KNOWLEDGE CULTURES AND HIGHER EDUCATION:
ACHIEVING BALANCE IN THE THE CONTEXT OF
GLOBALISATION
ELWYN THOMAS
INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION,UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
INTRODUCTION
The nature of knowledge has been a changing phenomenon for centuries
and institutions of higher education have, in the main, attempted to adapt
by changing their curricula, access procedures and organisation, to meet
the challenges which knowledge change has brought about.
Many individuals nowadays, have to handle many frames of reference in
order to understand themselves, and the world around them. This has
been described by Barnett (2000), as an age of “supercomplexity”, the
outcomes of which will be changing perceptions of the function of
knowledge and profound challenges to the future of higher education.
Globalisation and internationalism are now central issues world wide,
affecting all areas of higher education Altbach (2002a), in which
increased knowledge production and distribution, the consequences of
globalisation, open up new opportunities for the future of higher
education, Gibbons (1998). The speed and complexity of change over the
last decade, has certainly made an examination of the rationale for higher
education even more acute. In many, but not in all ways, the source of the
problem stems from the institutions of higher educations themselves,
which have been responsible for the generation and production of many
forms of knowledge.
From an international perspective, the changing nature of knowledge in
higher education has raised challenges stemming from the emergence of
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new domains of knowledge and the need to rethink the task of knowledge
integration For instance, Weiler (1996) has indicated how new domains
of aesthetic, normative and spiritual knowledges have recently emerged,
alongside the rise of so called indigenous knowledges, and the effect such
developments will have, and are having, on the ways we need to look at
the future of the curriculum and pedagogy in higher education.
Hayhoe (1996) has signified that a more integrated and systematic way of
thinking about universities and knowledge is needed, and that by bridging
both comparative education theory and international relations theory, a
more successful integration could be achieved. leading presumably to
qualitative changes in higher education that are needed for the 21st
century
This paper will confine itself to a discussion of the challenges faced by
faculties of education and other related social sciences, with reference to
the profound changes in the nature of knowledge cultures, especially in
the context of internationalism and globalisation. While the overall focus
of the discussion that follows relates to university education, references
will also be made to college education, because teacher education which
is one of the principal thrusts of the paper, is still in many countries of the
world, carried out are in colleges which are outside the university sector
and under government control. The author’s recent experience of working
in higher education in East and South East Asia will be reflected in what
follows.
The main argument put forward here will embrace three key notions these
are, knowledge cultures, globalisation and internationalism The author
defines the three notions as follows. Firstly, a knowledge culture is
understood here to mean on going encounters between a group of
individuals that share common discourse and interests, the outcomes of
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which may be transient or durable knowledge. Secondly, globalisation is
essentially multifaceted and intimately related to free trade, technological
innovation and information communication, demographic change linked
to the development of global societies, socio-cultural, economic and
ideological convergence. Globalization is primarily an exogenous
process, which means that ideas and information arising from outside a
system, have the potential to produce fundamental change to that system
But there is an endogenous aspect to the consequences of globalisation,
in which certain forces within a system have the potential to counter
exogenous influences, by adapting and enriching them further. Much of
the endogenous nature of globalisation is closely related to the culture of
a society, Thomas (2003). Finally, internationalism is viewed as the
development of knowledge communities which transcend national
boundaries, but in which national interests are able to persist. It is
essentially a process of knowledge transfer and exchange which embraces
administration, teaching, research and professional development.
The argument which runs through this paper is; that one of the principal
tasks facing the future of higher education, especially in the emergent
economies of the world, is to achieve an acceptable, integrated yet
dynamic balance between new knowledge cultures, and existing cultural
knowledges, (including local or indigenous), so that cultural identities
and societal continuity can be maintained and enriched, the catalyst for
the enrichment being globalisation and internationalism.
The paper will encompass three themes, the first of these will examine
the changing nature of knowledge cultures and how far higher education
should reflect uniformity and diversity. The second theme will tackle the
challenge of achieving an Integrative Education, which attempts to
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balance new knowledge cultures with more traditional knowledge
cultures including local and indigenous forms of knowledge. The third
theme will examine the relationship between integration and balance in
the context of Integrative Education, and the role research and
professional development should play in the process.
THE CHANGING NATURE OF KNOWLEDGE CULTURES
(i) Knowledge cultures and curriculum change - general trends
In the past five years, the debate about conceptualising curriculum
change, Barnett(2004), Barnett, Parry, Coate (2001), Burn (2002),
Bourner(2004), Northedge (2003)has intensified within higher education,
and has been a response to a number of factors not least,the increasing
impact of the age of supercomplexity in which we all now live. Central
to the debate has been the nature of knowledge and how knowledge
generation, production and distribution have changed, and the extent to
which such changes have initiated a complete re-examination of the
curriculum of higher education, especially in the developed economies. If
we consider that the nature of knowledge arises as a shared discourse
within a textual community Bruner(1996), and that such discourses can
be underpinned by encounters which contribute to a body of knowledge
and understanding which can be transient or durable, we can therefore
perceive knowledge as comprising many knowledge cultures and
subcultures.
A knowledge culture that has existed for centuries at universities has been
labelled “traditional”, and nowadays referred to as the basis of a Mode 1
curriculum, in which content was pre-eminent and the student generally
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was a passive recipient in the teaching -learning process. With the
influence of modernisation and more recently globalisation, another
knowledge culture has emerged in which application and the practical
value of content is considered to be as important as the content itself. This
is known as “emerging” and forms Mode 2 curriculum , and embraces a
knowledge culture which emphasises active participation on part of both
student and university tutor. Barnett (2001) refers to this as part of an
“emerging curriculum” which in essence is an emphasis on “knowing
how”, and is as important as “knowing what”. These trends have lead to
what is known as the commodification of higher education, where
knowledge is mainly perceived as a commodity to be bought by the
consumer. From a traditional knowledge base, a repertoire of skills and
techniques have been developed further, for the benefit of multinational
corporations, the world of financial institutions and the market economy.
In response to the trend towards commodification, universities and other
academic institutions have developed new roles as providers of
commercial and business expertise, so making commodification their
central raison d’etre. Many governments have actively supported such
developments either directly eg Singapore, Malaysia or indirectly eg
United Kingdom.
Of particular concern to this paper, is the emergence of an important
challenge to the epistemological tradition of university education
relating to the place of traditional disciplines,( embraced within the
sciences and humanities), in a world that is rapidly becoming more
internationalised and influenced by globalisation. Weiler (1996) has
discussed at length the need for higher education to embrace new
domains of knowledge such as aesthetics, normative and spiritual studies
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etc, to widen both the appeal and relevance of higher education in a
changing world.
New knowledge cultures such as the politics of knowledge, gender and a
serious study of democracy ,( discussed by Weiler) are already being
included in the curricula of many western academic institutions. The
theory and practice of Information Technology, Networking, and the
development of advanced digital technology and their theoretical
underpinning, are other examples of new knowledge cultures that are
included as part of most higher education curricula in developed
countries. The new information knowledge cultures mentioned above
however, are not isolated knowledge cultures as they pervade much of
science, technology, medicine and engineering disciplines. It’s the
author’s hope that not only should these new knowledge domains
continue to figure in higher education curricula, but that future proven
knowledge domains, will also be part of what is offered in higher
education. The inclusion of the new with the old knowledge cultures
marks an exciting future for higher education, a future that will affect
higher education internationally It is to some of the international
perspectives that we turn.
(ii)Knowledge cultures - international perspectives
To date, the debate about the changing the nature of knowledge and the
relationship to the reconceptualisation of the curriculum in terms of
Mode 2,has been focussed mainly in developed countries. But at the
international level, questions about the commodification of knowledge
and education have also arisen, albeit less prominently in developing
countries. Altbach( 2002) points out that education is not only a
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commodity to be bought and sold, but an essential process which
underpins civil society and national participation. Neave (2002) is also
concerned about the extent to which the commodification of knowledge
endangers academic freedom and therefore minimises the autonomy of
university education in society. Altbach in particular, has stressed that
developments in higher education in the West towards increasing
commodification , have filtered through to higher education institutions in
developing countries. This means a growing western influence on
university teaching and learning has taken place, that could be construed
as neo-colonialism and a new form of cultural imperialism.
The growth of transnational higher education in the form of twining
partnerships and other forms of close academic exchange, has further
added to western styled commodification being filtered into university
education in the emergent economies eg South East Asia, although to a
lesser extent in East Asia. This has not only challenged the ownership and
transmission of knowledge on the part of less developed economies but
has lead to cultural ,social and epistemological traditions being eroded,
downgraded or at worse neglected altogether. The impact of transnational
education it seems have had mixed blessings as far as higher education is
concerned.
The curricula in many universities in the emergent economies needed to
be modernised, and this has in varying degrees been successful. For
instance, in countries such as Nigeria, Tight (2003) and China,
Easton(1991) the emphasis across most faculties has been to maintain the
“knowledge based” Mode 1 curriculum, emphasising the value of
specialised knowledge. However, there is less emphasis on Mode 2
approaches to teaching and learning but with little evidence of integration
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across disciplines. For instance, from a cultural standpoint the state
universities in Malaysia have ensured that the curriculum for
undergraduate students have access ( sometimes mandatory), to
religious(Islamic) and other cultural features of Malaysian society.
Nevertheless, the private institutions of higher education in that country
appear to have gone down the commodification road, with little apparent
commitment to interesting students in the socio- cultural aspects of life in
Malaysia.
(iii) Whose universal values?
Many academics from the West share the view that their traditions of
seeking out knowledge and the methods they employ, have values that
have developed over the centuries, and are now so universal that they
transcend all cultures. Often cited as a basis of this universalism, have
been the adoption of democratic principles of ancient Greece, the JudaicChristian tradition of values, and starting in the late 17th Century, the
beginnings of modern scientific methods of inquiry and knowledge. This
position is now challenged by an increasing number of academics in other
parts of the world, especially China Easton (1991), India and other Asian
countries. However, the effects of both internationalism and especially
globalisation, appear to reinforce the primacy of Western knowledge, and
the way it is being applied to higher education, through the advent of a
Mode 2 type approach to teaching and learning in many non - Western
countries.
The continued dominance of Western technology in the context of
Borderless Higher Education, Pincas (2002), new approaches to Distance
Learning and Networking between institutions and professionals through
the internet, has meant that the universality of Western knowledge, and
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approaches to teaching and learning remains a key issue, when such
developments need to be attuned to local cultural concerns about
curricular relevance. The process of integration could be a valuable
mechanism here, so that a balance be achieved between the various
cultures of knowledge necessary for a university curriculum to prepare
students the world of work. Integration could also assist in meeting the
need to successfully attune both universal and relativistic values and
traditions for a particular cultural context. It is to the process of
integration and its role in reconceptualising the university curriculum that
we now turn.
INTEGRATING KNOWLEDGE CULTURES
Integration in higher education is not new, it has been a feature for many
decades of policy formulation affecting organisation, administration and
not least the curriculum. However, the need and intensity for more
integration relating to the explosion of knowledge in the latter part of the
20th century, has meant that integration has taken centre stage. It is
therefore desirable at this juncture in the paper to raise four questions
concerning integration. Firstly, we need to ask why is integration
necessary in the first place ? Secondly, what is being integrated, thirdly,
to what extent should a university education for the 21st century, replace
General Education for an Integrative Education? Finally, how could
integration achieve a cultural balance?
(i) Why integrate?
The effect of internationalism and globalisation has fuelled knowledge
production in the last few decades to such an extent, that more and more
academics have begun to analyse their knowledge areas closely, and
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discovered considerable areas of over lap. The amount of overlap has
been recognised as a reason for rationalising content and procedures in
both research and teaching across the knowledge spectrum. The advent of
ICT has not only contributed to the knowledge explosion today, it
pervades almost all knowledge areas taught in higher education . It is a
key tool for academics and researchers to communicate their ideas and
propagate research findings. ICT will also generate new knowledges.
Therefore, the main rationale for integration is to rationalise knowledge
cultures, identifying common principles and concepts that can be valuable
for knowledge transfer across disciplines and which will act as a sound
basis for knowledge application. Integration would also make the
organisation of knowledge more manageable.
(ii)What is being integrated?
The term integration means combining parts into a whole. At present,
higher education curricular are undergoing considerable changes as
efforts are being made to integrate various disciplines and approaches to
form new knowledge cultures. So integration is already a current issue
in re-conceptualising the curriculum. The main argument of this paper
rests on achieving balance between different knowledge cultures,
therefore the notion of integration is key to the whole idea of attaining
balance. It might be useful at this point in the paper to briefly examine the
integration issue within higher education, and to ascertain what aspects of
the curriculum are affected. Integration in one form refers to combining
parts of a subject discipline into a more coherent whole, for instance
biotechnology is an amalgam of parts of biological, physical sciences,
technology and mathematics. Pertinent to the present discussion on higher
education integration, is the extent to which ICT and Networking
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Systems can be integrated into other knowledge areas such as science,
technology and language studies. This integration may be coined
epistemological, however epistemological integration is not a new
phenomenon, and certainly not confined to the sciences, as recent
developments in combining parts of philosophy, psychology and
sociology in the wider study of education has shown.
Another type of integration involves integrating Mode 1 and Mode 2
more effectively for the purposes of making content more meaningful
and useful. This trend is happening already in many developed
economies, as a response to market requirements and the demand by
multinationals and industry for relevant skills training .This type of
integration can be termed supra-curricular. Supra-curricular
integration, takes a take a bird’s eye view of teaching and learning in
higher education, and operates at course planning level. Recently,
Barnett ( 2004) has coined the term Mode 3 which refers to “knowing in
and with uncertainty” and is a knowledge culture that is about
uncertainty, relevant to the age of supercomplexity. It is a mode which
attempts to come to terms with an ever complex world, where the
conditions for human existence have become more unpredictable than
ever. In this context, a supra- level curricuar integration would combine
all three modes, the dominance of each mode depending on context and
what influences pervade at a particular time.
Another example of supra-curricular integration would relate to the
current discussions on the value of General Education in the University
curriculum . Burn (2002) discusses in her editorial on “General
Education to Integrated studies”, (a special issue on the subject in the
journal Higher Education Policy), the need for professionals in higher
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education to adapt to the forces of globalisation and internationalisation.
One stage in this adaptation process would be to re-examine the role and
status of General Education. Burns points out that a new form ( author’s
Italics), of general education needs to be developed so that it is more
integrative and international. As a result, students will be better equipped
to meet the challenges of the age of supercomplexity. The new form of
General Education would it is hoped, make students and staff more
aware of global and international issues, and encourage sound critical
thinking and creativity. The need to provide an integrative approach is
therefore crucial. In view of the importance of having a sound and
effective General Education which addresses both generic and specific
demands in the era of supercomplexity, it would be useful if we examine
what form a new type of General Education might take .A discussion of
the issue would also be valuable in pursuing the main argument put
forward earlier in this paper, with its emphasis on achieving balance
through an integrative approach.
(iii)
General Education into Integrative Education?
The concept of a “General Education” goes back well before the
scientific revolution which started in the 17th century. General education
embraced the notion of an education for the mind ,through a study of
philosophy, mathematics and rhetoric amongst other knowledge cultures
In many ways, this early form of General Education was “integrative” in
the sense that the main focus of study at a University was the
improvement of the mind and to develop more rounded and “integrative
human beings” Scott (2002). The scope of General Education increased
by the end of the 19th century, resulting in fragmentation of knowledge
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into many disciplines which marked the start of a steady departure from
scholarly eclecticism.
This fragmentation intensified during the 20th century and seemingly
continues into the present millennium. Knowledge fragmentation is a
natural consequence of scientific and technological discoveries, as well
as the development of diversified knowledge in the humanities and social
sciences. However, the increase in knowledge and subcultures of
knowledge has been spurred on further by the advent of ICT, making
access to knowledge wider, and greater in terms of capacity. Furthermore,
ICT has its own specific knowledge culture and subcultures which has
added to the fragmentation of knowledge.
It is quite obvious in the light of the explosion of knowledge, and the ease
to which it can be accessed , that the curriculum of higher education
needs to adapt to these challenges both now and in the future. In view of
such developments, we need to ask at least two key question about the
nature, value and place of a General Education in the 21st Century.
Firstly, is there a need for a General Education as part of higher
education, if so, what form should it take? Secondly, should any notion of
a wider education be abandoned in the face of more commodification,
which encourages specialisation and further fragmentation ? The view of
the author is that a balanced form of education should be offered to
students in higher education, in which aspects of a General Education
needs to be integrated as a response to the inevitable consequences of a
further knowledge explosion. However, the search for more generic
attributes would be necessary, to make curricular priorities more
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manageable in the light of a predictable knowledge expansion and
curriculum planning.
The task of integration will not be an easy one. As commodification is
likely to continue, there are those who would be unwilling to concede
much space in a curriculum, to what is considered traditional and out of
date. On the other hand, there are those who seek to preserve aspects of
higher education as an opportunity for the education of the “whole
person”. The fact is that both positions are understandable and tenable, so
compromises will need to be made. Whoever wins the argument, a new
form of General Education needs to emerge. General Education may not
be the best term to use nowadays, in view of its past association with
esotericism and charges of elitism unfounded or otherwise?
Furthermore, recent trends in the production of new knowledge cultures
discussed above would also signal a change of terminology.
Integrative Education may be a more appropriate title in a world that is
being transformed by the existence of knowledge networks, and is
characterised by uncertainty and rapid communication. Under these
conditions, an integrative framework is essential to meld new knowledge
cultures with some of the more traditional ones, and provide a basis for
job flexibility, as well ensuring that students will also receive an
education that will enhance personal development, Barrie &Prosser
(2004). Scott (2002) has suggested the term “integrative learning”
instead of General Education, but this minimises the role pedagogy and
therefore that of the university tutor. It can also be argued that “learning”
is only part of the educative process and so “education” would be a more
all embracing term to use as a substitute.
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From an international perspective, the World Bank-UNESCO Task force
on Higher Education and Society (2000), dedicated a section of their
report to discussing the importance of General Education for the future of
higher education in developing countries. Their conclusions about
General Education were positive, stressing its role in preparing students
for “flexible knowledge careers” for the world of work, and also
developing a broad range of social attributes which could enhance their
understanding of “global integration” However, the task force also
emphasised that General Education should not be seen by developing
countries, as a Western product, but should develop a General Education
reflecting their own cultures, needs, and values. It is to the development
of integrative education in the context of the achieving cultural balance
that we now turn.
(iv) Integrative education and cultural balance
If an undergraduate curriculum in an emerging economy adopts an
Integrative Education model, it is essential that alongside the need to
include selected aspects of Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge cultures, the
cultural contexts which reflect a particular society are also included, and
integrated into the curriculum. For instance, the issue of language is
particularly sensitive especially where a former colonial language( ie
English or French) is retained as the language of instruction, local
languages will also need to be included, either as second languages or in
some case as “co- instructional” languages as in Singapore and recently
Malaysia.
This ensures a vital linguistic balance in the education of students. In
countries like India and Malaysia, instruction may use two languages
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during undergraduate studies for different disciplines. For instance, while
the humanities curriculum is taught in the mother tongue, science and
technology are often taught in English or a mix of both.
Another aspect of attaining cultural balance in the context of an
Integrative Education, would concern cultural/spiritual values. In
Thailand, Buddhism would have a key place in the university curriculum
for all students irrespective of their main studies. Similarly in Malaysia,
Malay undergraduate students are expected to include Islamic studies as
part of their university education.
The subjects of language and cultural /spiritual values are just some
examples of where a cultural balance needs to be achieved, in any plan
that will use an Integrative Education model as a basis for a higher
education curriculum. There are other cultural areas that would also need
to be considered such as the inclusion of indigenous languages and
customs, cultural history, indigenous philosophies and secular value
systems. However, if an integrative model is to be used, the main
objective should be to ensure cultural balance, so that the education a
student receives not only prepares him or her for the age of
supercomplexity, but the student’s cultural heritage is not neglected in the
process.
KNOWLEDGE CULTURES AND THE NOTION OF
INTEGRATIVE EDUCATION
The discussion so far has been framed within the general debate about
re-conceptualising higher education curriculum per se. The basic
assumption which underlies much of the discussion that follows, is that
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the notion of an Integrative Education would hopefully provide a
framework for what, and how knowledge is taught in higher education.
For an Integrative Education to be successful, it has to address the needs
of society by providing knowledge which is relevant, effective and a
preparation for the world of work.. It also needs to provide opportunities
to enrich a student’s personal development, which would be of benefit to
the wider society. The challenge for an Integrative Education, in whatever
form it manifests itself, would be to reflect the needs and expectations of
a society in a balanced, integrated and acceptable manner.
In the first part of this section key factors which influence the
development of a particular model of Integrative Education will be
discussed. The discussion will then continue to examine these influences,
with reference to higher education in the emergent economies of South
East and East Asia. Particular emphasis will be placed on the issues of
cultural diversity and cultural inclusivity, in the light of the effects of
globalisation and internationalism on the form a model of Integrative
Education might take. The main thrust of the discussion will be limited to
examining Integrative Education in the context of Education and Teacher
Training.
(i) Integrative Education and influencing factors
Those responsible for developing an Integrative Education as a basis for
an undergraduate curriculum in the age of globalisation and
internationalism, will need to take account of at least six key influences
which are shown in Figure 1 below These are (a) New Global
Knowledge Cultures, (b) Internationalism, (c) National/political,
(d) Regional (e) Traditional/historical (f) Socio –Cultural. It would be
helpful to provide a brief description of each of the six influences.
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FIGURE 1
(a) New Global knowledge cultures
Such knowledge cultures would include both the theory and impact of
ICT(Information Communication Technology), the need for more
flexibility and application of information in changing work
environments, a readiness to deal with uncertainty and rapid change in an
age of supercomplexity. Looking to the future, it would also be necessary
to anticipate the advent of new knowledge frameworks, which are likely
to arise in an increasingly globalised world. This could be realised by
encouraging teaching and learning to emphasise innovative and creative
thinking. Global cultural influences would also require future
undergraduates to be more adaptive, and to consolidate new ideas with
greater rapidity; globalisation often being a rapid process. Therefore,
knowledge is important in the way it is selected, processed, understood,
critically analysed and presented.
(b) Internationalism
The influence of internationalism would entail the effects of increased
networking between institutions of higher education, and between higher
education, industry, marketing/financial institutions, commercial /
multinational organisations and international bodies such as the UN and
Development agencies eg World Bank. In many parts of the developing
world especially in South East Asia, internationalism has had a very
special influence through organised patterns of university exchange and
interchange. The twinning of universities, technological institutions and
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certain specialist higher education colleges in Malaysia, Thailand,
Taiwan and Singapore with counterparts in Australia, United Kingdom
and USA, have now become part of the landscape of higher education in
the fields of Business studies, English, commerce, law, applied science
and medicine.
The initial purpose of such partnerships was to make up the short fall in
university places in countries where the number of state universities were
small. To date, twinning is still and will remain a feature for some time to
come. At another level, internationalism also flourishes, with students
going from their home country to study in overseas countries. This has
been a trend that goes back before World War Two (WW2),continuing
apace after independence was granted in its wake. Both types of
international interchange have resulted in a marked flow of Western
ideas and traditions from North to South. Therefore, the future
development of Integrative Education will be influenced to
some extent, by past experiences arising from such international
interchange, that seems set to continue.
However, the flow is not all one way Teichler (2004), as countries like
Taiwan, Japan and Singapore have highly developed industrial and
technological expertise, particularly in ICT. These developments are
already being reflected in the higher education systems of these
countries. Therefore some of the countries of East and South East Asia
are already becoming donors as well as receivers with benefits
for both..
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(c ) National/ political
In most countries, higher education is too important to be left in the
hands of private bodies, even if they play an increasingly important role
in providing places for students in many countries. As most higher
education will therefore be the responsibility of national governments,
they would naturally have a key role to play in what is included in an
Integrative Education curriculum. In instances where new knowledge
cultures and their application, might appear to challenge the political
status quo, as well as social and religious sensitivities, socio- political and
national interests would, through government policy, ensure that such
challenges are met.
(d) Regional influences
Regional influences on education vary from one part of the world to
another. For example, in the European Union, in view of “on going
programmes” of rationalisation between member states, both Mode 1 and
Mode 2 knowledge cultures are showing signs of having a greater
commonality in terms of purpose, content and approach within higher
education. Accreditation and entry requirements are also starting to be
rationalised across member states, which would also have implications
for assessing student performance in an Integrative Education Curriculum
in a particular country of the union.
As yet, Asian countries that belong to ASEAN and the Pacific Rim,
regional influences in higher education are not as strong as they are in
the EU. However, in Japan, Korea, and increasingly China, there is
growing evidence of academic and technological exchanges between
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these countries of the North, and the emergent economies of southern
Asia. Nevertheless, regional influences are not as intense as they are in
Europe, but with greater economic and political cooperation between
countries within East and South East Asia, the regional factor is likely to
become more significant
(e) Traditional /Historical
A key influence that stems from traditional/historic factors, includes the
status of traditional disciplines that have been part of university curricula
for many years. For instance, subjects such as philosophy, pure and
applied sciences, well established humanities like history, language and
literature are amongst the well known subjects being taught. Their
influence is still strong and remain crucial knowledge cultures. It is clear
from an examination of university curricula in countries like Singapore
and Malaysia, the links forged with British higher education before
independence continue, inasmuch that traditional disciplines are still
flourishing and becoming even more specialised.
Although, it is not claimed here that older knowledge cultures are
flourishing for any neo-colonialist reasons. Their retention is seen as a
necessary as part of higher education provision. It is true however, that
new subjects such as ICT, business studies, economics and management
are also favoured areas and much in demand by students. But it remains
to be seen whether an Integrative Education if adopted in these countries,
would continue to retain the place of traditional knowledge cultures and
what status and role they would have?
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(f) Socio-cultural
One of the affects of both globalisation and internationalism on higher
education, would be the extent to which new knowledge cultures could
supplant not only the traditional disciplines mentioned in (e), but devalue
and erode cultural knowledge and traditions what are an integral part of a
society. There is a growing recognition of the importance of indigenous
knowledges Heckt (1999) Semali (2002) Thomas (2002), as part of a
curriculum at both school and university levels. Knowledge domains that
reflect cultural values, secular and religious, would need to be included as
part of the mosaic of an Integrative Education for many countries. It is
important that higher education should be an experience for students,
which not only provides them with knowledge and skills for job
opportunities in society, but that they experience an appreciation of their
cultural heritage whether it be through the study of language, religion, art
or cultural history.
(ii) Educating Teachers through an Integrative Education
In order to focus the discussion more succinctly, let us examine how an
Integrative Education could be developed for the study of Education, and
particularly Teacher Education, which in many countries increasingly
takes place at a university or higher education institute. The growing
trend worldwide points to making teaching an “all graduate” profession in
the foreseeable future. Therefore, the issue of providing an Integrative
Education for the education and training of teachers, is highly relevant in
meeting the challenges faced by teachers in the new age of
supercomplexity.
22
An appropriate teacher education curriculum in the age of
supercomplexity is perhaps best viewed from recognising changing needs
of learners, teachers and the workplace. It is possible to distinguish
between two forms of need, namely extrinsic and intrinsic.
Extrinsic needs feature in all modern societies where a highly skilled and
qualified work force is required. Meeting these needs usually targets the
short to medium span of a person’s working life. Extrinsic needs are
closely associated with the functioning of society and are part of a
person’s motivational regimen. Intrinsic needs have an inner longer term
personal dimension, which is integral to person’s development as a
human being eg moral and spiritual development, love of learning and
aesthetics.
Figure 2 below shows three knowledge components that trainees would
study in order to meet extrinsic, and intrinsic needs. Component A
includes knowledge cultures that meet extrinsic needs of the workplace,
and society in general. Component B includes knowledge cultures that
are meant to widen students’ exposure to world issues, internationalism
as well as their own cultural values. The knowledges included under B
are meant to meet intrinsic needs This component also provides
opportunities for students to study their own cultural heritage and to
critically analyse it when and where desirable. Component C (ICT) has a
dual function firstly, it is a knowledge culture in its own right act, with a
theoretical framework and a growing amount of specialist knowledge.
Secondly, ICT acts a bridge between components A and B, as it provides
a means of communication between for all three components. Component
C therefore fulfils both extrinsic and intrinsic needs.
23
FIGURE 2 HERE
All three components would embrace Mode 1 and Mode 2 in each of the
knowledge cultures listed. If we were to include Barnett’s Mode 3 in this
scheme of Integrative Education, likely places could be Education Theory
and Practice, Pedagogy or possibly one of the Education Disciplines
(iii) Balancing cultural contexts within an integrative curriculum
Cultural diversity is an important issue in the provision of education, so
much so, that societies have had to face the fact, that educational
provision needs to be diversified to meet the challenge of multicultural
education which embodies much of cultural diversity. According to
Corson (1998), post modernity has two distinct but conflicting features,
on one hand a trend away from centralisation, mass production and
consumerism which embrace schools, universities and state health
services, and on the other hand, a development of flexible technologies
and an emphasis on accountability, diversity of educational provision and
more autonomy for higher education .
This means, that while cultural diversity has begun to be addressed as an
issue in curriculum planning in many societies, the need to equip students
to survive in the ever competitive market place, has understandably
become the priority, and the special cultural needs of students are in
danger of being ignored. Therefore, any society that recognises the need
to address the issue of cultural diversity as part of a policy of education
for diversity, must seek a consensus between the conflicting demands of
postmodernism outlined above.
24
Achieving this consensus means that education needs to be diversified,
reflecting a culture sensitivity for both teachers and learners, as well as
preparing students for the age of supercomplexity. A key determinant in
attaining the success of any consensus, depends on the way teachers and
lecturers will be trained, and the extent to which teacher educators are
sufficiently prepared for the task. This raises the need for a different form
of teaching and teacher education, reflecting cultural diversity and thence
cultural sensitivity.
An Integrative Education model as depicted in Figure 2, if appropriately
integrated, would go some way to meeting the growing need to balance
the role and status of new knowledge cultures with the existing ones,
which include the values and traditions of a society. However, integration
must be the responsibility of a particular society, in order that a balance is
achieved which is relevant and acceptable to that society. Clearly, a move
towards a more integrative form of higher education within and across
different faculties, will mean that new roles and responsibilities will
emerge for academic staff, which in turn will need new forms of training.
Figure 3 attempts to spell out these requirements in the case of teacher
and teacher educator training. Similar sets of roles responsibilities and
training could also be mapped out for other higher education disciplines
eg medicine, community and social work. Whatever model of Integrated
Education is developed for different faculties at a university, the six
influences discussed above, will have an important impact on how
students from a particular society will be educated in the future. So the
issue of well thought out integrative strategies for an Integrative
Education will be the key to its success. In the remaining section of this
paper we will examine further, the integrative process and what role
research should play in making it an effective instrument for achieving
25
balance in higher education curricular.
FIGURE 3 HERE
ACHIEVING BALANCE THROUGH INTEGRATION: FACING
REALITIES
While much of this paper refers to knowledge cultures in higher
education in emerging economies, the issues of balance and integration of
knowledge are also ones that advanced economies face in their task to
meet the challenges of globalisation and internationalism. Furthermore,
while education and particularly teacher education, have been a focal
exemplar in our discussions on how higher education curricular can be reconceptualised for the 21st century, changes affecting other disciplines
would face similar problems. Therefore, the discussion that follows in the
final section of the paper will have some relevance for curriculum change
in higher education world wide. However, the main argument which
underlies this paper, specifically pin points achieving balance in higher
education between newer knowledge cultures and existing ones, so that
emerging economies will be able to adapt to the ever increasing
influences of globalisation and internationalism. The gist of this argument
will be the main thrust of what follows
In attempting to achieve some form of balance in the preparation of a
higher education curriculum for the age of supercomplexity, policy
makers, planners, academics and those with vested interests in higher
education need to be aware of the realities. Apart from the magnitude and
complexity of the task itself, four sets of realities emerge, these are
identified and discussed below
26
(i) Socio- Political Realities
It would be churlish not to recognise that political realities play a part in
most aspects of higher education, and nowhere more evident would
political decisions be felt, than in countries that have a rich cultural
heritage embracing language, values, customs, religious beliefs although
not necessarily with long established democratic institutions. In a country
like Thailand a common language and religion is shared by over 95% of
the population and therefore, the issue of cultural balance and integration
will be to a great extent coloured by these realities. So any changes to the
curriculum which ignore these realities would certainly be viewed with
suspicion and maybe hostility. Circumstances in Korea and Japan are
somewhat similar to those of Thailand, as both these countries have a
mother tongue spoken by almost 98% of the population and a religious
belief system shared by a majority in their respective populations.
The Malaysian situation is different. Malaysia is a pluralistic society
where different languages are spoken alongside the official Bahasa
Malaysia, and different religions are freely practised by various sections
of the population. Although the majority Malay population are Muslims.
Any decisions about cultural balance therefore , will affect all cultural
groups and clearly most key decisions about curricular change will be
political. Although there are differences, the situation in Singapore is not
dissimilar from that of Malaysia as curricular decisions affecting cultural,
linguistic and religious matters need to be treated with respect and
sensitivity for all four ethnic groups.
In many countries of South East Asia, political realities may also include
27
the politics itself. For instance, perceptions about new knowledge cultures
having the potential for developing insensitivity to certain political
policies as well as religious and cultural values, may be construed as a
threat to the status quo. Therefore ,any attempts to achieve cultural
balance in higher education as far as the curriculum is concerned would
need to address the nature of this reality with some thought.
(ii)Economic
The growth of international banking, marketing, commerce, multinational
organisations and Hi- Tech industries are some of the main consequences
of globalisation. This growth has in turn, lead to the need for more
graduates with expertise in marketing, global economics, management,
ICT, applied sciences and training across traditional knowledge and new
knowledge cultures. Much of the impetus, is the result of market forces
which translated into the economics of a society acts as a powerful
factor, when decisions have to be made about curricular balance, and the
nature of further integration concerning all knowledge cultures. The
impact of the knowledge economy has meant a restructuring of industry
and the jobs market around ICT Neave (2002), underlining the power of
ICT as a new knowledge culture. In countries that practise social
engineering as a means of realising success in the goals for national
development, the effects of globalisation invariably means more pressure
being put on higher education to produce graduates with the expertise
demanded by market forces. In other words, achieving curricular balance
will need to face the very real challenge of commodification ,and this in
turn arises from globalisation and a society’s response to it.
(iii) Epistemological realities
28
The notion of balance in the context of a higher education curriculum
begs two questions the firstly, why is a balance required in the first place?
Secondly, what is being balanced? The answer to the first question is
contextual in two senses. Firstly, the explosion of knowledge has meant
that it is no longer possible for university graduates to know all aspects
of their chosen field of study. In other words, the global context in which
higher education has to operate, needs to offer students a balanced
curriculum, in order that essential knowledge and skills are provided.
Secondly, there is a more limiting context to the why question, and this
refers to a particular society. Achieving balance in this sense, means
ensuring that knowledge and training required for students to enter the
world of work, does not dominate and replace the need and opportunities
for students to explore their own cultural heritage, including cultural and
religious values, language, traditions as well as new knowledge domains
outlined by Weiler and cited earlier in this paper.
It is argued here, that integration is a mechanism that would assist the
task of achieving curricular balance, and it has been suggested in the
previous section ( see Figures 2 and 3) how balance could be attained in
the case of Teacher Education. Of the many realities faced by those
attempting curricular balance, are factors such establishing priorities,
decisions about allotted time and space, and the nature of integration
itself. Figures 2 and 3 refer to listed knowledge areas where integration is
a looser arrangement. Deeper and closer integration between subjects eg
Biophysics, International Studies, Citizenship etc would also be part of
achieving balance, but in these cases within knowledge areas. Both looser
and deeper forms of knowledge integration assist balance, but decisions
about what, how and how far to integrate, present challenging realities in
attaining the goal of an effective and relevant curriculum.
29
(iv) Supra-epistemological realities
Earlier in this paper, a discussion of supra-curricular integration
mentioned that this form of integration would a take a bird’s eye view of
teaching and learning in higher education, and operates ultimately at the
course planning level. Furthermore, it was pointed out that supra- level
curricular integration could combine all three curricular modes, the
balance between each mode depending on context and what influences
pervade at a particular time. The issue of context appears yet again in our
discussion about the realities facing the task of achieving balance, and the
notion of an Integrative Education would be a challenging, but valuable
context in which supra-curricular integration could take place. However,
effective implementation of any model of Integrative Education need
appropriate pedagogies, the key word here being appropriate. In
achieving cultural balance the author has argued elsewhere ,
Thomas(1997, 2002) that both curriculum and pedagogy need to be the
main building blocks of a Culture Sensitive Education, in which different
pedagogies can be used to match different teaching and learning contexts.
In future discussions on knowledge cultures in higher education, it may
be useful to examine further what value some notion of a Culture
Sensitive Education would have in achieving a meaningful and desirable
balance for an Integrative Education curriculum.
(v) Research management and staff development
In this subsection two realities will be discussed that must be faced if an
Integrated form of higher education is to succeed in the future. The first
concerns research needs, priorities and their management, secondly the
need for academic staff to be trained as part of on going staff
30
development policies to improve research potential, and thereby benefit
teaching and learning in the new age of supercomplexity.
Research, and research Management
In East and South East Asia teaching has priority over research. The
reasons being that (a) training is seen as the principal role of universities,
research being of secondary importance (b) as a result, a research culture
has been slow to take root, although this is starting to change ( c) in these
days of accountability, the outcomes of teaching and training are more
measurable. The latter reason shows the influence of globalisation in the
form of increased managerialism and accountability which increasingly
pervades higher education. An associated affect also linked to
globalisation, is where a research presence exists, it tends to be applied
rather than pure. When government funding supports research, it
understandably targets projects that have a bearing on National
Development. However, private funding towards research in many Asian
Pacific Rim countries is now on the increase, Braddock (2002).
This has lead to concerns that higher education ceases to be only source
of legitimate knowledge . Increasingly, Hi Tech industries and
multinational corporations are not only generating new knowledge, but
provide research training, breaking the monopoly of universities, trends
incidentally discernable in developed countries as well. Questions about
research priorities and funding have implications for decisions relating to
curricular design, knowledge cultures, methods of instruction and
effective assessment, especially when these issues are part of a wider
debate about integration and curricular balance.
31
Research both pure and applied are necessary if some form of Integrative
Education is to be realised in the near future. The need for effective
research management is now a reality for most universities, which should
alert academics to address the issue constructively. Alternative sources of
education and training for undergraduates and graduates alike, should
nevertheless not be seen as a threat to the traditional role and status of
universities, as it may be that another form of integration in the offing,
which predicts new partnerships between higher education and the world
of work.? It follows from this that management research is as important
an enterprise as managing research. However, as Neave (2004) has
pointed out, there is a clear need in most emergent economies, for
capacity building for both types of enterprise.
Staff Development
In order that an Integrative Education is both balanced, integrated and
delivered effectively, the role of academic staff development will be a
key concern. Brew (2002) has argued convincingly in an article on
“Research and the Academic Developer…”, there is a need to redefine
the roles of staff and students for the future of higher education. The
future culture of higher education will be one in which students are
educated to make considered choices, to develop skills of inquiry and be
able to predict uncertainties and attempt to resolve them. In the light of
these possibilties, an Integrative Education would need to use Problem
and Issue based approaches to teaching and learning, where suitable. To
translate these ideas into action the need for staff development becomes
key, and some of the points discussed above relating to the management
of research, apply to sound career development in all areas of higher
education.
32
Teaching in higher education is no longer a solely Mode 1 activity, it
encompasses Mode2 and Mode 3 approaches as well. The emphasis on
construction as opposed to knowledge transmission, of uncertainty and
inquiry rather than blind acceptance, a stress on process rather than
outcomes, Parker(2003), are skills that academic staff need to master if a
truly Integrative Education is to be relevant and effective. Staff
development therefore, needs to tackle these changes with vigour, and
with periodic training programmes which emphasise the skills and
competencies mentioned above.
EPILOGUE
However, we should not lose sight of the fact that teaching in higher
education is not only about developing knowledge and skills, but that
human qualities and dispositions are also important in the process, for
these are also part of preparing students for the age of supercomplexity.
33
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