US Dairy and Beef Farming
Practices for Bulgaria
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Published by the Center for Excellence in Education
In Collaboration with the Sts. Cyril and Methodius Foundation
Edited by:
Dr. James A. Saunders
Dr. Michael M. Schutz
Dr. Nikolai A. Todorov
1
US Dairy and Beef Farming
Practices for Bulgaria
Editors
James A. Saunders
Director
Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, and Bioinformatics
Towson University
360 Smith Hall
8000 York Road
Towson, MD 21252
Michael M. Schutz
Associate Professor of Animal Sciences
Indiana State Extension Dairy Specialist
Department of Animal Sciences
Purdue University
125 South Russell St. #105
West Lafayette, IN 47907
Nikolai A. Todorov
Professor Emeritus Thracian University
Faculty of Agriculture
Maragidik str. 12
1505 Sofia, Bulgaria
2
Published by:
The Center for Excellence in Education
8201 Greensboro Drive, Suite 215
McLean, VA 22102 USA
Phone: 703-448-9062
Fax: 703-448-9068
E-mail: cee@cee.org
Website: http://www.cee.org
Published in 2005
3
Table of Contents
Contributors
3
Preface
5
Section I. Introduction:
Chapter 1: Introduction to United States Farm Operations
Ward L. Zigler and Mark L. Deardorff
9
Section II. Operational Management of Dairy Farms.
Chapter 2: Reproductive Cycles and Anatomy of Dairy Cows
Patrick Burns
15
Chapter 3: Improving Heat Detection and Artificial
Insemination Pregnancy Rates
Patrick Burns, Ward L. Zigler and Mark L. Deardorff
23
Chapter 4: Genetic Selection for Improved Milk Production
Michael M. Schutz
29
Section III. Dairy Herd Health Management
Chapter 5: Calf and Heifer Management of Dairy Cattle
Mark L. Deardorff and Ward L. Zigler
37
Chapter 6: Disease Control through Management, Vaccinations,
and Medications
Duane Flack
43
Chapter 7: Milking Procedures to Enhance Quality and Safety
Michael M. Schutz, Mark L. Deardorff and Ward L. Zigler
47
Chapter 8: Routine Physical Maintenance of Feet, Legs and
Udder Health
Mark L. Deardorff, and Ward L. Zigler
56
Section IV. Production and Business Management of Dairy Herds.
Chapter 9: Feeds and Feeding of Dairy Cattle
Patrick Burns and Michael M. Schutz
61
Chapter 10: Crop Production and Waste Management for
Sustainable Dairy Farms
Mark L. Deardorff, Ward L. Zigler and James A. Saunders
71
4
Chapter 11: The importance of Farm Records in Business
Management of Dairy Cattle
Michael M. Schutz, Ward L. Zigler, and Mark L. Deardorff
78
Chapter 12: Marketing of Dairy Products
Ward L. Zigler and Michael M. Schutz
85
Section V. Beef Farming using Dairy Cattle
Chapter 13: Nutrition, Economics and Facilities for
Beef Production with Dairy Breeds
Michael M. Schutz, Duane Flack, Mark L. Deardorff,
Ward L. Zigler, Patrick Burns, and James A. Saunders
Index
94
103
5
Section V. Beef Farming using Dairy Cattle.
Chapter 13:
Nutrition, Economics and Facilities
for Beef Production with Dairy
Breeds
1Michael
4Ward
M. Schutz, 2Duane Flack, 3Mark L. Deardorff,
L. Zigler, 5Patrick Burns, and 6James A. Saunders
1
Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, 125 S. Russell St. #105, West
Lafayette, IN 47907
2
DVM, President, Associated Agricultural Consultants, 5628 West 19th Street,
Greely, CO 80634
3
Mark Lee Deardorff Farms, 10729 North State Road 19, Macy, IN 46951.
4
Zigler Farms, 1366 Roper North Fork Road, Charlestown, WV 25414.
5
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 2536 Ross Hall,
Greeley, CO 80639.
6
Director, Molecular Biology, Biochemistry, and Bioinformatics, Towson University,
360 Smith Hall, 8000 York Road, Towson, MD 21252
6
Introduction:
The popularity of fast food restaurant chains such as McDonalds™ is often
underestimated when considering beef production and demand for beef. In the US, prime
beef such as steaks and roasts sometimes overshadow the production of hamburger which
uses the less expensive cuts of meats or varieties of meats. In Europe meats of this
quality are often used in the production of sausage with combinations of lower grade pork
and beef. Different parts of the world have different standards in beef. For example, the
US has a problem with the fact that ground meat in the US tends to run higher than 22%
in fat. In Europe, efforts to improve quality and uniformity of beef has played a major
role in business operations. These trends are being incorporated on a world-wide basis
to encourage consumer acceptance for a uniform product despite the fact that local
sources are used for supplies by the chain restaurants that operate on a global scale.
Since Europe has developed a beef fat content that is less than 17%, it is an ongoing
challenge to meet the meat quality demands of some global chain restaurants. In
Bulgaria, production of dairy beef to utilize male calves from dairy farms may be an
important economic opportunity that should not be overlooked in your farm management.
To sustain a cow/calf operation aimed at beef production, significant areas must
be available to graze the cattle on rangeland for all but the last 3-6 months of life. Feed
lots are typically used for young cattle for finishing the animal. Often, cattle are raised on
land that is not suitable for other agricultural purposes. This can be mountainous areas
unsuitable for row-crop farming but fertile enough to produce grass for bovine forage.
Irrigation will sometimes be necessary for cattle production. Green forage from crops
like alfalfa can be used for cattle and these areas can be rotated with other crops like
potatoes, vegetables, or grain crops.
For good beef production, it is not always necessary to use the best meat quality
germplasm from US sources in order to get substantial improvements in dairy herds.
Good management of moderate genetic germplasm, with some capitol investments in
infrastructure of nutrition and farm management can accomplish quite a lot. One tool
that can be used very effectively is to minimize the costs of productive cows. To do this,
identification of individual cows using electronic means can help the dairyman to provide
individualized care to each cow in the herd. The science of beef and dairy production is
very similar regardless of the type of breed being used or the type of product being
produced (beef vs. milk). A bovine animal is flexible enough to adapt to a number of
uses.
Angus, an example of a popular beef cattle breed in the US, has been exploited
because of their uniform coat, color and body characteristics. Despite the effort to
maintain uniformity of breed standards, even this breed is crossed with other cattle lines.
Electronic identification of cows in this breed certainly helps with beef production,
because animals can be tracked from birth to slaughter, and informational yields from the
carcass can be used to improve the breed. These crosses are common because there is not
a best breed for beef cattle. There is more variation within the beef breeds than there is
between breeds. Angus and their crosses have had an advantage in the US because of
7
the Certified Angus Beef™ program that provides a premium for carcasses that grade
well and appear to be of Angus genetic origins. The value is added to black cattle
because consumers have begun to associate Certified Angus Beef with better quality meat
and a more enjoyable eating experience. Angus has become very popular in the US due
to a number of reasons that have to due with marketing and advertising. In the US beef
cattle industry, black is beautiful and various breeds have taken advantage of this
including black Limousines, black Simmentals (Figure 1), and many other non-Angus
black breeds. This popularity has arisen because these other breeds can qualify for the
Certified Angus Beef program if they have black hides and adequate quality grades.
With the speed at which modern meat packing plants operate, there is no time to verify
that the steer is actually Angus. This example is intended to point out the tremendous
success that a carefully planned marketing strategy can have. However, it ought to be
pointed out that steers derived from dairy breeds can grade very well too. In fact, Jersey
cattle have been used in some US beef breeding programs because of their tremendous
marbling (intramuscular fat) in the more valuable cuts of meat.
Feed lots protocols:
In the US male calves are typically castrated at an early age and raised as steers.
While there is typically some loss in growth rate, it is more than offset by factors like
decreased danger, less fighting among the animals, and less destruction to facilities. In
the US steers commonly arrive at 15 to 18 months of age weighing from 230 to 275 kg
coming from pasture. They would have been weaned at from 6 to 9 months of age and
taken to a growing pasture or immature growing feed lot. They stay at the feedlot for 150
– 180 days while they eat a high energy/high grain ration. This might be as little as 6-8%
of feed as roughage
compared to a dairy
situation of 45-55%
roughage. They
finish on the feed
lot at 454 to 567
Kg. Some breeds
reach this weight at
an earlier age,
which may result in
a more tender
product. The costs
of raising the beef
animal is
approximately
$1.65 per Kg. The
cost of slaughter is
about $25 per head.
Figure 1. A black Simmental bull (photo courtesy of Select Sires, Plain City, Ohio).
8
As is the case in dairy production, nutrition is the largest expense of the beef
farming operations which affects many aspects of the operation.
The US team would like to share with you some of our thoughts about how dairybeef production in Bulgaria may be a way to add value to your dairy farm operations. Dr.
Duane Flack happened to be in Bashkortostan, and he present a seminar to a veterinary
class describing the same recommendations that would be appropriate for Bulgaria. The
McDonalds corporation is the biggest single marketer of beef in the world. Their sales of
hamburger in terms of volume and the effects it has on the supply/demand curve are
enormous. Although US consumers like to think in terms of steaks and roasts that are
considered to be the select cuts of beef, the rest of the carcass has to be used as well.
The US industry is very fortunate to have the fast food chains like McDonald’s as an
outlet for the beef industry. We appreciate the demand for consistency between a
hamburger produced at these outlets, no matter where you buy it in the world.
In the US, McDonalds has a problem with US source meat because the fat
content is higher that other world markets. McDonald’s has a specification of
approximately 22 to 23% fat content and most ground meet in the US will run higher than
that. In order to reduce the fat content of US ground beef, large amounts of lean cuts of
meat are utilized. Holstein meat, which is not often identified as a source of beef, is the
biggest majority of these cuts from dairy cattle that are slaughtered from culled cows in
dairy farms. Because of the practice of purchasing much of the beef for food chains
from local markets, McDonalds has found that European beef does not have enough fat to
meet their specifications. This should be opportunity to raise Bulgarian dairy beef that
can meet the specifications required and be an economically profitable enterprise.
Pasture land that is intended for forage grass and is often unsuitable for other
purposes, but may still support beef cattle. Figure 2 has an example of mountain pasture
land, similar to many parts of Bulgaria. Mountain valley areas that are too rough for
traditional
farming can
yield valuable
cattle feed. In
some areas,
irrigation can
revitalize
suitable forage
for cattle
production.
Figure 2. An
example of
mountain
pasture land.
9
Although other plants can be used, alfalfa is widespread as a forage crop and may
be suitable for the climates in Bulgaria in addition to other crops including warm-season
grasses. Non-forage crops such as potatoes, or beans can be rotated in the same field
with alfalfa to increase farm gate profits. Corn silage is also an excellent feed that can be
used as part of a ration for finishing steers.
Improvements to dairy farming are being sought throughout the world, and they
are facing similar problems to those encountered in Bulgaria. Duane Flack has recently
had the opportunity to work with dairy farms in Russia. In one example, he worked with
a manager that wanted to improve his herd who owned a small dairy farm that consisted
of only a stanchion barn with an old milking system. Figure 3, shows a collection of
cows from his farm that display a varied genetic background with poor body conditioning
and low milk production. The manager brought in new genetic lines using artificial
insemination (AI) procedures, and significantly improved both the nutrition and
infrastructure of
the dairy farm.
Within a few
years the herd
had increased
both the size of
the cows as well
as the number of
cows,
improvements
had been made
to the housing
conditions, and
proper nutrition
had tripled the
milk production
from the farm.
Figure 3: Mixed genetic stock, poor body conditioning, and poor nutrition of dairy
herds in Russia had dramatically reduced milk production from the area dairy
farms.
In this example, it was difficult to obtain quality semen from American Holstein
breeding stock due to political and economic barriers. All of the changes in the genetics
of the herd were accomplished with AI, but instead of US source sires, they used the best
semen that was locally available within the country. This manager was able to take
available genetic resources, the best that he could get, and use good management
practices, with some infusion of capital, in order to change a dairy operation that was
really struggling into one of the outstanding herds in that particular region.
Figure 4 shows the same herd just a couple years after these management
practices were put into effect. In many ways, the circumstances in Russia are very
similar to what is available in Bulgaria. The buildings, nutritional programs, genetics of
10
the dairy herds, and lack of infrastructure was as bad in that region as the worst case in
Bulgaria. By improving the genetics, some financial backing, and good management
programs there can be significant changes in a farm operation to make it a profitable
business.
Figure 4: Improvements in the genetics of dairy herds can be made by focusing on
the best available genetic resources that are affordable and available.
The size of a dairy farm is related to it’s profitability, but small operations can be
successfully operated. In Chapter 12 we saw that the trend in the US is towards larger
dairy farming operations because of the cost of the infrastructure to maintain a dairy
operation, but every operation has to become efficient in order to grow. In order to
utilize the opportunities to grow, efficiency in small operations leads to expanding
resources. Bulgaria has its share of challenges and opportunities for the dairy industry. If
small dairy farms continue to be viable, it is a fair prediction that they will become more
efficient in order to increase the milk and beef production per animal, and dilute the
overhead cost. Eventually most of the farms that survive will become larger and fewer
farms will be in operation.
If your operation is small or large, regardless of the dairy breeds that are used, no
matter if you are producing meat or milk or both, the science and the technology and the
needs of production of cattle are very similar. You are dealing with the same animal and
you to decide how you will market the products and manage your operations. That’s
true whether you are from different areas in the US, on different countries. The bovine
animal is very adaptable to the feed sources that are available and to the needs of the
particular farm operation.
11
Feed lot finishing:
In Figure 5 we see a picture of a large Western US beef feedlot. Some of these
lots are truly massive, finishing thousands of beef cattle per year. But the facilities do not
need to be this large to be viable and produce quality beef. Moderate sized Midwestern
US Feedlot are common. They have the same type of feeding facilities and the same type
of mechanisms involved in the larger operations. Basic facilities such as housing in wet
or cold areas protected the cattle from rain and snow in the winter. Feeding silo’s or
silage bunkers, like those described in Chapter 1 provide the cattle with quality feed that
is conveniently located and protected from mold and rot.
Figure 5. Large Western US beef feedlots of this type finish thousands of cattle to
be shipped to processing plants. The grain silo in the center of the lot is more than
35 meters tall.
Pasture-based cattle production varies from hard grasses that support very sparse
populations of feed to very lush green pastures that you might find in a river bottom
valley. Any of these pastures can work, but the management of pastures for beef
production is very different than on feed lots. Certainly, cattle can grow faster and be
ready for market earlier when more bountiful forage is grown in the pastures, but the
lower cost of land where grass is more sparse can still lead to profitable grazing. Figure 6
is a typical aria pasture in the Western US during winter. As you can see, there is some
vegetation that is available, but it is sparse and widely distributed across large areas of
land. The key component to managing this type of cattle production is to insure that the
animals do not over graze a particular area.
12
Figure 6. Management of pasture for production of beef can utilize areas of land
that are unsuitable for other agricultural purposes.
There will be opportunities for the dairy industry to grow in Bulgaria. But you
can add value to that industry by using male calves as sources of beef cattle for growing a
beef industry. Providing quality beef for Bulgarian and expanding markets as you
prepare to join the European Union will provide opportunities for the dairy farmer who is
looking to the future. Pasture-based systems can be very effect, especially in rugged
terrain that is not suitable for traditional agricultural crops or for dairy production. There
will be some need to finish steers on higher grain diets for 3 to 5 months in feedlots,
however, this will improve meat quality and help meet the goals of chain restaurants like
McDonald’s and the enormous marketing opportunities they represent.
13
Index:
acidosis, 65, 68, 69, 70
alfalfa, 71, 77
ampulla, 17
animal comfort, 54
anionic salt, 68
anterior vagina, 18
artificial insemination, 5, 9, 15, 23, 28,
34, 99
bacteria, 18, 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 55
bacteria count, 48, 49
beef production, 6
body condition, 30, 61, 62, 63, 68
bovine beacon, 26
breeding, 11, 23, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31,
32, 33, 34, 35, 41, 56, 61, 62, 63
breeding program, 23, 29, 32, 33
breeding value, 30
breeding wheel, 80, 82, 83
brucellosis, 88
Bulgaria, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 29, 30,
44, 47, 56, 59, 60, 65, 80, 82, 86, 93,
96, 98, 99, 100, 102
bulk tank, 52
business management, 80
calcium, 66, 68
calf, 5, 7, 32, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 45,
56, 57, 62, 82, 83, 96
California mastitis test, 52
calving Ease, 31, 32, 33
capacitation, 18
cervix, 15, 17, 18
clitoris, 18
close-up dry cow, 67, 68
Coccidiostat, 42
computer, 5, 53, 79, 80, 81, 83, 84
computer program, 5, 79, 84
concentrate, 40, 67, 68
conception rate, 22
conformation trait, 32
contagious mastitis, 51, 52
cooperative, 5, 11, 86, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94
copper, 52, 66, 69
corn silage, 10, 64, 99
corpus luteum, 16, 17, 20, 21
dairy beef, 96, 98
dairy cooperative, 11, 88, 89, 92
Dairy Herd Improvement Association,
79, 80
dairy industry, 5, 33, 80, 86, 87, 90, 91,
92, 93, 100, 102
dairy product, 5, 6, 9, 11, 29, 86, 87, 88,
89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 96, 98, 102
daughter pregnancy rate, 31
digestibility, 63, 64
dip teats, 52
disease, 6, 7, 41, 43, 44, 57, 65, 68
displaced abomasums, 67
dry cows, 41, 48, 57, 63, 68, 87
dry matter intake, 62, 63, 65, 66, 67, 68
dry period, 63, 67, 68, 69
dystocia, 31, 67, 68
efficiency, 15, 21, 23, 26, 27, 45, 47, 49,
80, 89, 100
electrical conductivity, 53, 80
electronic identification, 53, 96
energy balance, 62, 63, 65, 67, 68, 69
environment, 12, 13, 26, 44, 47, 49, 52,
54, 77
environmental mastitis, 49, 52
estrogen, 20, 21, 25, 27
estrus, 22, 27, 31, 80
European Union, 80, 102
farm management clubs, 83
farm records, 79
fat, 12, 30, 31, 32, 33, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65,
66, 80, 81, 96, 97, 98
fatty liver, 67
feed bunk management, 67
feed intake, 25, 62, 63, 67
feed ration, 65, 68
feeding, 7, 10, 26, 39, 40, 42, 44, 61, 64,
65, 67, 68, 72, 76, 80, 101
feedlot, 97, 101
feeds, 5, 7, 10, 61, 66, 68, 76
female fertility, 31
fertility, 17, 29, 30, 31, 33, 35, 36
fertilization, 17, 20, 21
fiber, 64, 65, 66, 67
14
fiber mat, 64
financial records, 83
finishing, 11, 96, 99, 101
fitness, 29
Food and Drug Administration, 55, 88,
93
foot bath, 56, 60
forage, 5, 64, 70, 96, 98, 99, 101
freemartin, 26
genetic evaluation, 31, 33, 36, 80, 82
genetic improvement, 29, 33, 35, 81, 82
genetic selection, 15, 29, 31, 45
genetics, 6, 9, 11, 15, 23, 29, 30, 35, 41,
82, 99, 100
gestation, 62
grazing, 11, 40, 41, 101
hamburger, 96, 98
hay, 42
health, 7, 9, 29, 30, 37, 40, 45, 48, 50,
56, 57, 60, 61, 63, 65, 67, 69, 79, 82,
83, 88, 93
heat detection, 23, 26, 27, 28
heat detection aids, 26, 27
heifer, 7, 26, 37, 40, 41, 56
herd management, 5, 6, 29, 30, 45, 80,
84
Holstein, 27, 31, 32, 34, 35, 69, 98, 99
hoof trimming, 56, 57, 60
hypochlorite, 48, 49, 51
immunization, 54
immuno-supression, 68
index, 8, 32, 34
index selection, 30
Indiana, 1, 3, 5, 9, 11, 12, 23, 29, 35, 37
inflation, 51, 90
information, 5, 31, 33, 44, 71, 75, 80, 81,
82, 83, 84, 93
insemination, 5, 7, 9, 15, 17, 18, 22, 23,
27, 28, 34
Iodophor, 49, 51
kernel processor, 64
ketosis, 67
lactic acid, 65, 68
lameness, 30, 65, 67
late lactation, 63
lignin, 64
liner slip, 51
longevity, 31, 33
management, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 13, 15,
19, 26, 29, 30, 37, 38, 39, 41, 43, 45,
53, 56, 61, 69, 67, 71, 72, 75, 76, 77,
79, 80, 82, 83, 84, 85, 93, 96, 99, 101,
102
management by exception, 53, 83
marbling, 97
marketing, 5, 8, 83, 86, 88, 89, 90, 93,
94, 97, 102
mastitis, 30, 31, 33, 45, 47, 48, 49, 50,
51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 67, 68, 69, 81
meat quality, 96, 102
metritis, 67
milk fever, 67, 68
milk let down, 49
milk line, 51
milk processing, 90, 91
milk production, 9, 11, 13, 15, 23, 25,
27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 35, 44, 53, 57, 61,
62, 63, 67, 68, 80, 88, 91, 99
milk quality, 47, 49, 53, 91
milk urea nitrogen, 80
milk weights, 80, 81
milk yield, 11, 29, 30, 32, 33, 48, 62, 63,
91
milking parlor, 35, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52,
53, 54, 57, 83
milking procedure, 6, 47, 48, 49, 53, 54,
59
milking routine, 51, 53
National Conference on Interstate Milk
Shipments, 88, 93
negative energy balance, 62, 63, 65, 67,
68
net merit, 32
niche market, 88
non-production trait, 32
nutrition, 6, 8, 9, 11, 15, 44, 54, 55, 61,
67, 69, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99
Pasteurized Milk Ordinance, 50, 55, 88,
93
peak milk production, 63
pedigree, 80
potassium, 66, 68, 75, 76
15
predicted transmitted ability, 30
pre-dipping, 49
private label, 89, 91, 92
processing plant, 91, 101
production, 5, 6-9, 10, 11, 13, 15, 22, 23,
25, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36,
44, 45, 47, 49, 53, 57, 61, 62, 63, 67,
68, 69, 71, 72, 74-80, 82, 83, 84, 86,
89, 90, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102
productive life, 31, 32, 36
protein, 10, 12, 30, 31, 32, 33, 42, 61,
63, 64, 65, 66, 80, 81, 91
protein percentage, 30, 81
protein yield, 31, 32
public health standards, 88
rangeland, 6, 96
raw milk, 88, 89
record keeping, 5,79, 80, 83, 84
record management system, 79, 80
reliability, 35
reproduction, 9, 19, 61
reproductive cycle, 19, 61, 62
rotary milking parlor, 48, 49
rumen, 63, 64, 65, 67, 68
rumen acidosis, 64, 65
sanitation, 42, 45
selection, 7, 15, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 35,
36, 45
selenium, 52, 66, 69
shipments, 93
silage, 9, 10, 12, 40, 42, 64, 69, 76, 101
silage processor, 64
Simmentals, 97
somatic cell, 31, 32, 47, 50, 52, 53, 54,
80, 81, 88, 91
somatic cell count, 31, 47, 52, 53, 54,
80, 81, 88
somatic cell score, 31
stage of lactation, 61, 63, 65
stanchion barn, 99
standing heat, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26
straw, 39, 40
survival, 31
teats, 48, 49, 50, 52, 53, 54
total mixed ration, 64, 66
transition cow, 63, 67, 68
transition cow syndrome, 67
tuberculosis, 88
type trait, 31, 36
udder, 7, 32, 33, 35, 45, 50, 52, 56, 68
United States Department of
Agriculture, 4, 94
urea, 80
US, 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 23, 27, 29, 30, 31,
32, 33, 34, 37, 41, 44, 47, 49, 50, 54,
56, 59, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 71, 72, 75,
76, 77, 80, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92,
93, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101
USDA, 31, 68, 90
uterine horns, 16, 17
uterus, 17, 18, 20, 62
vaccination, 41, 60
vacuum cycle, 51
vagina, 18
vitamin A, 69
vitamin E, 52, 69
volatile fatty acid, 65
voluntary waiting period, 62
vulva, 18, 25
water, 13, 14, 48, 49, 53, 54, 67, 69, 72,
74, 75, 76, 77, 92
zinc, 66, 69
16