
• A New Culture is Born in
Medieval Europe.
– Mixture of Christian, Roman, and
Germanic Elements.
– Cultural Innovations.
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Separation of Church and State.
Approval of Middle Class Values.
Antipathy Toward Slavery.
Individual Rights of Women.
End of the Middle Ages
• Division of Christendom in the
Sixteenth Century.
– Martin Luther and the Protestant
Reformation.
– Fragmentation of Christianity.
End of the Middle Ages
• Catholic Reformation (CounterReformation)
– First Responses.
– Society of Jesus (Jesuits).
• Ignatius Loyola, 1491 - 1556.
• Forms Society in 1540.
• Spiritual Exercises, 1548.
End of the Middle Ages
• Purpose of Society.
– Restoration.
– Propagation of the Faith
• Methods.
– Intrigue.
– Education.
– Missionary Activities.
End of the Middle Ages
– Council of Trent, 1545 - 1563.
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Clarified Catholic Teachings.
Debated Protestant Assertions.
Established Seminaries.
Index and Inquisition.
– First Catholic Catechism, 1566.
– Effects of Catholic Reformation.
End of the Middle Ages
• On the Brink of Destruction.
– Muslim Expansionism.
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Eight Centuries of Jihad.
Conquest of Constantinople, 1453.
Conquest of Otranto, 1480.
Conquest of Belgrade, 1521.
Conquest of Rhodes, 1522.
Siege of Vienna, 1529.
Age of Exploration
• Unprecedented in Human
History.
• Motivations for European
Exploration.
– Spice Trade from Far East.
– Technological Developments.
– Prester John.
Age of Exploration
• Portugal.
– Prince Henry the Navigator, 1394 1460.
• Motivations.
• Exploration of West African Coast.
– Impossible to Enter Africa.
– Established Forts and Trading Posts.
Age of Exploration
– Discovery of Cape Verde, 1472.
– Dias Discovers Cape of Good Hope,
1487.
– Discovery of Brazil, 1494.
Age of Exploration
– Vasco Da Gama Sails to India, 1497.
– Portugal Reaps Enormous Profit.
• Empire of Ports.
• Mercantilism.
Age of Exploration
• Spain.
– The Reconquista.
– Voyage of Christopher Columbus,
1492.
Age of Exploration
– Effects on Americas.
• Depopulation Due to Smallpox.
• Adoption of Spanish Language and
Religion.
• Migration of Horses to North America.
Age of Exploration
– Effects on Europe.
• Syphilis.
• New Wealth and Commodities.
– Erosion of Ottoman Economy.
• Spain Becomes Wealthy and Powerful.
• The “Black Legend” and “Noble
Savage.”
Absolutism
• Medieval Kingship.
• Characteristics of Absolutism.
– Divine Right of Monarch.
– Regulation of Religion.
– Abolition of Local Rights.
• Methods of Absolutism.
– Bureaucracies.
– Permanent Standing Armies.
Absolutism
• Spanish Absolutism.
– Charles V (1519 - 1556).
– Philip II (1556 - 1598).
Absolutism
– New World Silver Boosts Spanish
Power.
• Defender of Catholicism.
– Spanish Armada, 1588.
• Spanish Economy Remains Medieval.
Absolutism
– Spain Declines When New World
Silver Dwindles.
• Poverty and Antiquarianism.
– Cervantes, Don Quixote.
Absolutism
• French Absolutism.
– Destructive Religious Wars.
• Huguenots (Protestants) vs. Catholics.
Absolutism
– Henry IV (1589 - 1610).
• “Paris is worth a Mass.”
• Edict of Nantes, 1598.
– Huguenots Given Political and Religious
Freedom in Northwest France.
• Begins Excluding Weak Nobles from
Royal Councils.
Absolutism
– Louis XIII (1610 - 1643).
• Regent Government of Marie de
Medici.
• Cardinal Richelieu.
– Enters Royal Council in 1624.
– Becomes Prime Minister in 1628.
– Architect of French Absolutism.
Absolutism
– Richelieu’s Methods.
• Erosion of the Power of Nobility.
• Acquire Direct Control Over
Provinces.
Absolutism
– Louis XIV (1643 - 1715).
• Cardinal Mazarin.
• The Fronde.
– Twelve Years of Destructive Civil War.
– Young Louis Affected by Violent Anarchy.
• Rules After 1661.
Absolutism
• Character of the Sun King.
– “L’état c’est moi.”
– Devout Catholic.
– Large, Strong, Healthy.
Absolutism
• Versailles.
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New Location of Royal Court.
Nobility Often Stay There.
Epicenter of High Culture.
Tool in the Emasculation of Noble Power.
Absolutism
• Rules Directly or Through Middle Class
Ministers.
• Finance Minister Jean Baptiste
Colbert.
– Taxation Difficult.
– Mercantilism.
– Expansion of New World Colonies.
• Jacques Marquette and
Absolutism
• Minister of War Louvois.
– Creation of Modern Army.
• Louis Revokes Edict of Nantes, 1685.
• Minor Wars in the North.
Absolutism
• War of Spanish Succession, 1701 - 13.
– Treaty Concerning Division of Spanish
Empire, 1698.
– Death of King Charles II of Spain, 1700.
• Wills Empire to Philip of Anjou.
• Louis XIV Accepts Will.
Absolutism
– Grand Alliance, 1701.
• England, Holland, Austria, Prussia.
– Treaty of Utrecht, 1713.
• France Exhausted.
• Philip Becomes King of Spain
(Bourbon).
• France Loses Newfoundland, Nova
Scotia, and Hudson Bay to England.
Constitutionalism
• Characteristics of
Constitutionalism.
– Balance Between Governmental
Authority and Individual Liberty.
– Reliance on the Higher Law of a
Constitution.
• English Constitutionalism.
– Medieval Crown and Parliament.
Constitutionalism
– Religious Landscape in England.
• Henry VIII and the Church of England
(Anglicans).
• Catholic Minorities.
• Puritans (Calvinist).
– Presbyterians.
– Congregationalists.
Constitutionalism
– Elizabeth I (1558 - 1603).
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Absolutist, but Popular.
Avoided Religious Problems.
Very Successful in Warfare.
Virgin Queen.
Constitutionalism
– James I (1603 - 1625) (Stuart).
• James VI of Scotland.
– Puritan Candidate.
• Strong Absolutist.
• Seldom Called Parliament.
– Levied New Royal Taxes on Middle Class.
– Sold Titles, thus Angering the Nobility.
Constitutionalism
• Religious Problems.
– Puritans.
• He Refuses to Dismantle Church of
England.
• Angry Puritans Leave for New World.
– Catholics.
• He Requires Loyalty Oaths.
• Persecutes Jesuits.
– Anglicans.
• Worried: King Marries his Son,
Charles, to the Daughter of King of
Spain.
– Sponsors New Translation of Bible, 1611.
Constitutionalism
• Lives a Lavish Lifestyle.
– Royal Favorite, Buckingham.
– Erosion of Royal Image.
Constitutionalism
– Charles I (1625 - 1649).
• Strongly Absolutist.
– Increased Royal Levies.
– Favored Church of England.
Constitutionalism
• Parliament.
– Rise of the House of Commons.
• Wealthy Middle Class.
• Puritan (mostly Presbyterian)
Majority.
– Charles Refuses to Call Parliament.
Constitutionalism
• Religious Problems.
– Denies Puritans Right to Publish or
Preach.
– Imposes Anglican Book of Common
Prayer on Scottish Church.
• Revolt in Scotland.
– Charles Forced to Call Parliament.
• Short Parliament (April - May, 1640).
– Long List of Grievances.
– Charles Dissolves It.
– Scots Invade England.
Constitutionalism
• Long Parliament (1640 - 1660).
– Abolishes Royal Private Taxation.
• King May Not Tax Without
Parliament’s Approval.
– Parliament Must Be Summoned at Least
Every Three Years.
– May Not Be Dissolved Without Consent.
– Division Among Members of Parliament.
• Congregationalists, Presbyterians,
Anglicans.
Constitutionalism
• Irish Revolt, 1641.
• English Civil War, 1642 - 1648.
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Oliver Cromwell.
Rump Parliament.
Execution of Charles I, 1648.
Monarchy Abolished.
Constitutionalism
– Commonwealth.
• Cromwell.
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Lord Protector, 1653.
Persecution of Catholics.
Defeat of Ireland.
Calvinist Codes of Behavior.
Dies in 1658.
Constitutionalism
– Charles II (1660 - 1685).
• Restoration of Monarchy.
• Catholic Sympathies.
– Parliamentary Opposition.
• Test Act.
• England and France Ally Against
Holland.
– Secret Codicil of Treaty with Louis XIV.
• Rules Without Parliament, 1681 1685.
Constitutionalism
– James II (1685 - 1688).
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Catholic.
Demands Repeal of Test Act.
Declaration of Indulgence, 1687.
Succession.
– Protestant Daughter Mary md. to William
of Orange.
– Son with his Catholic Wife, 1688.
Constitutionalism
– The Glorious Revolution, 1688.
• James II Flees England.
• Parliament Offers Crown to William
and Mary.
– Constitutional Monarchy.
Constitutionalism
• Bill of Rights.
– Parliament Sole Legislative Body.
– Monarch is not Above the Law.
– Monarch Rules Only With Consent of
Parliament.
– Parliament Must Be Called Every Three
Years.
– No Roman Catholic May Occupy Throne.
• Tolerance Act, 1689.
– Toleration for All Protestant Sects.
– Roman Catholicism Outlawed.
Constitutionalism
• Glorious Revolution Bears Out Ideas of
John Locke.
– Second Treatise on Government, 1690.
• Life, Liberty, and Property.
• Deposition of Unjust Kings.
The Age of Reason
• The Scientific Revolution.
– Characteristics.
• The Universe is Understandable.
• Aristotelian Logic and Methods.
• Mathematics Can Describe the
Universe Perfectly.
The Age of Reason
– Understanding the Universe.
• Universe of Ptolemy.
– Aristotle’s Geocentric System.
– Ptolemy Adds Epicycles.
The Age of Reason
• Nicolaus Copernicus, 1473 - 1543.
– Polish Astronomer.
– On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres.
• Heliocentric.
• Problems.
• Condemned by Protestants.
The Age of Reason
• Tycho Brahe (1546 - 1601).
– Danish Astronomer.
– Meticulous Observations in his
Observatory.
– Modified Geocentric System.
The Age of Reason
• Johannes Kepler (1571 - 1630).
– Brahe Student.
– Deduced Power and Method of Planetary
Motion.
• Ellipses.
The Age of Reason
• Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642).
– Telescope.
• Observations Show the Universe is
not Perfect.
– Accepts Heliocentric System.
• Very Large Universe.
– Forced to Recant.
The Age of Reason
• Isaac Newton (1642 - 1727).
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Defined Gravitational Force.
Optics.
Laws of Motion.
Calculus.
The Age of Reason
– Religion and Science.
• Scientists Devout.
• Raised Difficult Questions.
– Philosophy and Science.
• Francis Bacon (1561 - 1626).
– Attacks Medieval Scholasticism.
– Empirical Method.
– Future Better than the Past.
The Age of Reason
• René Descartes (1596 - 1650).
– Analytic Geometry.
– Rational Deduction.
– Physical vs. Spiritual Universe.
• Mathematics.
The Age of Reason
– Science and Political Thought.
• Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679).
– Leviathan, 1651.
• Natural State of Man is Anarchy and
Chaos.
• Social Contract.
• Absolute Monarchy.
The Age of Reason
• John Locke (1632 - 1704).
– Impetus Behind American and French
Revolutions.
• Ideas Form the Basis of the Modern
State.
– Human Nature is Inherently Good.
• All Rights Not Surrendered to
Government.
– Inalienable Rights: Life, Liberty, Property.
– Social Contract May End If Broken by
Monarch.
The Age of Reason
• The Enlightenment.
– Factors that Led to the
Enlightenment.
• Ideas of Newton and Locke.
– Building a Rational Society.
• Example of England.
– Constitutional Monarchy.
– Prosperity.
• Example of France.
– Absolutist Monarchy.
– Oppression.
The Age of Reason
• Emergence of Print Culture.
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Production of Books Skyrockets.
Literacy Reaches Unprecedented Levels.
Authorship Becomes a Profession.
Learning Becomes a Middle Class Virtue.
Salons.
The Age of Reason
– The Philosophes.
• Desired to Reform Society for the Sake
of Human Liberty.
• Congregated in Salons, Coffee Houses,
etc.
• Conveyed their Ideas in Print.
The Age of Reason
• Voltaire (1694 - 1778).
– Provides Intellectual Agenda of the
Enlightenment.
– Candide, 1759.
The Age of Reason
• The Encyclopedia, 1751 - 1772.
– Greatest Single Project of the
Philosophes.
– Better Lives for All through Rational
Thought.
The Age of Reason
– The Enlightenment and Religion.
• Philosophes Critical of Religious
Institutions.
• Deism.
– Divine Watchmaker.
• Toleration.
– Politics Displaces Religion as a Matter of
Importance.
The Age of Reason
– The Enlightenment and Society.
• Birth of Social Sciences.
– Rational Principles Applied to Social
Problems.
– Rule by Intelligentsia.
– Unsuccessful.
The Age of Reason
• Birth of Economics.
– Adam Smith.
• Wealth of Nations, 1776.
• Against Mercantilism.
• Indefinite Economic Expansion.
• Wisdom of the Marketplace.
The Age of Reason
– Enlightened Despotism.
• Eastern Absolutist Monarchs Embrace
Enlightenment Principles.
• Frederick II of Prussia, Joseph II of
Austria, Catherine the Great of Russia.
The American Revolution
• Product of Enlightenment
Thought.
– Inspired by Ideas of John Locke and
Adam Smith.
– First of the Middle Class
Revolutions.
The American Revolution
• British Empire Increases Taxes on
Her Colonies.
– Sugar Act, 1764.
– Stamp Act, 1765.
• Repealed 1766.
– Relations Erode.
The American Revolution
• The “Intolerable Acts,” 1774.
– Attempt to Reestablish Control
over American Colonies.
– First Continental Congress.
– War Breaks Out at Lexington,
Concord, and Bunker Hill, 1775.
The American Revolution
• The Second Continental
Congress, 1775.
– Begins Directly Governing Colonies.
– King George III Declares American
Colonies in Rebellion.
The American Revolution
– Thomas Paine’s Common Sense.
– Congress Opens American Ports to
All Nations, April 1776.
– Declaration of Independence, July
1776.
The American Revolution
• Foreign Aid.
– Benjamin Franklin Persuades
France to Support Rebellion, 1778.
– Spanish Support, 1779.
The American Revolution
• The Revolution Succeeds.
– George Washington Defeats Lord
Cornwallis at Yorktown, 1781.
– Treaty of Paris, 1783.
The French Revolution
• Beginning of Modern Europe.
• Origins.
– Wealthy Middle-Class Wants
Power.
– Idle, but Well-Fed Urban Mobs.
– Weak and Impoverished Monarchy.
The French Revolution
• The Estates General.
– Medieval Parliamentary System.
– Three Estates.
• Nobility.
• Clergy.
• Middle Class (Third Estate).
– Kings Made Separate Deals With
Each Estate.
The French Revolution
• Louis XVI (1774 - 1792).
– Well-Meaning, but Weak King.
– Forced to Call Estates General,
1789.
• Not Called Since 1614.
The French Revolution
– Meeting of Estates General at
Versailles.
• Voting Dispute.
– Third Estate Demands Voting at Large.
– Louis Supports Third Estate.
The French Revolution
• Secession of the Third Estate.
– Tennis Court Oath.
– Creation of a National Assembly.
The French Revolution
– Fall of the Bastille.
• National Assembly Debates
Constitutional Monarchy.
• Louis Mobilizes Troops.
• Urban Mobs in Paris.
– React Violently to Royal Troops at
Versailles.
– Citizen Militia Becomes National Guard.
The French Revolution
• “National Guard” Storms the Bastille,
July 14, 1789.
• Lafayette Receives Command of
National Guard, July 15, 1789.
– Tri-color.
– Officials Elected to Govern Paris.
• Louis Accepts Virtual Autonomy of
Paris.
– Paris Becomes Prime Mover in French
Politics.
The French Revolution
– The Great Fear.
• Violence in Paris is Repeated in the
Countryside.
– Enormous Damage.
• National Assembly Reacts.
– Declaration of the Rights of Man and
Citizen, August 1789.
• Inspired by American Declaration of
Independence and Virginia’s
Declaration of Rights.
• Based on Ideas of Locke.
The French Revolution
• March of Parisian Women, October 2,
1789.
– Delay in Ratification of Declaration.
– Women March to Versailles.
– Louis Forced to Come to Paris.
The French Revolution
– Constitution of 1791.
• Europe’s First Liberal Revolution.
– Written Constitution.
• Political Reorganization.
– Indirect Voting for Property Owners.
– Legislative Assembly.
• Royal Limited Veto.
– Provinces Replaced With Departments.
The French Revolution
• Economic Reorganization.
– Confiscation of All Church Property.
– Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
• Reorganization of Dioceses.
• Constitutional vs. Refractory Clergy.
• Pope Condemns Civil Constitution
and Entire Revolution.
– Deep Divisions Among Pious French.
The French Revolution
– The Second Revolution.
• Revolution Gains Many Enemies.
– Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette Attempt
to Flee France, June 1791.
• Legislative Assembly, September
1791.
– Quickly Taken Over by Radicals.
– War With Prussia and Austria.
• Attempt at Unification.
• Louis and Royal Family Flee to
Legislative Assembly.
The French Revolution
• Republic Declared, August 1792.
– Sans-culottes.
• Beliefs.
• Take Over Paris.
• Universal Male Suffrage.
The French Revolution
– Execution of Louis XVI, January 21,
1792.
The French Revolution
• Constitutional Convention.
– Constituted by Sans-culottes.
– Taken Over by “The Mountain.”
– More War.
• Ideological War.
• Declare War on Britain, Holland, Spain
in February 1793.
• Royalist Revolts in Southern France,
March 1793.
The French Revolution
• Foreign Reactions.
– Edmund Burke, Reflections on the
Revolution in France.
– Enlightenment Ideas of Social
Reform are Discredited.
The French Revolution
• Reign of Terror.
– Committee of Public Safety, April
1793.
• Maximilien Robespierre.
• Mobilization of France.
– Revolutionary Army Crushes Opposition.
• Restructuring of Life in Every Way.
– Names, Dress, Literature.
– De-Christianization.
The French Revolution
– Progress of the Terror.
• Tribunal Courts.
– Marie Antoinette and Royal Family
Executed, October 1793.
– Thousands Executed in Kangaroo Court
Environment.
The French Revolution
• Robespierre Turns Tribunals Against
His Political Enemies.
– Tribunals May Convict Without Hearing
Evidence, June 1794.
The French Revolution
– Cult of the Supreme Being.
– Fall of Robespierre, July 1794.
– Terror Comes to a Close.
• 40,000 Killed by Guillotine.
The French Revolution
• Thermidorian Reaction.
– Wealthy Middle Class Return to
Power.
– Leaders of Terror are Executed.
– New Constitution.
• Bicameral.
• Five Person Executive Committee: The
Directory.
• Voting Limited to Propertied and
Soldiers.
– Price Controls Removed.
Napoleon
• Napoleon Bonaparte: From Poor
Family of Corsica.
– Rose Through Military Ranks.
• Rise to Power.
– Elections of 1797 Favor
Constitutional Monarchists.
– Directory Invalidates.
– Napoleon Enforces.
Napoleon
– Dissatisfaction With Directory
Grows.
• Unstable.
• Napoleon Enforces New Constitution.
– First Consul.
• Consulship (1799 - 1804).
– Peace With External and Internal
Enemies.
– Secret Police and Censorship.
Napoleon
– Peace with Pope Pius VII.
– Plebiscite Makes Napoleon Consul
for Life, 1802.
– Napoleonic Code, 1804.
– Bomb Attempt on His Life, 1804.
• Plebiscite to Name Him Emperor.
Napoleon
• Empire (1804 - 1814).
– Expansion.
• First National Army.
• French Navy Destroyed by British
Admiral Horatio Nelson.
• By 1807 Napoleon Conquers Austria,
Germany, Prussia, and Italy.
Napoleon
– Continental System.
• Embargo Against Britain.
• Conquest of Spain, 1809.
Napoleon
– Long-Term Effects of Napoleon’s
Empire.
• Spread of Liberalism.
• Birth of Nationalism.
Napoleon
– Invasion of Russia.
• Czar Alexander I Withdraws from
Continental System, 1810.
• Napoleon Invades Russia with
Enormous Army.
Napoleon
• Russian Scorched Earth Policy.
• Destruction of Moscow.
• Winter Retreat of French Army.
– Devastating Defeat by the Elements.
Napoleon
– Europe Allies Against Napoleon.
• Allies Enter Paris, March 1814.
• Congress of Vienna, 1814.
– Restoration of French
Constitutional Monarchy.
• Louis XVIII.
– French Borders Restored.
– Lenient Peace.
Napoleon
• The Hundred Days.
– Daring Escape from Elba, February
1815.
– Wellington Defeats Napoleon at
Waterloo.
– Exiled to St. Helena.
Napoleon
• Quadruple Alliance.
– Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austria.
– Occupation Force.
– War Indemnity.
– Restoration of Constitutional
Monarchy.
The Industrial Revolution
• Overview.
– Basic Requirement for Modern
World.
– Unique in Human History.
• Background.
– Pre-Industrial Economies.
• Household.
The Industrial Revolution
– New Agricultural Methods.
• Result of Enlightenment Rationalism.
• Charles “Turnip” Townsend (1674 1738).
• Introduction of the Potato.
The Industrial Revolution
– Population Explosion in Europe.
• More Food + Better Nutrition = More
People.
• Improved Medicine and Hygiene.
• Increased Demands Causes
Revolution.
• Rural Overpopulation Swells Cities.
The Industrial Revolution
• Industrial Revolution of the
Eighteenth Century.
– Adam Smith Proven Right.
– Increased Population, Better-Fed,
with Some Free Time.
• Insufficient Inheritables.
• Entrepreneurs Compete for New
Market.
The Industrial Revolution
– Consumer Revolution.
• Feeds Industrial Revolution.
• For the First Time in Human History
People Value Change.
– New is Better.
• New Clothing Fashions Creates Boom
Textile Markets.
• Critics.
The Industrial Revolution
– Great Britain.
• Why Britain?
– London.
– British Social Structure.
– Demand for Consumer Goods Transfers
to North America.
– Internal Free Trade.
– Rich Supplies of Coal and Iron.
– Stable Political System.
– Sound System of Banking and Credit.
The Industrial Revolution
• The Spark: Textiles.
– Putting Out System.
• Flying Shuttle, 1730s.
• Spinning Jenny, 1765.
– Industry Leaves the Rural Cottage.
• Water Wheel Factories.
The Industrial Revolution
• The Steam Engine.
– James Watt, 1769.
– Converts Coal into Virtually Limitless
Power.
– Factories Move to the Cities.
The Industrial Revolution
• Industrial Revolution of the
Nineteenth Century.
– Economic Problems.
• Enormous Growth of Cities.
– Insufficient Sanitation.
– Cholera.
The Industrial Revolution
• Rural Life.
– Increased Poverty.
– Over-reliance on New Crops.
– Great Potato Famine, 1845 - 1847.
The Industrial Revolution
– Railroads.
• First Line Opens in Britain, 1825.
– Expands Across Europe and North
America.
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Mobility Now Possible for All.
Transportation of Goods.
Increased Demand for Iron and Steel.
Vast Expansion of Industry.
The Industrial Revolution
– Social Effects.
• Wage Labor.
– End of Medieval Guild System.
– Standardization of Products.
– Household Becomes Unit of
Consumption, not Production.
The Industrial Revolution
• Changes in the Family.
– Families in Factories.
– Skilled Men Earn Enough to Support
Entire Family.
• Children Begin Attending School.
– Child Labor Laws, 1840s.
– Lower Class Laborers Can Afford OneIncome Households.
• Modern Family is Born.
The Industrial Revolution
• Changes in Marriage.
– In Pre-Industrial Societies Women Must
be Attached to Men.
– Single Women Migrate to Large Cities.
• Domestic Servants.
• Factory Workers.
– Protection of Single Women.
• Employers.
• City Police.
The Industrial Revolution
– Arranged Marriages Decline.
• Many Single Women No Longer Live
with their Families.
• Dating is Born.
• Dowry is Abandoned.
– After Marriage Women Quit their Jobs.
The Industrial Revolution
• Social Problems.
– Rise in Divorce and Abandonment.
– Rise in Illegitimacy.
– Rise of Crime.
Reform and Revolution
• The Romantic Movement, 1790 1830.
– Reaction Against Rationalism of the
Enlightenment.
– Revival of Religion.
Reform and Revolution
– Revival of Medievalism.
– Fascination with the Paranormal.
Reform and Revolution
• The Rise of Nationalism and
Liberalism.
– Nationalism.
• National Identity Should Determine
Political Boundaries.
Reform and Revolution
• Causes of Nationalism.
– Railroad.
– Telegraph.
– Print Culture.
• Rise of National Languages.
Reform and Revolution
• Nationalist Opposition to Congress of
Vienna.
Reform and Revolution
• Hot Spots of Nationalism in the Early
Nineteenth Century.
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Irish.
Germans.
Italians.
Polish.
– Czechs, Hungarians, Slovenes of Austrian
Empire.
– Serbs, Greeks, Bulgarians, Romanians in
Balkans.
Reform and Revolution
– Liberalism.
• Political Ideology of the
Enlightenment.
– Individual Liberty.
– Representational Democracy.
– Constitutionalism.
• Economic Ideology of the
Enlightenment.
– Free Trade.
• New Wealth of Industrial Revolution
Increases Interest in Liberalism.
– Liberal and Nationalist
Cooperation.
Reform and Revolution
• Conservatism Endures.
– Liberalism Leads to Anarchy and
the Horrors of the French
Revolution.
– Pillars of Conservatism.
• Monarchies.
• Aristocrats.
• The Catholic Church and Most
Protestant Churches.
Reform and Revolution
– Metternich (1753 - 1859).
• Austrian Prince.
• Architect of the Congress of Vienna.
Reform and Revolution
– The Congress System.
• Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain
Meet Regularly.
• France Added in 1818.
Reform and Revolution
• New Revolutions.
– Spanish Revolution of 1820.
• Ferdinand VII Dissolves the Cortes.
• Accepts Constitution.
– Revolt in the Two Sicilies, 1820.
• Accepts Constitution.
Reform and Revolution
– The Congresses React.
• Metternich Wants Right to Invade
Countries Threatened by Revolution.
– Britain and France Opposed.
• Two Sicilies.
– Prussia, Russia, and Austria Issue Decree
Alone.
– Austrian Forces Restore Monarchy in
Naples.
• Spain.
– French Forces Crush Revolution, 1822.
Reform and Revolution
– Greek Revolution, 1821.
• Nationalist Revolution Against
Ottoman Empire.
– Portrayed as Rebirth of Athenian
Democracy.
• Very Popular Among Romantics.
Reform and Revolution
• Ottoman Empire.
– Medieval Islamic Empire.
– “The Sick Man of Europe.”
– Conservatives Offer No Opposition.
• Greek State, 1830.
Reform and Revolution
– Serbian Independence, 1830.
• Guerilla Warfare.
• Russia Claims Protection of Serbian
Orthodox in New State.
• Muslim Minority.
Reform and Revolution
– France.
• Charles X (1824 - 1830).
– Very Conservative.
• Kept in Check by Liberal Chamber of
Deputies.
– New Elections for Chamber of Deputies,
1830.
• Liberal Victory.
– France Conquers Algeria.
Reform and Revolution
– Four Ordinances.
• Restricted Freedom of the Press.
• Dissolves New Chamber of Deputies.
• Restricted Voting to Wealthiest.
• Calls for New Elections.
• Chamber of Deputies Refuses to Be
Dissolved.
– Gains Control of Military.
– Charles Abdicates the Throne.
Reform and Revolution
• Louis Philippe (1830 - 1848).
• Wealthy Middle Class and Urban Poor
Work Together -- Up to a Point.
Reform and Revolution
• 1848: The Year of Revolutions.
– Poor Harvests in 1846 and 1847.
• Lower Classes Mobilized; Middle
Classes Lead.
Reform and Revolution
– France.
• June Days
– Middle Class Liberals and Urban Poor in
Paris Overthrow Louis Philippe.
Reform and Revolution
– Second Republic.
• National Assembly Elected by
Universal Male Suffrage.
• Moderate and Conservative Majority.
– Paris Erupts.
• Urban Classes Demand Socialist
Revolution.
• National Assembly Crushes Uprising.
• Louis Napoleon Bonaparte Elected
President.
– Very Popular.
– Disbands National Assembly with Troops,
1851.
– Violent Purges.
– Plebiscite Proclaims Him Emperor, 1852.
Reform and Revolution
– Habsburg Austria.
• Multi-ethnic Empire.
– Ferdinand (1835 - 1848).
– Resignation of Metternich.
Reform and Revolution
• Hungarians.
– Louis Kossuth.
– Urban and Student Uprisings in Vienna.
– Ferdinand Flees to Innsbruck.
Reform and Revolution
– Emancipation of Serfs.
– Hungarian Diet.
• March Laws.
• Demand Autonomous State.
• Attempt to Annex Territories.
– Romanians, Croatians, Serbs Oppose
Hungarian Independence.
– Crown Supports National Fighters.
Reform and Revolution
• Czechs.
– Pan-Slavism.
• Northern Italians.
– Revolt of Milan.
– Lombard Kingdom Crushed by Austrian
Troops.
Reform and Revolution
• Ferdinand Returns to Vienna in June.
• Abdication of Ferdinand in December.
• Francis Joseph (1848 - 1916).
– Prince Felix Schwarzenberg.
– Austrian Troops Occupy Budapest,
January 1849.
Reform and Revolution
– Italy.
• Pope Pius IX (1846 - 1878).
• Radicals Take Over Rome.
• France Invades Italy.
– Capture Rome, July 1849.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• Classical Economics (Liberalism).
– Extension of Ideas of Adam Smith.
• Lassez-faire.
New Ideas: the “isms”
– What About the Working Classes?
• Thomas Malthus, Essay on the
Principle of Population (1798).
– Geometric Growth of Population.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• David Ricardo, Principles of Political
Economy (1817).
– Iron Law of Wages.
New Ideas: the “isms”
– Problems with Classical Economics.
• Correct on Relationship between
Public and Personal Responsibility.
• Incorrect in Views of the Working
Class.
– Assumes Maintenance of Status Quo.
• Fixed or Depleting Resources.
• Stagnant Working Class.
• Stagnant Technologies.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• Early Socialism (Radicalism).
– Utopian Socialism.
• Free Love.
• Saint-Simonianism.
– Count Claude Henri de Saint-Simon (d.
1825).
– Central, Despotic Control Over Private
Property.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• Owenism.
–
–
–
–
Robert Owen (d. 1858).
Paternalism
New Lanark, Scotland.
New Harmony, Indiana.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• Fourierism.
– Charles Fourier (d. 1837).
– Small Communities of Free Love.
• Problems.
– Utopia is Not of this World.
New Ideas: the “isms”
– Anarchism.
• All Private Property is Theft.
• Assassinations.
– President McKinley, 1901.
New Ideas: the “isms”
– Marxism.
• Karl Marx (1818 - 1883).
– Middle Class German.
– Rhineland Gazette, 1842-1843.
– London, 1849.
• Friedrich Engels (1820 - 1895).
– Middle Class German.
– Meets Marx in 1844.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• The Communist Manifesto (1848).
• Das Kapital (1867).
• Marxist Ideology.
– Centrality of Class Struggle.
– Industrialism Will Bring Capitalism to its
Logical Conclusion.
• Proletariat Uprising.
• End of History.
– Workers’ Revolution.
• Inevitable.
• Nationalism and Religion are Ploys.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• Problems with Marxism.
– Assumes Maintenance of Status Quo.
– Fails to Take into Account Market
Dynamics.
– Postulates a Sinless, Utopian Society.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• The Elevation of Science.
– Scientists Become the New
Authorities.
– Charles Darwin (1809 - 1882).
• The Origin of Species (1859).
– Natural Selection in Animals.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• The Descent of Man (1871).
– Application of Natural Selection to
Human Evolution.
– Decried by Religious Fundamentalists.
New Ideas: the “isms”
– Social Darwinism.
• Application of Darwinism to Human
Society.
– Aiding the Weak Harms Society.
• Racism.
– Justification for Colonialism.
New Ideas: the “isms”
• Eugenics.
– Increased Reproduction of the Fit.
– Contraception, Sterilization, Abortion for
the Unfit.
• Margaret Sanger and the Birth
Control Leagues (Planned
Parenthood).
Triumph of Nationalism
• Crimean War (1853 - 1856).
– Russia Invades Ottoman Balkans.
• Claims Protection of Orthodox
Christians.
– France and Britain Declare War on
Russia.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Difficult and Bloody.
– Destroys the “Concert of Europe”.
• Nation-building Begins.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Italy.
– Romantic Republicanism.
• Giuseppe Mazzini (1805 - 1872).
• Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807 - 1882).
• Looked to Republic of Rome of 1849.
– Strong Radical Elements.
• Opposed by Moderates.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Camillo Cavour (1810 - 1861).
• King Victor Emanuel II (1849 - 1878) of
Piedmont.
– Independent Buffer State.
• Moderate Prime Minister.
– Italy Must Prove Worthy of Unification.
– Unification Under Piedmont.
• Courting the French.
– Supports Napoleon III in the Crimean
War.
– Opposed Loose Cannons Like Mazzini and
Garibaldi.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Austria Removed From Northern Italy.
• Garibaldi Conquers the Two Sicilies,
1860.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Cavour Conquers Northern Italy,
except Rome.
• The Two Sicilies Vote to Join
Piedmont.
• Victor Emmanuel II Crowned King of
Italy.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Italian State.
• Piedmontese Constitutional
Monarchy.
• Rural and Backward South.
– Frequent Uprisings.
– Political Corruption.
• Austria Cedes Venetia to Italy, 1866.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Rome Becomes the Capital, 1870.
– Papacy Opposes Italian State Until 1929.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Germany.
– Birth of a New World Power.
– Otto von Bismarck (1815 - 1898).
• Prime Minister of Prussia under
William I.
• Conservative, Politically Brilliant.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Towards a Unified Germany.
– Increases Prussian Military with New
Taxes.
– Defeats Austria, 1866.
• Prussia Leader of German-speaking
World.
– Northern German Confederation.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Franco-Prussian War (1870 - 1871).
• Bismarck Provokes War With France.
– Means of German Unification Behind
Prussia.
– German Empire.
• France Defeated.
– Paris Falls, Napoleon III Captured.
– German Empire Takes Alsace Lorraine.
– Reparations and Garrisoning.
Triumph of Nationalism
• France.
– Napoleon III.
• Troubles After 1860.
– Declares War on Prussia to Shore Up
Support, 1870.
• Exiled to Britain, 1871.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Paris Commune.
• National Assembly at Versailles.
– Provisional Government.
– Primarily Conservative.
• Paris Proclaims Its Independence From
France, 1871.
– Second Siege of Paris.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Third Republic.
• National Assembly Deadlocked on
Royal Family.
• Germans Withdraw, 1873.
• Stopgap Republic Becomes Stable.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Austria (Hapsburg Empire).
– Compromise of 1867.
• Austro-Hungarian Empire.
– Ethnic Unrest.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Britain.
– Queen Victoria (1837 - 1901).
• Figurehead.
• Extremely Popular.
– Two Party System.
• Conservative Party.
• Liberal Party.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Reform Act of 1867.
• Extend Suffrage to Property-less
Workers.
– Conservatives Oppose; Liberals Favor.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli
(Conservative).
– Introduces Reform Act in Parliament.
• Conservatives Must Support the
Inevitable.
– Long Term Result: Conservative Party
Dominance in 20th Century.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Prime Minister William Gladstone
(Liberal) (1868 - 1874).
• Civil Service Exams, 1870.
• State Schools, 1870.
• Anglican Requirements for Faculty
Removed, 1871.
• Secret Ballots, 1872.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli
(Conservative) (1874 - 1880).
• Public Health Act of 1875.
• Picket Lines for Trade Unions.
– The Irish Question.
• Home Rule.
• Split Liberal Party.
Triumph of Nationalism
• United States.
– Avoided Turmoil of French
Revolution.
• Weak Federal Government.
• Firm Support of Classical Liberalism.
• “City on a Hill”.
• Expanding Frontier.
– Louisiana Purchase, 1803.
– Continental United States by 1853.
Triumph of Nationalism
– Civil War, 1861 - 1865.
• Rift Between Wealthy, Industrial
North and Rural, Agricultural South.
– Northern Intellectuals Decry Southern
Slavery.
– Southerners Decry Tyranny of the North.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Southern States Secede.
– Northern States Declare War.
• Purpose of the War.
– Abolish Slavery (for Northern
Intellectuals).
– Establish Dominance of Federal
Government.
Triumph of Nationalism
• South Scores Impressive Victories.
– Britain Considers Allying With
Confederacy.
• President Abraham Lincoln.
– Republican Party.
– Issues Emancipation Proclamation.
• Britain Stays Out.
Triumph of Nationalism
• Result of Civil War.
– Slavery in the Western World Ends.
– Unified Nation Under One Federal
Government.
– Two Party System Set In Stone.
• Democratic Party: Party of Slavery,
Becomes Party of the South.
• Republican Party: Party of
Emancipation, Becomes Party of the
North.
Triumph of Nationalism
– United States Grows Exponentially
in Population and Wealth.
• New Lands.
•
•
•
•
Rich Raw Materials.
Large-scale Immigration.
Neutrality.
World Power by 1914.
Scramble for Empire
• Decline of Old Colonialism.
• New Imperialism.
– Methods.
• No Conquest.
• Control through Economic
Development.
– Motives.
• Economic?
• Cultural or Religious?
• Political?
Scramble for Empire
• Africa.
– No Colonization or Exploration
before Nineteenth Century.
• Malaria, Yellow Fever, etc.
– Slavery.
• Fundamental Feature of African
Civilization.
Scramble for Empire
– The Slave Trade.
• East Africa Exports Slaves in the
Middle Ages.
• Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
– West African Slavers Gain a New Market.
– Depopulation of American Indians
Creates Labor Shortage in the New
World.
Scramble for Empire
– Portuguese Purchase First African Slaves
in the Sixteenth Century.
• Brazil Remains Major Importer of
Slaves in the Americas.
– British Ban Slave Trade in 1807.
Scramble for Empire
• Sources of African Slaves.
– African Slaver Networks Extend Deep Into
African Interior.
• Trading Centers in and around
Angola.
Scramble for Empire
– Who Were The Slaves?
• Healthy People Captured by Slaver
Tribes or Other African
Entrepreneurs.
• Condemned Criminals.
• Slave Tributes to African Kingdoms.
• Refugees.
• Those in Severe Debt.
• Excess Children.
Scramble for Empire
• Extent of Slave Trade before
Suppression.
– Nine Million to New World (primarily
South American and Caribbean).
– Six Million to Asia.
– Eight Million to Other Africans in Africa.
Scramble for Empire
– Suppression of the Slave Trade.
• After 1807 Britain Attempts to Stop All
Slavery.
– Resistance from African Kingdoms.
• Cultural Factors.
• Great Profit.
• European Suppression Efforts
Continue Through Nineteenth
Century.
– Never Completely Successful.
Scramble for Empire
– Scramble for Africa.
• Quinine.
– Europeans Can Enter Africa.
• North Africa.
– French Colonize Algeria in 1830s.
– French, Italian, and Spanish Colonize
Among Arabs.
Scramble for Empire
• South Africa.
– Dutch Build Capetown.
• Largest Settlement in Africa.
– British Capture Capetown in Napoleonic
War.
– Great Trek, 1835.
• Afrikaners Build New and
Independent State.
Scramble for Empire
• Portuguese in Angola.
• Egypt.
–
–
–
–
British Complete Suez Canal, 1869.
Egyptian Instability.
Britain Establishes Control in 1880s.
Sudan.
Scramble for Empire
• By 1900 Africa is Carved Up Among
European Powers.
– Only Liberia and Ethiopia Remain
Independent.
Scramble for Empire
– France.
• Consolidates Algeria by 1880.
• Expands into Tunisia.
• Annexes Much of West Africa, the
Congo, and Madagascar.
Scramble for Empire
– Britain.
• Expands from South.
• Conquers Boers (Afrikaners).
• Annexes Zimbabwe and Zambia.
Scramble for Empire
– Belgium, Portugal, Spain, Germany, and
Italy Expand and Annex in Africa.
• African Colonies are Drain on
European Countries.
– Easy to Acquire.
– Demonstrative of Power.
Scramble for Empire
• India.
– Before the Europeans.
• Muslim North.
• Hindu South.
• Constant Warfare.
– Portuguese.
• Goa.
Scramble for Empire
– Britain.
• East India Company, 1602.
– Factory-forts.
– Attempted to Stay Out of Indian Affairs.
– War Against French, 1740 - 1763.
Scramble for Empire
– Consolidation of Power in India.
• Hindu Caste System.
• Tensions with Parliament.
– The Great Mutiny, 1857 - 1858.
Scramble for Empire
• Direct Rule from Parliament.
– Modernization of India.
–
–
–
–
• Education.
• Economic Development
Wealth in India Skyrockets.
Population Booms.
Peace.
Nationalism.
Scramble for Empire
• China.
– Highly Developed Culture.
• Massive and Wealthy Empire.
– Complex Governmental Organization.
– Stability.
Scramble for Empire
• Confucian Thought.
– Ideology of Government and Life.
– Moderation.
– China as the Center of the Universe.
• Non-Chinese = barbarians.
Scramble for Empire
• Remarkable Technological Advances.
– Irrigation, Printing Press, Gunpowder, etc.
– Under Imperial Control.
Scramble for Empire
– Why No Chinese Enlightenment or
Industrial Revolution?
• Confucian Thought Derides
Merchants.
– Thus, No Significant Middle Class.
• New Technologies are Controlled, not
Exploited.
Scramble for Empire
– External Pressures.
• British East India Company, 1740.
– Wish to Purchase Silks, Porcelains, Tea.
• Jesuit Missionaries.
• China Remains Aloof.
– Europeans Restricted to Canton.
– Emperor Refuses to Treat with Outsiders.
• Trade Imbalance.
– Chinese Sell, but Will Not Buy.
– Incentive to Find Commodity Desirable to
Chinese.
Scramble for Empire
• Opium Wars.
– British Merchants Dominate Markets in
Canton by 1820.
– Opium.
• Product of India.
• Eager Market in China.
– Emperor Opposed to Sale of Opium in
China.
• Destructive to Confucian
Moderation.
• Drain of Silver.
• Outlaws Opium Sales in Canton,
1839.
Scramble for Empire
– Britain Declares War.
• Military Mismatch.
• Treaty of Nanking, 1842.
• Britain Acquires Hong Kong.
Scramble for Empire
– Emperor Again Outlaws Opium Sales,
1856.
• Britain Again Declares War.
• Conquest of Chinese Capital at
Beijing.
• China Opened to Foreign Investment.
Scramble for Empire
• Japan.
– Like China, a Closed Society.
– American Whaling Vessels
Approach Japan in Early Nineteenth
Century.
• Emperor Orders Japanese to Drive
Them Away.
Scramble for Empire
– United States Makes Numerous
Attempts to Establish Diplomatic
Relations.
• Refused.
• Commodore Matthew Perry Steams
into Tokyo Bay, 1853.
– “Gunboat Diplomacy.”
• Emperor Agrees to Open Japan to
Trade with U.S.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Bismarck’s Leadership, 1873 1890.
– Strategy.
• No Additional Territorial Gains.
• Avoid War.
• Diplomatically Isolate France.
– France Must Not Ally With Russia or
Austria.
• Remain Friendly With Neutral Britain.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
– Congress of Berlin, 1878.
• Rebellion of Serbs in
Bosnia/Herzegovina.
– Russia Invades, Expels Turks.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Congress of Berlin Called to Distribute
Conquered Lands.
– Bismarck is the Honest Broker.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Austro-Hungarian Empire Receives
Bosnia/Herzegovina.
– Angers Russian Tsar and Bosnian Serbs.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
– Bismark’s Alliances.
• France Isolated.
• Britain Friendly.
• Germany Allied With Austria and Italy.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Kaiser William II (1888 - 1918).
– Character.
• Young, Ambitious, Impetuous.
• Ruled by Divine Right.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Believed Germany Destined to Rule
the World.
• Envied Britain’s Empire and Wealth.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
– Disputes With Bismarck.
• William II Insists on a Large Navy.
– Bismarck Disagrees Strongly.
• William II Insists on a Foreign Empire.
– Bismarck Disagrees Strongly.
– Bismarck Dismissed, 1890.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
– Forging of the Triple Entente, 1890
- 1907.
• Only Bismarck Understood Complex
System of Alliances.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Russia and France Make Defensive
Alliance Against Germany.
• Britain.
– Traditional Friend of Germany and Enemy
of France.
– Troubled by German “World Policy.”
– Alarmed by German Naval Build-up.
• Britain Strengthens Royal Navy.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
• Triple Entente.
– Britain, France, Russia.
– Informal Agreement: Against Germany,
Austria, Italy.
Germany and the Alliance
Systems, 1873 - 1908
– Germany Surrounded by Powerful
Enemies.
• Only Real Friend: Austria.
– Must Support at all Costs.
World War I
• The Road to War, 1908 - 1914.
– Troubles in the Balkans.
• Serbs Want to Expand Serbia to
Include All Slavs in the Balkans.
• Tensions between Austria and Russia.
World War I
– Assassination of Archduke Francis
Ferdinand in Sarajevo, June 28,
1914.
• Serb Terrorist (Black Hand).
• Europe Shocked -- Serbia Gleeful.
World War I
– The “Blank Check.”
• William II of Germany Supports
Austria If Russia Should Declare War.
• Austria Delays.
– Tempers Cool.
– War Declared Against Serbia, July 28
1914.
– Austrian Army Not Ready Until midAugust.
World War I
– Russia Mobilizes Its Army.
• Must Mobilize Along Entire Western
Front.
• Act of War.
– Germany’s Schlieffen Plan.
• Only Plan for Troop Mobilization.
• Two Step Plan.
– Swiftly Crush France.
– Move Forces to Eastern Front Against
Russia.
• Germany Must Move Quickly or Lose
Ability to Fight.
World War I
– Germany Invades Belgium, August
3, 1914.
• Britain Guaranteed Belgium Neutrality
Since 1839.
World War I
– Germany Invades France, August 4,
1914.
• Britain Declares War on Germany.
World War I
• The Great War, 1914 - 1918.
– First Major War in Europe Since
Napoleon.
• Europeans Jubilant.
• New Devastating Military
Technologies.
World War I
• Both Sides Expect to Win Quickly.
– The Allies (Triple Entente): More Men,
More Money, Command of the Sea.
– The Central Powers (Dual Alliance):
Internal Lines of Communication, First
Strike.
World War I
– The War in the West.
• Schleiffen Plan Stalls.
• Trench Warfare.
– North Sea to Switzerland.
– Machine Gun Nests and Heavy Artillery
Bombardment.
World War I
• Tanks Introduced by Britain in 1915.
– Potential Not Realized.
• Airplanes Used for Primitive Bombing
and Reconnaissance.
• Western Front Remains Static.
World War I
– The War in the East.
• Germans Push Russia Out of Austria.
• Central Powers Invade Poland and
Baltic States.
– Two Million Casualties.
World War I
• New Allies.
– Ottoman Empire Joins Central Powers.
– Italy Joins Allies.
– Japan Honors Alliance With Britain.
• Britain’s Failed Attack on
Constantinople.
World War I
– The War at Sea.
• Britain Rules the Waves.
– Germany’s New Navy Useless.
• German Submarines Attack
Commercial Shipping into Britain.
– Target Neutrals.
World War I
– Sinking of the Lusitania, May 1915.
• German Submarine Torpedoes British
Liner.
• 1200 Drowned, Including 118
Americans.
– President Woodrow Wilson Warns
Germany.
World War I
• The Russian Revolution.
– Tsar Nicholas II.
• Weak and Incompetent.
• Hated for His German Wife and Faith
Healer Rasputin.
– Rasputin Assassinated by Nobles in 1916.
World War I
• War Takes Terrible Toll on Russia.
– Nicholas Adjourns Duma; Rules by
Decree, 1916.
– St. Petersburg Erupts in Strikes and Riots,
March 1917.
• Troops Refuse to Fire on Crowds.
• Nicholas Abdicates the Throne, March
15, 1917.
World War I
– Provisional Government.
• Duma Consists of Constitutional
Democrats (Cadets).
• Mensheviks.
– Moderate, Orthodox Marxists.
– Organization of Workers and Soldiers into
Soviets (Councils).
– Allow Provisional Government to
Proceed.
World War I
• Provisional Government Keeps Russia
in the War.
– Last Russian Offensive an Utter Failure.
– Army in Disarray.
World War I
– Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks.
• Bolsheviks.
– Radical Communists.
– Violent Revolution Now.
– Minority Working Against Provisional
Government.
• Germans Send Lenin to Russia.
World War I
• Lenin’s Speeches.
– War Would Bind Workers and Peasants
into One Revolution.
– Peace, Bread, Land.
– All Power to the Soviets.
World War I
• Lenin and Leon Trotsky Organize Coup
Against Provisional Government,
November 6, 1917.
• World Watches Marxism Put into
Practice.
World War I
– Communist Dictatorship.
• National Election to Elect Constituent
Assembly.
– Bolsheviks Lose.
– Red Army Disperses Assembly.
World War I
• Bolshevik Decrees.
– Nationalization of Land, Factories, and
Banks.
– National Debt Repudiated.
– Church Property Confiscated.
– Russia Removed from War.
• Capitalist War.
• Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 3,
1918.
World War I
• Heavy Resistance from White
Russians.
• Bolsheviks Assassinate Nicholas II and
his Family, Summer 1918.
World War I
• The End of the War.
– Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Frees
Germany to Concentrate on
Western Front.
• Germany Poised to Win the War.
World War I
– The United States Enters the War.
• Wilson Fails to Broker a Peace,
December 1916.
• Germany Resumes Unrestricted
Submarine Attacks, February 1917.
World War I
• Wilson Will Not Enter War as Ally to
Tsarist Russia.
– American Purpose: to Make the World
Safe for Democracy.
– Tsar Overthrown in Russia, March 15,
1917.
• United States Declares War on Central
Powers, April 6, 1917.
World War I
• Fresh Troops Will Arrive by 1918.
• Both Sides Try to Win Before the
Americans Arrive.
World War I
– Massive Allied Offensive Fails With
Heavy Losses.
• French Army Mutinies.
– Germany’s Last Offensive, March
1918.
• Presses to Marne.
• Both Sides Exhausted.
World War I
– American Troops Arrive.
• Allied Counteroffensive.
– Germans Wants Peace Before Allies
Enter Germany.
• President Wilson Declares the U.S.
Will Only Make Peace with a
Democracy.
• William II Abdicates, November 9,
1918.
– Republican Government Proclaimed.
• Armistice Signed Two Days Later.
World War I
• Results of the War.
– Germany.
• Germans Angry and Bewildered.
– Most Believed the War Was Going Well.
– Republican Government Surrenders
Without an Invasion.
– Many Suspect Bribery or Betrayal.
World War I
– Russia.
• Bolshevik Dictatorship.
– Preaching World Revolution.
– Destruction of Capitalism.
World War I
– Europe.
• Ten Million Dead: an Entire
Generation of Young Men.
World War I
– United States.
• Europe Prostrate.
• U.S. Relatively Unscathed, Emerges as
Major World Power.
World War I
– Total War.
• All Citizens Take Part.
• Universal Male Suffrage.
• Soon, Universal Female Suffrage.
World War I
• The Peace.
– Settlement at Versailles.
• Big Four: United States, Britain,
France, Italy.
– Japan Also Important.
• Victors All Democratic States.
World War I
• Wilson Insists on National SelfDetermination.
• Germany and Russia Excluded.
World War I
– The League of Nations.
• Wilson’s Dream.
• International Body to Avoid Future
Wars.
– Weak and Unworkable.
– U.S. Congress Refuses to Ratify.
• Henry Cabot Lodge (R-Mass.).
– Britain Also Remained Aloof.
World War I
– Colonies.
• Assistance from Great Powers toward
Independence.
– Germany.
• Demilitarized Zone at French Border.
• Army and Navy Reduced Drastically.
• No Sophisticated Weapons.
World War I
– The East.
• Austro-Hungarian Empire.
– Two Small States of Austria and Hungary.
– Czechs and Slovaks in North Become
Czechoslovakia.
– Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in South
Become Yugoslavia.
• Russia Loses Vast Territories.
– New States of Finland, Estonia, Latvia,
Lithuania, and Poland.
World War I
• Ottoman Empire.
–
–
–
–
Medieval Empire Finally Dies.
Palestine and Iraq Go to Britain.
Syria and Lebanon Go to France.
Greeks Attempt to Re-conquer Asia
Minor and Constantinople.
• Kemal Ataturk and the Birth of the
Republic of Turkey.
World War I
– Reparations.
• Much Disagreement About Amount.
• Germany Ordered to Pay Five Billion
Dollars per Year.
– Enormous Drain on German Economy.
– Germans Again Suspect their Government
of Treachery.
The Interwar Years
• Rapid Growth of Autocratic
States.
– Classical Conservatism Gone.
– Dictatorships of the Left.
The Interwar Years
• Soviet Union.
– Lenin.
• “Dictatorship of the Proletariat.”
– Exportation of Communist Revolution.
• Peasant and Worker Uprisings, 1920.
– Brutally Crushed by Red Army.
The Interwar Years
• The New Economic Policy (NEP).
– Limited Free Markets.
– Slow Rise of Industry.
The Interwar Years
– Leon Trotsky vs. Joseph Stalin.
• Politburo Opposes NEP.
• Lenin Dies in 1924.
The Interwar Years
• Trotsky.
– Collectivize Agriculture.
– Rapid Industrialization.
– Rigorous Exportation of Communism.
The Interwar Years
• Stalin.
– Character.
• Poor Background.
• Ruthless Killer of Millions.
• Disowned by Lenin.
– Continuation of NEP.
• Trotsky Exiled to Siberia, 1929.
– Assassinated in 1940.
The Interwar Years
– Third Communist International
(Comintern), 1920.
• Twenty-One Conditions.
– Complete Control of World Revolution
from Moscow.
– Spread of Communist Ideas Worldwide.
• Military, Media, Government.
• Foreign Communist Parties Under
Soviet Control.
– Democracies Have Enemy at Home.
The Interwar Years
• Fascist Italy.
– Italy in Chaos.
• Communists Growing in Strength.
– Benito Mussolini.
• Leader of Popular Opposition to
Communism.
– Personal Cult.
– Politicization of the Language.
The Interwar Years
• Fascists March on Rome, 1921.
• All Other Parties Outlawed, 1926.
– Secret Police.
• Accord with Vatican, 1929.
The Interwar Years
• Weimar Germany.
– New Republic Hated and Distrusted
by Germans.
– Hyper-Inflation.
• Final War Reparation Sum, May 1921.
– 132 Billion Gold Marks.
• Deficit Spending.
– Increase in Money Supply.
The Interwar Years
• German Mark Inflates.
• Devastation of Lower Middle Class
and Lower Classes.
• Enormous Social Upheaval.
The Interwar Years
– Who Was to Blame?
• Europe and the U.S. Blame
Industrialists.
• Many Germans Blame the Jews.
– International Conspiracy.
The Interwar Years
– Early Career of Adolph Hitler.
• Born in 1889.
– Austrian.
– Veteran of World War I.
• Settles in Munich.
– Joins left-wing political group: National
Socialist German Workers Party (Nazis).
The Interwar Years
• Growth of Nazi Party.
– Adoption of Swastika Banner, 1920.
– Twenty-Five Points.
– “Brown Shirts” (SA)
• Munich Beer Hall Riot, November 9,
1923.
– Trial Makes Hitler a National Figure.
• Mein Kampf.
The Interwar Years
– German Recovery Begins.
• New Mark Introduced, 1923.
• Dawes Plan, 1924.
• Bad for the Nazis.
The Interwar Years
• The Great Depression.
– Causes.
• American Investors Switch to New
York Stock Exchange, 1928.
• U.S. Stock Market Heavily Leveraged.
• U.S. Congress Enacts Smoot-Hawley
Act.
• Great Crash of 1929.
The Interwar Years
– Effects.
• Widespread Anxiety.
• Capitalism Appears Discredited.
The Interwar Years
• Government Intervention in Private
Industry.
– Franklin Delano Roosevelt and the New
Deal.
• Labor Movements Grow in Strength.
The Interwar Years
– Nazi Germany.
• Rapid Increase in Unemployment.
• National Socialists (Nazis) Gain Ground
in the Reichstag.
• Increase of SA Forces.
• Nazis Acquire Respectability.
The Interwar Years
• Hitler’s Rise to Power.
– Popularity of Nazis.
– President Hindenburg Appoints Hitler
Chancellor of Germany, Jan. 30, 1933.
– Emergency Decree, February 27, 1933.
– Enabling Decree, March 23, 1933.
– Hitler Moves Against His Rivals.
– Hitler Becomes Chancellor and President,
1934.
The Interwar Years
• Nazi Police State and Anti-Semitism.
– Gestapo (SS).
• Heinrich Himmler.
– Rigid Control of Daily Life.
The Interwar Years
– New Anti-Semitism Based on Racial
Theories.
• Poles and Slavs Equally Inferior.
• Exclusions for Civil Service and
Voluntary Boycotts, 1933.
• Nuremberg Laws, 1935.
• Kristallnacht, 1938.
The Interwar Years
• Nazi Economic Policy.
– Retained Private Property and Capitalism.
– Massive Public Works Projects.
– Germany Economy Rebounds While the
World is in Depression.
The Interwar Years
– Stalinist Russia.
• Stalin Imposes Rapid Industrialization,
1928 - 1940.
– Five Year Plans.
– Industrial Capacity Quadruples.
– Enormous Human Costs.
The Interwar Years
• Collectivization of Agriculture.
– Revocation of NEP.
– Stalin Seizes All Land.
• Peasants Relocated.
– Peasant Resistance.
• More than Ten Million Peasants
Executed.
The Interwar Years
• The Purges.
– Grumbling in the Politburo Against Stalin.
– Stalin Creates Kangaroo Court Purges.
• Touched Every Sector of Society.
– Almost Three Million People Executed.
The Interwar Years
• Foreign Reaction to the Slaughter.
– Major Governments Express Outrage.
– Academics and Labor Leaders Explain
Away.
World War II
• Again the Road to War, 1933 1939.
– Hitler’s Goals.
• Affirm Supremacy of German Race.
– Removal of Poles, Slavs, and Jews.
• Creation of Third Reich.
– Unification of Germans in Germany,
Austria, and Czechoslovakia.
World War II
– Remilitarization of the Rhineland.
• German Army Enters the Rhineland,
March 7, 1936.
• Allied Response.
– Pacifism Movements.
– Policy of Appeasement.
World War II
– German Invasion of Austria, March
12, 1938.
– Hitler Demands Secession of
Sudetenland.
• Czechoslovakia Allied with Britain and
France.
• War Imminent.
World War II
– Munich Conference, September 29,
1938.
• Germany, Italy, France, Britain -- Last
Chance to Avert War.
World War II
• Hitler Promises End to Expansion.
• British Prime Minister Neville
Chamberlain: “peace in our time.”
World War II
– Hitler Annexes Czechoslovakia.
• Occupation of Prague, March 15,
1939.
– European Public Opinion Begins to
Shift.
World War II
– Poland.
• Franco-British Guarantee of Polish
Independence.
– Hitler Does Not Believe It.
World War II
• Nazi-Soviet Pact.
– Non-Aggression Pact.
– Division of Poland and Baltic States
Between Germany and Soviet Union.
– Britain and France Declare War on
Germany, September 1, 1939.
World War II
• World War II, 1939 - 1945.
– German Conquest of Europe.
• Conquest of Poland.
– Blitzkrieg.
World War II
• Western Front.
– Germany Conquers Denmark and
Norway, April 1940.
– Germany Conquers Belgium, Netherlands,
Luxembourg, May 1940.
World War II
– Germany and Italy Conquer France, June
1940.
World War II
– Battle of Britain.
• Prime Minister Winston Churchill
(1874-1965).
– Argued Against Appeasement.
– Refuses to Accept German Conquest of
Continent.
– Friendship with President Roosevelt.
World War II
• Hitler Prepares to Invade Britain.
–
–
–
–
Strategic Bombing.
Civilian Bombing (“The Blitz”).
British Develop Radar.
Hitler Abandons Invasion Plans.
World War II
– Invasion of Soviet Union.
• Ukraine Needed for “Living Room.”
• Operation Barbarossa, June 22, 1941.
– Massive Soviet Casualties.
– Moscow Endangered.
• Hitler Delayed.
– Russian Winter Sets In.
– Stalin Counter-Attacks.
World War II
– Hitler’s Plan for Europe.
• Third Reich Based on Racial
Superiority of German People.
– Enforced Identification of All Races in
Third Reich.
World War II
• Poles Imprisoned or Killed.
• Russian Campaign is a War of Slavic
Extermination.
– Six Million Killed.
World War II
• Jews.
– Madagascar Resettlement Abandoned.
– Final Solution.
– Six Million Killed.
World War II
– The United States and Japan Enter
the War.
• Japan Allies with Axis.
– Invades Korea and China.
– Invades French Indochina.
• U.S., Britain, and Holland Cut Off Oil
Exports to Japan.
World War II
• Japanese Bomb Pearl Harbor,
December 7, 1941.
– U.S. Pacific Fleet Destroyed.
– U.S. Declares War.
– Japanese Quickly Capture Pacific Islands.
World War II
– The Tide Turns.
• U.S. Unprepared for War.
– American Industrial Capability Harnessed
for Total War.
– The Home Front.
World War II
• U.S. Navy and Marine Corp Recapture
Pacific Islands from Japan, 1942.
World War II
• U.S. and Britain Ally with Soviet Union.
– Soviets Force Germans Back, 1943.
– Demand a Second Front.
World War II
• American Warplanes Arrive in Europe,
1943.
– Europe’s Skies Cleared.
– Strategic Bombing Against Germany.
World War II
– Defeat of Germany.
• D-Day, June 6, 1944.
– American, British, and Canadian Troops
Land on Normandy.
• Supreme Allied Commander Dwight
Eisenhower.
World War II
• Liberation of France.
• Allies Advance Against Germany.
– Germans Refuse Unconditional
Surrender.
World War II
• Hitler Commits Suicide, May 1, 1945.
– Germany Surrenders.
– Soviet Union Occupies Berlin.
World War II
– Fall of the Japanese Empire.
• Fanatical Military Led by EmperorGod.
• Japanese Forced Back to Japan, 1945.
World War II
• U.S. Uses the Atomic Bomb.
– Ground Invasion of Japan Would Cost
More Than One Million American Lives.
– Hiroshima -- 70,000 killed.
– Nagasaki -- 75,000 killed.
World War II
• Emperor Hirohito Orders Surrender.
– Japan Allowed to Keep Emperor.
– Peace Signed, September 2, 1945.
World War II
• The Cost of the War.
– Most Destructive War in Human
History.
• Fifteen Million Soldiers Killed.
• Twenty-Five Million Civilians Killed.
– Europe Crushed.
• No Longer the Center of World Power.
• Power Shifts to the United States and
Soviet Union.
World War II
• The Peace.
– Distrust Among Allies.
– Yalta (February 1945) and Potsdam
(July 1945).
• Big Three (U.S., Britain, and Soviet
Union) Redraw Europe.
World War II
• Stalin Promises to Allow Eastern
Europe to Conduct Free Elections.
• Germany Divided Into Four Sectors.
– Berlin Also Divided.
• United Nations.
– U.S. Supports and Hosts It.
World War II
– Japan.
• U.S. Occupation.
– Creation of a New Japan.
• Disarmed.
• Democratic.
• Prosperous.
Decolonization
• Reasons.
–
–
–
–
Colonies Too Expensive.
Racism Discredited.
Exportation of Nationalism.
American Support for National SelfDetermination.
Decolonization
• British Decolonization.
– India.
• Nationalist Movements Split by
Hindu/Muslim Rivalries.
• Mohandas Gandhi.
– Career as a Nationalist.
– Reasons for His Success.
Decolonization
• Britain Grants India Independence, 1947.
• Old Animosities Remain.
– Nationalists Split: India (Hindu) and Pakistan
(Muslim).
– Warfare and Bloodshed.
• Gandhi Assassinated in 1948.
Decolonization
– Britain Begins Preparing Other Colonies
for Independence.
• Withdrawal from Most Colonies Worldwide.
• Results Seldom Encouraging.
Decolonization
• French Decolonization.
– Humiliated by World War II, French
Insist on Remaining an Imperial
Power.
– Algeria.
• Conquered by French Troops in 1830.
Decolonization
• Muslims Demanded Independent
Algeria in Early Nineteenth Century.
– Foreign Legion Crushes Movements.
Decolonization
• National Liberation Front (FLN) Formed After
World War II.
– Guerrilla War Against French throughout the
1950s.
– French Government Refused Compromise.
– Hundreds of Thousands of Algerian Muslims
Killed.
Decolonization
• Division in France About Continued
War.
• General Charles de Gaulle Returns to
Power, 1961.
– New Constitution.
– Withdrawal from Algeria.
• Other French Colonies Gain
Independence.
Decolonization
• Middle East
– Ottoman Empire Dismembered
After World War I.
– After World War II Europeans Begin
Pulling Out.
Decolonization
– Israel.
• Zionists (Jewish Nationalists) Settle in
British-Controlled Palestine.
• After the Holocaust Western
Countries Favor a Homeland for Jews.
Decolonization
• United Nations Divides Palestine
Between Arabs and Jews, 1947.
• British Troops Withdraw, May 1948.
Decolonization
• Zionists Proclaim an Independent
State of Israel.
– United States and Most Western
Countries Recognize Israel.
• Neighboring Muslim States Invade
Israel.
– Israel Defeats the Invaders and Expands
its Territories, 1949.
• Arab States Refuse to Recognize Israel.
• Continued Tensions.
Decolonization
– Arab Nationalists.
• Acquire Independence.
• Build Totalitarian Regimes.
– Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser.
– Dictator for Life Moamar Al Qadhafi of
Libya.
– Iraqi President Saddam Hussein.
Decolonization
– Radical Islamists.
• Resistance to Arab Nationalists and
Western Culture.
• Wahhabism.
– Beliefs.
Decolonization
• Wahhabist al-Saud Dynasty Conquers
Arabia, 1924.
– Spread of Wahhabism Throughout Middle
East and the World.
• Most Modern Islamist Groups
Wahhabist.
The Cold War
• Post-War United States Policy in
Europe.
– Permanent Military Presence to
Defend Against Soviet Invasion.
The Cold War
– Policy of Containment.
• Spread of Communism in Europe.
– The Iron Curtain.
• The Truman Doctrine, 1947.
The Cold War
• The Marshall Plan.
– U.S. Economic Aid to War-Shattered
Europe.
– Western Europe Remains Democratic.
The Cold War
• Post-War Soviet Policy in Europe.
– Permanent Military Presence to
Support Communist Regimes.
– Democratic Parties Outlawed in
Eastern Europe, 1947.
The Cold War
– Invasion of Czechoslovakia in
February 1948 and Hungary in
1956.
The Cold War
• Division of Germany.
– No Agreement on Future of Unified
Germany.
– Stalin Seals Off Berlin.
– Berlin Airlift.
– Germany Split into Two Countries,
September 1949.
The Cold War
• NATO and the Warsaw Pact.
– The Soviet Union Gets the Bomb,
1949.
– North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
April 1949.
• United States Insures Freedom of
Western Europe.
The Cold War
– Council of Mutual Assistance, 1949.
• Union of Eastern Bloc Economies.
• Rigid Control from Moscow.
• Warsaw Pact, May 1955.
The Cold War
• Red China.
– Japanese Invasion.
– Chiang Kai-Shek, Leader of
Nationalist Government.
The Cold War
– Mao Tse-Tung, Leader of
Communist Militias.
– Civil War, 1945 - 1949.
• Chiang Kai-Shek Flees to Taiwan.
• Mao Tse-Tung Proclaims People’s
Republic of China.
The Cold War
– Mao’s China.
• Soviet Style Communism.
–
–
–
–
Land Reform
Five Year Plans,
Millions of “Class Enemies” Massacred.
Millions Sent to Forced Labor Camps for
“Re-education.”
– Civil Rights Abolished.
– Persecution of All Religions.
– Socialization of Child Care.
The Cold War
• The “Great Leap Forward.”
– Beyond Soviet Communism.
– Peasants Organized Into Large
Communes.
• Family and Individualism To Be
Destroyed.
• All Activity For the Good of the State.
– Disastrous Results.
• Massive Starvation.
– Sino-Soviet Split.
The Cold War
• The Cultural Revolution, 1965.
– Attempt to Recapture Revolutionary Zeal.
– The Red Guards.
• Violent Rebellion.
• Denouncing of Parents and Teachers.
The Cold War
– Intellectuals and Bureaucrats Sent to
Work Camps.
– Impact of Mao’s “Little Red Book” on
Youth in U.S. and Western Europe.
The Cold War
• The Korean War, 1950 - 1953.
– Korea Split at 38th Parallel.
• Communist North, Democratic South.
– North Korea Invades the South,
June 1950.
The Cold War
– U.S. Sends Forces to Repel Invasion.
• General Douglas MacArthur.
• First Use of Limited Warfare.
– Red China Supports North Korea.
– Armistice, June 1953.
• Border at 38th Parallel.
• U.S. Forces Stationed Permanently.
The Cold War
• Khrushchev Era in the Soviet
Union, 1958 - 1964.
– Stalin’s Final Years.
• Focus on Heavy Industry and Police
State.
• Paranoia, 1952.
• Stalin Dies, March 6, 1953.
The Cold War
– Nikita Khrushchev.
• Some Relaxation of Police State.
• Strongly Supports Military and Space
Exploration.
– Sputnik, 1957.
• Reorganization of Agriculture.
– Failure.
– Soviet Union Remains Reliant on U.S.
Grain.
The Cold War
– Foreign Policy.
• Berlin Wall, August 1961.
• Relations with the U.S.
– Development of Hydrogen Bomb and
Ballistic Missiles.
• Mutual Assured Destruction.
The Cold War
– The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962.
• Medium Range Missiles in Cuba.
The Cold War
• President Kennedy Orders Cuban
Blockade.
• Nuclear War Imminent.
• Khrushchev Backs Down.
The Cold War
• Brezhnev Era in the Soviet Union,
1964 - 1982.
– Khrushchev Resigns.
– Leonid Brezhnev.
• Hard-Line Communist.
The Cold War
• Invasion of Czechoslovakia, 1968.
• Brezhnev Doctrine.
The Cold War
– Relations with the United States.
• Massive Military and Nuclear BuildUp.
• Policy of Détente.
– Trade and Arms Agreements.
– Soviet Build-Up Continues.
The Cold War
• The End of Détente.
– Election of President Reagan, 1980.
– U.S. Military Build-Up.
– Brezhnev Dies, 1982.
The Cold War
• The United States During the Cold
War.
– Growth of Vibrant Consumer
Culture.
– McCarthyism.
• General Fear of Communist
Revolution from Within.
• American Communists’ Attempts to
Control Media.
• Senator Joseph McCarthy of
Wisconsin.
– Hearings Get Out of Hand.
The Cold War
– The Vietnam War.
• Communist North Vietnam Threatens
Democratic South.
• Kennedy Sends “Military Advisors,”
1961. President Johnson Greatly
Escalates Troops and Bombings.
The Cold War
• Domestic Resistance Among Affluent College
Students.
– Graduate Schools Swell.
• President Nixon Negotiates Withdrawal of
American Troops, 1973.
– South Vietnam Falls.
The Cold War
– American Swing to the Left.
• Distaste for Red Scare.
• Resistance to the Vietnam War on
University Campuses.
The Cold War
– American Swing to the Right.
• 60’s Utopia Fails to Materialize.
• Increased Growth of Soviet Union.
• Great Society Programs Create New
Problems.
• Election of Ronald Reagan, 1980.
Dawn of the Space Age
• Direct Result of the Cold War.
• Challenge of President Kennedy.
• NASA.
– Most Successful Government
Program of the Kennedy-Johnson
Era.
Dawn of the Space Age
• First Man on the Moon, July 20,
1969.
• Space Program Languishes.
End of the Cold War
• Polish Solidarity
– Trade Union Demands Democratic
Reform.
• Suppressed by Communists during the
1970s.
End of the Cold War
– Election of Pope John Paul II, 1978.
• Archbishop of Cracow.
• Strong Opponent of Communism.
• Attention of the World Shifts to
Poland.
End of the Cold War
• Elections of Ronald Reagan and
Margaret Thatcher, 1979.
– Firm Opposition to Communist
Dictatorships.
End of the Cold War
– Military Build-Up.
– Strategic Defense Initiative.
End of the Cold War
• Mikhail Gorbachev Takes Power
in the Soviet Union, 1985.
– Soviet Union Cannot Maintain
Military Dominance.
• Must Secure Arms Treaties With
NATO.
• Must Boost Soviet Economy.
End of the Cold War
– Economic Perestroika
(Restructuring).
– Glastnost (Openness).
– Political Perestroika.
• New Constitution, 1988.
• Congress of People’s Deputies, 1989.
End of the Cold War
• 1989 – The Year of Revolutions.
– Poland.
• Gorbachev Unable to Support
Communist Rulers.
• Release of Solidarity Leaders.
• Free Elections, 1989.
– Solidarity Party Landslide.
– President Lech Walesa.
• Poland Becomes a Democratic State.
End of the Cold War
– Gorbachev Renounces Brezhnev
Doctrine, October 1989.
– Democratic Revolutions in
Czechoslovakia and Hungary.
End of the Cold War
– Germany.
• Hungary Allows East German Tourists
to Enter Austria.
– Tens of Thousands Enter West Germany
From Austria.
• Communist Rulers in Berlin Resign.
End of the Cold War
• Destruction of the Berlin Wall,
November 1989.
• Free Elections in East Germany Create
Democratic Government.
• Reunification of Germany, 1990.
End of the Cold War
– China.
• Deng Xiaoping.
– Traditional Communist.
– “Second Revolution.”
• Economic Boom.
End of the Cold War
• Student Demonstrations in Tiananmen
Square, 1989.
–
–
–
–
Demand Democratic Reform.
Deng Declares Martial Law.
Millions Converge on Square.
Tanks Disperse the Demonstrators, June
4, 1989.
End of the Cold War
• Fall of the Soviet Union.
– Gorbachev Allows Other Political
Parties, 1990.
– Opposition to Gorbachev.
• Hard-Line Communists.
• Democratic Reformers.
– Led by President of Russian Republic,
Boris Yeltsin.
End of the Cold War
• Ethnic and Regional Unrest in the
Republics.
– Baltic States.
– Azerbaijan and Tajikistan.
• Gorbachev Turns to Hard-Line
Communists to Shore Up Support.
– Coup of August 1991.
• Hard-Line Communists Seize Moscow.
• Boris Yeltsin Defies the Tanks.
– The Role of CNN.
• Coup Dissolves.
End of the Cold War
– Russia Withdraws from Soviet
Union, Christmas 1991.
• Soviet Union Ceases to Exist.
• Commonwealth of Independent
States.
End of the Cold War
– Yeltsin and the Russian Parliament.
• Rapid Reforms Cause Economic
Hardships.
• Parliament Taken Over by
Communists.
• Yeltsin Suspends Parliament,
September 1993.
– Tanks Fire on Parliament Building,
October 1993.
• New Constitution.
End of the Cold War
• Fall of Communism.
– After the Deaths of Millions.
– Communism Survives in China and Cuba.
• Both Attempt Free Market Reforms While
Retaining Dictatorial States.
– Social Criticism Shifts from Marxism to
Environmentalism.
– Victory of Eighteenth-Century Liberalism
Over Nineteenth and Twentieth-Century
Political Ideas.