Roosevelt elk (
), one of two subspecies of elk found in British
Columbia (B.C.), were first described as a distinct subspecies in 1897 (Merriam 1897).
Historically, their distribution extended from the San Francisco Bay area of California, along the Coast Range into Oregon, Washington, and southwestern B.C. (Harper et al .
1967). In the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, with the onset of human settlement, Roosevelt elk were greatly reduced in number and, in some areas, extirpated due to hunting pressure and habitat loss. This has resulted in their current natural distribution being discontinuous
(Harper et al.
1967; Nagorsen 1990). In B.C., their present range includes Vancouver
Island, several mainland inlets adjacent to Northern Vancouver Island, and as a result of several transplants, the Sechelt Peninsula (Brunt 1990).
In 1991, the Ministry of Environment, Lands, and Parks (MELP), classified the
Roosevelt elk as a Blue-listed species in B.C. A Blue-listed species as defined by MELP
(1996) is “a species or subspecies considered to be vulnerable and that could become eligible for the red list (endangered or threatened) in the foreseeable future.” Previous population estimates indicate that approximately 3200 Roosevelt elk occupy Vancouver
Island (K. Brunt, pers. comm.), with approximately 200 in the Nimpkish Valley (Simpson
1997). In contrast, Rocky Mountain elk (
), the other subspecies of elk native to B.C., are more abundant and widely distributed throughout mainland B.C. They are currently not considered to be at risk (yellow listed).
Several studies have been conducted on Vancouver Island Roosevelt elk, and numerous aspects of their biology, including home ranges, habitat use, diet, productivity and mortality, have been reported (Nyberg and Janz 1990). This study is useful for comparison with previous studies, and to further knowledge of elk-habitat relationships.
Increased knowledge will enable biologists and resource managers to create realistic management techniques designed to enhance and protect elk and critical elk habitat, while allowing for continued resource use.
1

Information collected from aerial surveys, conducted between January 30, 1997 and
March 28, 1997, was used to assess population inventory methodology within the Upper
Nimpkish Valley via mark/recapture methods. Sightability models were developed and used to more accurately estimate elk populations in forested habitats without marked individuals. This part of the project has been completed (Simpson 1997) and is not included in this report. The objectives, that are addressed in this report, were to determine:
1. Annual and seasonal range movements of elk.
2. Annual and seasonal range sizes.
3. Seasonal habitat use vs. availability.
4. Population parameters (mortality, natality, emigration, immigration).
5. Calving habitats.
I would like to express my sincere thanks to my assistant, J. Leo, for her perseverance and hard work throughout the calving portion of this study. T. Briggs of West Coast
Helicopters provided aerial observations and flights when possible. Canadian Forest
Products (Englewood Logging Division) supported this project and provided supplies. I would also like to thank; K. Brunt (MELP), John Deal (CFP), and Susan Holroyd (FRBC) for editorial suggestions; J. Holden (CPF) and K. Hodgson (MELP) for GIS work; L.
Liggins, S. Wilson, and D. Shackleton for statistical assistance; and the many volunteers that helped with this project.
This project was funded by Forest Renewal British Columbia and was directed by the
Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. Additional thanks is given to the British
Columbia Conservation Foundation.
2

The Nimpkish Valley Study Area (NVSA) is approximately 1,000 km 2 in size, and is located between the towns of Woss and Gold River on northern Vancouver Island, British
Columbia ( Figure 1 ). The majority of the area is under forest tenure, currently held by
Canadian Forest Products (CFP), Englewood Logging Division (Tree Farm License (TFL)
#37). A series of mountain ranges and Woss Lake (western boundary), form the boundaries of the NVSA. The eastern boundary includes the Sutton mountain range.
The northern range includes Mount Markusen and Mount Elliot, and the Sebalhall and
Oktwanch mountain ranges delimit the southernmost part of the NVSA. Elevation varies from approximately 210m at the valley bottom to 1800m at the height of land.
The Upper Nimpkish Valley has been of great interest to logging operations since the early 1900’s when the demand for wood products increased during the first World War.
CFP was founded in 1944 and the Englewood Logging Division first acquired their TFL from the Provincial government in 1960. It was renewed in 1981 for 25 years. Current annual timber harvest is approximately 1.02 million m 3 , and old-growth forests (>120 yrs) persist mainly as side slopes on mountain ridges, narrow belts along major water systems, and some scattered patches throughout valley bottoms. Two Ecological Reserves and five
Provincial Parks are also located within the TFL, and approximately 6600 ha of old growth forest has been set aside for critical deer and elk winter range.
There are three major Biogeoclimatic zones (BGC) represented within the NVSA.
These are the Coastal Western Hemlock, Mountain Hemlock, and Alpine Tundra zones
(Meidinger and Pojar 1991). Forests are dominated by mixtures of western hemlock
(
), Douglas-fir (
), Pacific silver fir (
), western redcedar (
), yellow-cedar (
)
3

at higher elevations, and some pine (
.
). Red alder (
) and black cottonwood (
) are found in immature and young forests,
4

5

streambanks, and vegetated slides. Stands contain a variety of understory vegetation including, blueberries and huckleberries (
.), and salal (
).
Precipitation is well distributed throughout the year and ranges between 990 and
4,387 mm. Winters are warm with mean temperatures ranging between -7 and 5 o
C, and summer mean temperatures range between 4 and 35 o
C. Annual snowfall averages between 25 and 841cm (Meidinger and Pojar 1991).
The Columbian black-tailed deer (
) is the only other wild ungulate (hoofed mammal) species within the NVSA, and on Vancouver Island. Large carnivores in the NVSA include cougars (
), wolves (
), and black bears (
).
A total of 31 Roosevelt elk were captured and radio-collared (within the NVSA) by netgun (Helicopter Wildlife Management, Salt Lake City, Utah) in late August/early
September, 1996 and early January, 1997 ( Appendix 1 ). Tranquilizing drugs were not used in the capture and restraint of the elk. Females and males were marked with 5cm wide beige radio collars (Telonics, Inc., Mesa, Ariz.), and yellow eartags, numbered on both sides, were placed in both ears for identification. Elk were classified as yearlings
(<12months) or adults (>12months), and age was estimated according to antler development, tooth replacement and wear. Blood samples were collected for future comparative analyses and no morphological measurements were taken.
6

Radio collars, operating at frequencies between 150-151 Mhz, were placed on 26 females and 5 males. Locations were obtained via radio telemetry and direct observation.
A Telonics Scanner/Programmer and H-antennae (Telonics, Inc., Mesa,
Ariz.) were used in determining ground and aerial radio locations. Aerial locations were obtained using helicopter and fixed wing aircraft, with the majority of these collected between January and March 1997 ( Appendix 2 ).
Testing of telemetry error was estimated by locating hidden collars placed by an assistant and, when time and accessibility permitted, attempting to obtain visual locations immediately after a triangulation was completed. These tests suggested that, with a minimum of 4 intersecting bearings, an error of 50-100m could be expected. Several factors including topography, map quality, and distance from the collar can influence the degree of error associated with a location (Harris et al . 1990). Therefore, in an attempt to increase the accuracy of long distance (>1km) radio telemetry on the ground, each location was derived from a minimum of 4 intersecting bearings whenever possible.
Locations were field plotted on 1:20,000 forest cover maps with 1km Universal
Transverse Mercator (UTM) grids, produced by CFP, and assigned a quality value based on the size of the polygon, or whether the animal was observed directly ( Table 1 ).
Table 1. Description of quality codes given to telemetry locations for seasonal
home range and habitat use analyses of radio-collared elk.
BEST
Quality Description
1 Visual
1,2 Entire triangle fits within 0.25cm diameter circle (50m on 1:20,000 map)
2 Entire triangle fits within 0.5cm diameter circle (100m on 1:20,000 map)
2,3 2 vertices of triangle fit within 0.5cm diameter circle
3 Entire triangle fits within 1.0cm diameter circle (200m on 1:20,000map)
4 Entire triangle larger than 1.0cm diameter circle
7

Radio locations were also assigned primary and secondary habitat type designations (in some cases) because of known telemetry error. A secondary habitat classification was assigned to a location if the triangulation polygon was within 100m of a different forest cover classification, or if the polygon included two or more different forest cover types.
Associated weather and time was also recorded at time of observation ( Appendix 3 ).
Each collared elk was radio tracked on the ground 1-2 times per week during winter
1996/97, summer 1997, and winter 1997/98. Data collection during winter months was restricted to daylight hours (0830 – 1630) following CFP’s safety protocol. During May and
June, 1997 and 1998, 10 of 21 cows were intensively monitored ( see Methods
–Calving
Habitats ).
During periods of heavy snowfall, precise locations of collared elk could not be obtained due to accessibility and time constraints. However, in most cases telemetry was used to confirm which valley the collared elk were using. Elk that dispersed or migrated from the
NVSA were located on occasion but were omitted from some analyses due to too few radio locations.
Natality rates were estimated from summer cow:calf ratios (productivity) collected in
1997 and 1998, and from the number of calves produced by 10 radio-collared females monitored during May and June, 1997 and 1998. Mortality and emigration rates, for males and females, were calculated based on the total number of collared elk, and active collar months ( Appendix 4a,b ) (Gasaway et al . 1983; Brunt et al . 1989). Only known mortalities were used in the calculations of mortality rates. Immigration rates were not calculated because there were no data collected.
8

Two distribution patterns were determined for collared elk. These were based on approximate dates of snowfall and spring growth: summer (April – October), and winter
(November - March). Annual (April 1997-March 1998) and cumulative (November 1996 -
July 1998) ranges were also calculated. Only those locations given a quality of 3 or better
(Table 1) were used in the calculation of home ranges. The Minimum Convex Polygon
(MCP) method (Mohr 1947) was used to delineate 95% annual, 95% seasonal, and 100% cumulative home range sizes for individual elk, via the CALHOME (California Home Range
Analyses) Program (Kie et al . 1996). Ninety-five percent MCP was used for seasonal and annual ranges in order to reduce the effects of outliers (Burt 1943; Jennrich and Turner
1969) possibly associated with mapping and data entry error, and/or transitional points between seasonal home ranges (Sovka 1993).
The MCP method is sensitive to the number of locations used in analyses, and may include large areas that are never visited or impossible to visit due to geographic constraints (Worton 1987). Even with these limitations, this method was chosen to estimate home range size for several reasons (Van Dyke et al . 1998). These include:
1. easy visual display of ranges in relation to time and management units;
2. commonly used method which allows for easy comparison with previous
studies published before other range analysis methods were developed;
3. statistical stability; and,
4. prior assumption of range shape is not required.
T- tests were used to detect differences in home range sizes between the sexes and seasons for non-migratory elk. Migratory individuals were not assessed due to limited sample size (2 females, 1 male). The alpha level was set at 0.05, and Microsoft Excel version 7.0a (Microsoft Corporation 1985-1996) was used to conduct the analyses.
9

Forest cover information was obtained from 1:20,000 maps and aerial photos produced by CFP. Locations assigned a quality of 3 or better ( Table 1 ) were used in determining habitat use, because these were considered to be more accurate. Habitat types were classified as Mature (tree ages >120yrs.), Immature (tree ages 20-119 yrs.), Young (tree ages 8-19 yrs.), Stocked (tree ages 1-7 yrs.), Swamp, and Other. Only primary habitat types of female elk were used in this analysis because of time constraints, and the low sample size of male elk. In an attempt to reduce biological pseudoreplication (Thomas and Taylor 1990), if there were 2 or more collared female elk within a group, these individuals were given the same UTM location, and only one location was used in analyses.
Habitat selection for female elk was assessed from use-availability analyses for winter
1996/97 (Nov. 1996
– Mar. 1997), summer 1997 (Apr. – Oct. 1997), and winter 1997/98
(Nov. 1997 – Mar. 1998). Second order selection (Johnson 1980), or landscape population selection, was estimated by comparing the proportion of use of habitat types with the availability of habitat types over the defined study area ( see Methods – Study
Area ).
Habitat availability for the study area was obtained from CFP’s geographic information system (GIS) and associated forest cover database. The habitat types were slightly different than those used to categorize radio locations, and were therefore grouped accordingly ( Table 2 ), to meet the criteria of the statistical analyses (Zar 1996). All forest cover types were used in the an alyses, except those considered “not available” to the
10

animal for biological reasons. For example, the “non productive” habitat type was (in most cases) higher elevation, rocky terrain, where very few locations (n = 5) were obtained for radio-collared elk. These five locations were assigned to Mature and Swamp habitat types based upon visual inspection of the site.
A chi-square goodness-of-fit test (

2 ), with 95% Bonferroni simultaneous confidence intervals (Neu et al . 1974; Byers and Steinhorst 1984), was used to determine whether or not habitat types were used in proportion to availability within the study area. The alpha level was set at 0.05.
Table 2. Forest cover classifications (from Canadian Forest Products Ltd. database) and
classifications used in habitat availability analysis.
Database classifications
Mature (>120yrs)
Immature (20-119yrs)
Free Growing (8-19yrs)
Stocked (1-7yrs)
Harvested NSR*
Swamp
Meadow
Mud Flat
Non Commercial Brush
Clearing or Urban
Gravel Bar
Gravel
Inoperable
River
Lake
Non Productive
* not sufficiently restocked

2 Analysis classifications
MATURE (>120yrs)
IMMATURE (20-119yrs)
YOUNG (8-19yrs)
STOCKED (1-7yrs)
SWAMP
OTHER
NOT AVAILABLE
11

A total of 10 adult females were located daily (in most cases) by radio telemetry from mid-May until mid-June, during 1997 and 1998, within the southern region of the study area. It was important that the locations be as accurate as possible to identify probable calving sites, therefore a minimum of four intersecting bearings were obtained for each elk location. When an elk was determined to be in one location for more than 24 hours, a visual observation of the site would be made to confirm habitat type. This was particularly important when a site was on an ecotone, or edge. A visual confirmation of the cow and calf was later attempted at each site by observing from a point of higher elevation. This was to avoid disturbing the cow and also to attempt to confirm calving habitat. Previous studies have shown that calves are relatively immobile for the first few days after parturition, and the cow will remain close during this period (Schwartz and Mitchell 1945;
Johnson 1951; Altmann 1956; Brunt et al . 1989) but may not necessarily be in the same habitat. In the absence of a visual location, a calving site was identified exclusively by radio telemetry when a cow spent more than 48 hours in the same location, during the mid-May to mid-June period. It has been documented that solitary and stationary behaviour exhibited by elk cows usually indicates the presence of calves (Schwartz and
Mitchell 1945; Johnson 1951; Altmann 1956; Brunt et al . 1989).
Once a probable calving site was determined, the area was traversed and investigated for homogeneity after the elk had moved back with the herd in mid to late June. A 20m x
20m vegetation plot was established at each calving site, based on general guidelines outlined by Luttmerding et al . (1990) in the ecosystems field manual. Information such as elevation, slope, aspect, stand age, percent cover of canopy and understory vegetation, and distance to edge, water, and human activity was recorded. Site description forms were modified slightly from Luttmerding et al . (1990) in order to adequately identify characteristics thought to be important to calving habitat selection by cow elk ( Appendix
5a,b ) (Koshowski 1997). Site series were identified by indicator plants (Klinka et al .
1989), and a secondary site series was noted when the primary site series vegetation did not adequately describe a site. Biogeoclimatic units were determined from elevational profiles (Green and Klinka 1994), and 1:20,000 maps produced by the Ministry of
Environment, Lands and Parks, Nanaimo.
12

Productivity of elk in the NVSA, as measured in the summer, was calculated to be 36 calves per 100 cows in 1997, and 42 calves per 100 cows in 1998 ( Table 3 ). Natality rates based on observations of 10 radio-collared cows during May and June of 1997 and
1998 ( see Results – Calving Habitat Investigations ) were 50% in 1997, and 70% in
1998.
Table 3. Elk calf production based on the mean (+SD) number of calves per 100 cows, and
80% confidence intervals (CI), for summer 1997 and 1998, in the Nimpkish Valley,
Vancouver Island.
Calves:100 cows
Year and Season n
1997 Summer 1 8
Mean (+SD)
36 (+8.4)
80% CI
32-40
1998 Summer 2 4
1
June to November ratio's
2
June and July ratio's
42 (+15.8) 29-55
13

Of the 11 radio-collared elk initially captured in August/September, 1996, one adult male
(freq. # 700) has not been relocated since November 1996. A yearling female
(# 810) that moved from the Sebalhall Valley, between September and December 1996, was legally killed during the December 1996 antlerless Limited Entry Hunt (LEH) season, in the Muchalat Lake area (Hunt Zone 1-09 D). Adult female # 590 was also legally killed during this season, within the study area (Hunt Zone 1-11 B).
Female # 670 was found dead during the third week of December, 1996. The cause of death was unknown, however, predation was considered a possibility. A total of five cougar sightings and numerous black bear sightings (>25/year) were noted during the 2 years of study. Wolf scat and tracks were also observed during this period. Of the 20 elk captured in January 1997, one female (#1850) died several days after being collared. It is suspected that an injury sustained during capture was the cause of death. Another female
(# 591) was legally killed during the December 1997 season, within the study area. A summary of status and known mortality of collared elk is presented in Tables 4 and 5.
Mortality rates of collared elk were calculated to be 0% for males, and 10.9% per year for females ( 2.7% suspected predation, 8.2% LEH ) ( Table 6 ).
Table 4. Status of radio-collared elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, as of
July 1998.
Status
Sex class Living Dead Unknown Total
Females
Males
20
4
5
0
1*
1**
26
5
Total 24 5 2 31
* dispersed from the study area (December 1996)
** has not been relocated since November 15, 1996
Table 5. Known causes of mortality of radio-collared elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver
Island, from Nov. 15, 1996 – Jul. 22, 1998.
Causes of Mortality
Sex/Age class Legal Suspected Capture Total
14

Adult Females
Adult Males
Sub-adult Females
Sub-adult Males
Total
Hunting Predation Injury
2
0
1
0
3
1
0
0
0
1
1
0
0
0
1
4
0
1
0
5
Table 6. Mortality rates of radio-collared elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island,
from Nov. 15, 1996 – Jul. 22, 1998.
Mortality rates (% per year)
Total Sex class
Males
Females n*
5
25
Total Collar
Months
97
441
* number of elk used in analyses
Legal
Hunting
0
8.2
Suspected
Predation
0
2.7
0
10.9
Only one adult female (# 530) appeared to emigrate approximately 12 km from the
Sebalhall valley into the Muchalat lake area, between September and December 1996.
Radio telemetry was used to monitor for her return to the Sebalhall valley and she has not been relocated within the study area since that time. Emigration rates were calculated to be 0% for males, and 2.7% per year for females.
Yearling female # 810 moved into the
Muchalat Lake area with female # 530 and was killed during the 1996 LEH hunt. This individual was excluded from the analysis because it is unknown if her movement was normal migration or permanent movement from the study area.
15

A total of 1,627 locations were collected between November 15, 1996, and July 22,
1998. Of these locations, there were 1,485 ground locations and 142 aerial locations
( Appendix 2 ). Three of 31 collared elk were determined to be migratory in their seasonal movements. Two adult females (#’s 790 and 820) migrated approx. 9 km from their winter range in late May, 1997, to their summer range, where they remained until early January,
1998. Adult male # 550 migrated approx. 4+ km from his winter range in late
May, 1997, and returned in mid to late February, 1998. The exact dates of migration were not determined because of infrequent relocation of collared elk.
Winter range sizes of the two migratory female elk (#’s 790 and 820) were 2.0 km 2 and
2.4 km 2 , respectively, in 1996/97, and 1.0 km 2 and 2.0 km 2 in 1997/98. The migratory male’s winter range was 1.0 km 2 in 1996/97, and 4.4 km 2 in 1997/98 ( Appendix 6a ).
Nonmigratory females’ winter ranges in 1996/97 and 1997/98 averaged 7.0 + 4.0 km 2 and
9.2 + 5.6 km 2 ( Table 7 ), respectively, with sizes ranging from 1.0 - 25.0 km 2 ( Appendix
6a ). Winter ranges for males in 1996/97 and 1997/98 averaged 4.3 + 2.5 km 2 and 10.3 +
1.5 km 2 ( Table 7 ), respectively, with sizes ranging from 2.0 - 12.0 km 2 ( Appendix 6a ). Ttests failed to show a significant difference between winter range sizes of males and females in 1996/97 (t=1.57, df=4, p>0.05) and 1997/98 (t =0.70, df=13, p>0.05), and between years for females (t=1.49, df=18, p>0.05). There was a significant difference in the sizes of winter ranges between years for males (t=6.0, df=2, p<0.05).
Mean sizes of summer ranges for non-migratory females and males were 16.3 + 12.0 km 2 and 18.1 + 6.0 km 2 ( Table 8 ), respectively, ranging from 1.3 - 45.0 km 2 for females, and 12.0 – 23.0 km 2 for males ( Appendix 6b ). Elk summer ranges were significantly larger than their respective 1996/97 winter ranges ( Table 7 ), for males (t=3.61, df=2, p<0.05) and females (t=3.52, df=18, p<0.05). No significant difference was detected between males’ and females’ summer range sizes (t=0.43, df=6, p>0.05).
Annual ranges (April 1997 – March 1998) for non-migratory elk averaged 19.2 + 13.0 km 2 for females, and 17.4 + 2.4 km 2 for males ( Table 9 ). Cumulative ranges (November
16

1996 – July 1998) for non-migratory elk averaged 32.0 + 17.4 km 2 for females, and 29.0 +
5.1 km 2 for males ( Table 9 ). Annual and cumulative home ranges for each elk are summarized in Appendix 6c .
Table 7. Mean (+ SD) 95% winter ranges (km 2 ) for non-migratory collared elk in the
Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, from Nov. 1996-Mar. 1997 and
Nov. 1997 - Mar. 1998.
Year and Season
1996/97 Winter
1997/98 Winter
* number of elk
Sex
F
M
F
M n*
19
3
19
3
Mean Size km 2 (+SD)
7.0 (4.0)
4.3 (2.5)
9.2 (5.6)
10.3 (1.5)
Table 8. Mean (+ SD) 95% summer ranges (km 2 ) for non-migratory collared elk in the
Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, from Apr. - Oct. 1997 and May - Jun. 1998.
Year and Season Sex n* Mean Size km 2 (+SD)
1997 Summer F
M
19
3
16.3 (12.0)
18.1 (6.0)
1998 Summer** F 10 8.4 (5.1)
* number of elk
**May – June 1998 calving only
Table 9. Mean (+ SD) 95% annual and 100% cumulative ranges (km 2 ) for collared
elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island.
17

Range estimated
95% Annual
(Apr. 1997- Mar.1998)
100% Cumulative
(Nov. 1996- Jul. 1998) F
M
*number of elk
Sex
F
M
n*
19
3
19
3
Mean Size km 2 (+SD)
19.2 (13.0)
17.4 (2.4)
32.0 (17.4)
29.0 (5.1)
Collared elk were not found to use habitat types in proportion to availability during winter
1996/97, summer 1997, and winter 1997/98 ( Tables 10 -12 ). Mature forest stands
(>120yrs) were used less than expected, in all seasons, based on availability, while Young
(8-19yrs), Stocked (1-7yrs), and Swamp habitats were used more than expected. The
Other habitat classification, which included clearings and urban areas, gravel bars, and inoperable areas, was used in proportion to availability in all seasons. Immature forest stands were used in proportion to availability in winter 1996/97 and summer 1997, but were used less than expected in winter 1997/98.
Proportions of female elk habitat use, with 95% confidence intervals, and availability of habitat types within the NVSA, is illustrated in Figures 2 - 4 .
Table 10. Seasonal habitat-use observed and expected values (n, %) for radio-collared
female elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, during 1996-1998,
based on 874 locations and 21 elk.
Winter 1996-97 1 Summer 1997 2 Winter 1997-98 3
Observed Expected Observed Expected Observed Expected n % n % n % n % n % n %
Mature 32 14 118.7 53 73 16 238.0 53 26 13 106.5 53
Immature 62 28 62.7 28 154 34 125.7 28 37 18 56.3 28
Young
Stocked
Swamp
68 30 24.6 11 115 26 49.4 11 56 28 22.1 11
43 19 11.2 5 61 14 22.5 5 64 32 10.1 5
13 6 2.2 1 28 6 4.5 1 12 6 2.0 1
18

Other 6 3 4.5 2 18 4 9.0 2 6 3 4.0 2
TOTAL 224 100 224 100 449 100 449 100 201 100 201 100
1 (

2 = 282.2, P<0.001) 2 (

2 =406.2, P<0.001) 3 (

2 =459.7, P<0.001)
Table 11. Habitat availability (hectares, %) within the Nimpkish Valley Study Area,
Vancouver Island. (Canadian Forest Products Ltd. 1998)
Habitat Availability
Habitat classifications
Mature
Immature
Young
Stocked
Swamp
Other
TOTAL hectares
45,547
24,560
9,355
4,401
1,074
1,591
86,528
% of study area
53
28
11
5
1
2
100
Table 12. Second-order* habitat selection by elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island,
from Nov. 1996 – Mar. 1998. Trends are indicated by; > (use > availability),
< (use < availability), and = (use = availability).
Habitat types
Year and Season
1996/97
Winter
1997
Summer
1997/98
Winter
Mature
<
<
<
Immature
=
=
<
Young
>
>
>
Stocked
>
>
>
Swamp
>
>
>
*habitat use within the study area vs habitats available within the study area using 95% confidence intervals .
Other
=
=
=
19

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Use
Available
Mature Immature Young Stocked
Habitat type s
Swamp Other
Figure 2. Relative habitat use and availability (%) for female elk in the Nimpkish Valley,
Nov. 1996 – Mar. 1997, with 95% simultaneous confidence intervals.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Use
Available
Mature Immature Young Stocked
Habitat type s
Swamp Other
Figure 3. Relative habitat use and availability (%) for female elk in the Nimpkish Valley,
20

Vancouver Island, Apr. - Oct. 1997, with 95% simultaneous confidence intervals.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Use
Available
Mature Immature Young Stocked
Habitat type s
Swamp Other
Figure 4. Relative habitat use and availability (%) for female elk in the Nimpkish Valley,
Vancouver Island, Nov. 1997 – Mar. 1998, with 95% simultaneous confidence
intervals.
A total of 12 calving sites were identified during May and June 1997 (n=5) and 1998
(n=7) ( Appendix 7 ). Calving sites in 1997 were determined exclusively by radio telemetry because attempts to visually confirm a cow with calf were unsuccessful. In 1998, visual observations of three radio-collared female elk and their calves were obtained very close to actual calving sites. Therefore, it is probable that sites were accurately identified by radio telemetry. Female # 610 was observed, in late May and early June, on days 8, 12, and 13, of the 13 days that she was present in the calving area. She was observed feeding, with her calf following close behind, in an open swampy area approx. 200 m from the identified calving site. At one point, when the cow bedded down, the calf moved away but did not appear to travel >100 m from the cow. Female # 540 was seen in the late evening (2100 hrs) on June 10 th with her calf, several days after leaving the calving site.
21

She was moving out of a small strip of mature forest, approx. 700 m away from her calving site. Female # 1860 was seen leaving her calving site on June 5 th . She was crossing a logging road with her calf approx. 400 m north of the calving site. In each case, no other elk were present with the collared females and calves, and calves appeared healthy and active.
Of the three collared cows that calved in both years, only one returned in 1998 to within
1 km of the calving site used in 1997. Females were present at calving sites from 3 - 8 days (Avg. 5 + 2 days) ( Figure 5 ), with several staying in the general calving area for as long as 13 days before rejoining the herd. Mean elevation of sites was 529 + 248 m, with most sites occurring in areas of flat terrain ( Appendix 8 ). Five calving sites were found within the Very Dry Maritime Coastal Western Hemlock subzone (CWHxm2), and four were located in the Submontane Very Wet Maritime Coastal Western Hemlock variant
(CWHvm1). Another two sites were found in the Montane Very Wet Maritime Coastal
Western Hemlock variant (CWHvm2), and one site was located in the Windward Moist
Maritime Mountain Hemlock variant (MHmm1). Associated soil moisture (SMR) and nutrient regimes (SNR), and site series for each calving site are summarized in
Appendix 9 .
Six of the identified calving sites occurred in Young stands (8-19 yrs), four were in
Mature forest (>120 yrs), one was in Immature forest (27 yrs), and one was found to be on the boundary between a Swamp and Immature forest ( Figure 6 ). Sites occurring in young forests averaged 6 + 7 % for trees (>10 m), 20 + 22 % for tall shrubs (2-10 m),
49 + 23 % for small shrubs (<2 m), 23 + 16 % for herbs, and 2 + 1 % for mosses.
Stratified percent cover for sites in mature forests averaged 54 + 11 % for trees, 7 + 5 % for tall shrubs, 24 + 7 % for small shrubs, 13 + 3 % for herbs, and 3 + 2 % for mosses
( Table 13 ). Percent cover of tree and understory vegetation for each site is summarized in
Appendix 10 .
Average understory vegetation height was estimated to be 112 + 16 cm in Young habitats, and 70 + 37 cm in Mature habitats. The Immature forest site vegetation ranged between 120 – 150 cm in height, and the Swamp/Immature site vegetation ranged between 50 - 100 cm ( Appendix 11 ). Approximate distance to edge varied from 25 – 300 m with the average being 94 + 85 m, and distance to water ranged from 10-300 m with the average being 68 + 74 m. The distance to human activity and/or development, such as
22

deactivated logging roads, powerlines, and main roads for example, varied from 40-300 m with the average being 110 + 64 m ( Table 14 ).
It was observed that most sites had some coarse woody debris and at 2 sites there was considerable (>50%) coarse woody debris.
Several sites also contained large boulders.
7
6
5
9
8
4
3
2
1
0
1997
1998
1870 1860 830 1880 1890 1840 610
Elk Frequency
540 1010
Figure 5. Number of days female elk were present at calving sites (n=12) in the Nimpkish
Valley, Vancouver Island, during May/June 1997 and 1998.
23

7
6
5
4
3
2
1
1998 (n=7)
1997 (n=5)
0
Young
(8-19yrs)
Mature
(>100yrs)
Immature
(20-119yrs)
Swamp Stocked
(1-7yrs)
Habitat types
Figure 6. Habitat classification and stand age at calving sites (n=12) in the Nimpkish
Valley, Vancouver Island.
Table 13. Mean (+SD) stratified cover (%) for calving sites in Young (n=6) and Mature (n=4)
habitat types in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island.
Young
Mature
Stand classification n Trees
6 6 (+7)
4 50 (+11)
Mean (+SD) stratified % cover
Tall Shrubs Small Shrubs Herbs Mosses
20 (+22)
7 (+5)
49 (+23)
24 (+7)
23 (+16) 1.5 (+1)
13 (+3) 3 (+2)
24

Table 14. Mean (+SD) distances to water, edge, and human activity, at calving sites in the
Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, during May and June 1997 and 1998.
Mean (+SD)
Year Distance to water (m) Distance to edge (m) Distance to human activity (m)
1997
1998
113 (+89)
36 (+44)
127 (+118)
71 (+48)
71 (+24)
139 (+70)
Both 68 (+74) 94 (+85) 110 (+64)
25

Calf production, based on summer cow:calf ratios, was comparable with results from other studies on Vancouver Island in 1998, but not in 1997. Brunt et al . (1989) reported a mean of 49 calves per 100 cows, with 80 % confidence intervals ranging between 40 and
58. Janz et al . (1980) also reported a mean of 49 calves per 100 cows, with 80% confidence intervals ranging between 43 and 55. The results from this study may indicate that 1997 was a poor year for calf production, however, several reasons may explain the difference. The number of counts used for analyses in both 1997 (n=8) and 1998 (n=4) were low, and calves are harder to see during ground census. Yearling females were also included in the cow:calf ratios because they are generally indistinguishable from adults during long distance observations and aerial surveys. This may show a decrease in the mean number of calves produced by inflating the number of adult females. It is also possible that calf predation was higher in 1997.
Natality rates, based on the number of calves produced per collared cow in 1997 and
1998, were higher than respective summer cow:calf ratios. This is because yearling females were excluded from this method of analysis, however, overall trends show an increase in calf production from 1997 to 1998.
Wolves are thought to be the most significant predator of elk on Vancouver Island. In the Sayw ard forest, on Vancouver Island, Becker (1982) noted that 57.7 % of the wolves’ summer diet, calculated by relative weight, was made up of elk with 11 % of the total diet being calves. In the NVSA, hunter kill data and visual observations during this study suggest that bear densities were very high, whereas cougar densities were moderately high and wolf densities were low (K. Brunt, pers. comm.). Little is known about cougar predation on elk on Vancouver Island, however, a large cougar was observed from a helicopter, on Nov. 15, 1996 within the NVSA, chasing a group of elk. It is unknown if a kill resulted. Only one collared elk carcass was found during this study, where predation was suspected as the cause of mortality. There were several bear and cougar tracks around
26

the carcass of the adult female, and it is possible that a cougar initially killed the elk and that the carcass was scavenged by a black bear. Bears are known to scavenge upon dead elk (Brunt et al.
1989). Black bear scat analyzed from the Adam River watershed in
Sayward (Hatter 1983), did not show any use of elk. Other studies conducted in North
America suggest significant predation rates on elk calves by black bears (Schlegel 1976;
Smith and Anderson 1996).
An adult male that had been missing since November 1996, may have been poached.
Poaching accounted for 18 % of adult male mortality in a previous elk study conducted in the Salmon River/Campbell Lake area on Vancouver Island (Brunt et al.
1989). Other possible reasons for the disappearance of this elk are emigration and/or radio collar malfunction.
Over-winter mortality is considered to be the most important source of mortality for
Roosevelt elk (K. Brunt, pers. comm.). Other studies indicate a higher over-winter mortality for males that enter the winter in poor (post-rut) condition (Newman 1958; Flook
1970), and it is therefore important that high quality winter range be available to promote survival. During this study, winters were relatively mild (especially winter 1997/98). Snow accumulation generally did not exceed 35 cm at lower elevations (210 -350 m) within the elks’ winter ranges, and did not persist for long periods because of heavy rain. This may help to explain the low mortality rates observed in the collared elk population.
The mortality rate for adult males, in the NVSA, was unusually low (0%). In addition to mild winters, several other reasons may explain this result:
1. Small sample size (n = 5) bias.
2. LEH hunters were asked not to shoot collared elk if possible.
3. Most of the mortalities from hunting and predation (3 females) occurred in December
1996, when only one male was marked ( Appendix 1 ). This male has since been determined to be missing.
4. Presence of study personnel within the NVSA may have proved to be a deterrent from poaching.
5. There may be less predation on adult male elk due to their massive body size.
Although there was no male elk mortality observed within the collared elk population, three large bulls were found dead during this study. Two of the bulls presumably drowned each other while fighting during the breeding season in September 1997. The other bull
27

was thought to have been struck by a large vehicle, after necropsy revealed severe hemorrhaging in the chest area and a broken jaw.
Further monitoring is required to determine if adult female # 530 is migratory, or whether she emigrated from the study area. It is possible that this elk was not relocated within the study area because of infrequent relocation. Numerous studies report that elk show strong fidelity to seasonal or annual home ranges (Craighead et al . 1972; Irwin and Peek 1983;
Edge et al . 1986; Boyce 1991), however, long distance movements to new areas from traditional ranges have been documented (Craighead et al . 1972).
The emigration rate for females in the NVSA was calculated to be 2.7 % per year, and emigration was not observed in the collared male population, indicating a strong fidelity to seasonal ranges. This is not consistent with the results found by Edge et al . (1986), in western Montana, where 1 of 59 (1.7 %) radio collared female elk dispersed, and 8 of 20
(40 %) males dispersed, primarily as yearlings and 2-year-olds. It is probable that the small number of males sampled in this study biased the results.
Only a few of the collared elk in the NVSA were determined to be migratory in their seasonal movements. Migration in vertebrates, as defined by Sinclair (1983), is the regular seasonal movements between distinct areas, within an individuals life-span. The potential costs and benefits of migratory behavior, which may vary among individuals within a species or population, are outlined in Woods (1991).
Benefits include: Costs include:
1. Increased accessibility to better quality 1. Increased energy needs for long
and quantity of forage; distance movements;
2. Reduced competition for resources; 2. Reduced time for other
activities; and
3. Predator avoidance and escape from 3. Increased risk of travel and
harassment; predation mortalities.
4. Increased opportunities for mating; and
28

5. Avoidance of extreme weather conditions.
Elk exhibit a range of movements, which may include partial migration, migration, and non-migration (Adams 1982). Patterns of migration can vary among individuals, however, most migratory elk spend their winters at lower elevation sites and summers at higher elevations (Woods 1991). It is believed that the proximal factor initiating fall migration is snowfall, whereas snowmelt and greenup stimulate spring migration (Boyce 1991). This was observed for migratory elk in this study. The collared migratory females and one male that occupied the Schoen Lake Valley winter range with two other non-migratory females.
Each elk moved to their respective summer ranges at different times, and likely via different routes. They returned in late December 1997/98 to their winter range when snowfall accumulated at lower elevations.
An animal’s home range, as defined by Burt (1943), is “ that area traversed by the individual in its normal activities of food gathering, mating, and caring for young.” A number of factors may influence the size and location of home ranges. These include resource availability (food, cover, water), insect abundance, difficulty of movement, ambient temperature, activities relating to mating and parturition (Craighead et al . 1973), social relationships and population densities (Irwin and Peek 1983).
Irwin and Peek (1983) also believe forage density and phenology are important factors affecting home range size and location.
Winter ranges were not significantly different in size between non-migratory females and males. Differences in females’ winter ranges in 1996/97 and 1997/98 were also not significant. However, males’ 1996/97 winter ranges were significantly smaller than their
1997/98 winter ranges. The number of locations obtained for analyses ( Appendix 2 ), and the mild winter conditons of 1997/98 may explain these results.
Average winter range sizes for males and females, in the NVSA, ranged between 4.3-
10.3 km 2 , in 1996/97 and 1997/98, and fell within the range of those reported in other studies. Brunt et al . (1989) found winter range sizes of migratory elk in the Campbell Lake
29

area to vary from 2.2- 43.8 km 2 , and non-migratory elk winter ranges on northern
Vancouver Island varied from 2.5 – 17.3 km 2 (Campbell 1995). Another study
(Graf 1955) reported that home ranges of non-migratory Roosevelt elk in the Oregon
Coast Range were between 2.6-5.2 km 2 . In Strathcona Provincial Park, on Vancouver
Island, Sovka (1993) found elk winter ranges to be between 18.6-61.2 km 2 . The results found in this study suggest the NVSA may contain higher quality elk habitat compared to certain other areas on Vancouver Island, because the size of a home range typically increases with decreasing forage density (McNab 1963; McCorquodale et al . 1989).
Shifts and expansion of winter ranges between years was observed in several nonmigratory elk in the NVSA. Smith and Robbins (1994) reported evidence of such shifts occurring, but they are not common. It is possible that the observations of this study resulted from fewer locations being collected during winter months, however, radio telemetry was used to confirm elk presence in a general area (eg. Valley) when snowfall restricted access in the NVSA.
Summer ranges in 1997 were, on average, 2-3 times larger than 1996/97 winter ranges.
This is similar to findings by Janz (1983), who reported that summer ranges were 2-3.5 times larger than winter ranges. It is believed that this difference is related to the severity of winters, when elk reduce activity in order to conserve energy (Brunt et al . 1989). This may explain the results observed in this study, because winter 1996/97 was of greater severity than winter 1997/98. One female in this study was found to have a summer range
45 times larger than her winter range in 1996/97. It is probable that her winter range was underestimated and/or her summer range was overestimated.
Swamps, riparian areas, mature forests on lower slopes and valley bottoms, clearcuts, and young regenerating forests, are several of the general habitats used by elk in the
NVSA. These are similar to those reported in previous studies (Schwartz and Mitchell
1945; Irwin and Peek 1983; Witimer and deCalesta 1983; Brunt et al . 1989; Campbell
1995), and are important because they provide preferred forage for elk. These include salmonberry (
), bunchberry (
), devil’s club
30

(
), deer fern (
), and several different species of grass (
.
) and sedge (
.) (Brunt 1990).
In the NVSA, young conifer stands, stocked clearcuts, and swamps were used more than expected by female elk in all seasons. These results differ from those reported in
Brunt et al . (1989), where old-growth forests, 21-60-year-old conifer stands, bogs, rock outcrops, and deciduous conifer complexes were selected for in mild and moderate winters. A difference in the classification system used for habitat types, and overall availability within the Sayward forest may explain the difference in results. Little oldgrowth forest remains, and there are significantly more 21-60 year-old stands when compared to the NVSA (Brunt et al . 1989). Another reason that may explain the trends observed in this study was described by Thomson and Taylor (1990), who stated that second order selection analysis (Johnson 1980) only allows one to make inferences with regards to habitat selection at the population level, because individual home ranges are not identified. Availability within a study area is a subjective measure and may not accurately reflect the actual habitats available to an animal (McClean et al . 1998). In addition, in use-availability analyses, it is assumed that all animals have similar behaviors and have equal access to different habitat types. It is possible that this is not the case. It is believed that availability of the Mature habitat type was over-represented in the NVSA and selection within seasonal home ranges should be analyzed for comparison.
Collared female elk (n=12) calved in Young forested habitats most frequently (6 sites) followed by Mature forests (4 sites), Immature stands (1 site), and a Swamp/Immature edge (1 site). This is consistent with calving sites reported in Brunt et al . (1989), where 1-
20 year-old conifer stands were most frequently used followed by old-growth conifer and
20-60 year-old conifer. Young conifer and Mature habitats may provide valuable security cover (vegetative and/or topographical) and easy access to forage for calves in the NVSA, thus minimizing travel and energy expenditure, and reducing vulnerability to predation and harassment.
Habitat investigations indicated that calving sites were generally found in lower elevations, near river bottoms (riparian areas) or creeks, and in areas of gentle terrain,
31

similar to calving areas reported by Harper (1971). Sites contained a variety of plant species ( Appendix 12 ) that may be important as forage, and/or hiding cover for the newborn calf. Several sites also had considerable coarse woody debris, in the form of decaying or newly downed logs, and large boulders. Waldrip and Shaw (1979) reported similar findings, where calf bedsites were associated with woody debris, boulders, and overhead tree cover. These could be important as hiding cover but may restrict movement if debris is excessive. Two sites were located on higher ridge crests and another was located on a side hill, where detecting and avoiding predators may be easier because of greater visibility.
In addition, existing literature suggests the distance from forest edge and water may be an important factor in determining calving site selection by cow elk (Johnson 1951; Skovlin
1982). In this study, calving sites were determined to be within 25-300m (avg. 94m) of an edge, and within 10-300m (avg. 68m) of water. Skovlin (1982) found calving sites to be within 400m of water. Human activity was generally no further than 300m from any calving site in the NVSA, suggesting that elk may tolerate or adapt to human disturbance
(development) provided there is adequate security cover. It is still unclear whether human disturbance has a detrimental effect on calf survival and, in some cases, elk may make use of development. For example, several calving sites were located close to powerlines, and/or deactivated logging roads, which could be used as travel corridors permitting easy and relatively disturbance-free movement.
Although, some calving site characteristics described in the literature appear to be similar to those reported in this study, a wide variation exists in calving site selection by cow Roosevelt elk. It is obvious that further research is needed in order to quantify and understand possible relationships between these environmental factors.
32

 Johnson’s third order selection, or within home range use and availability analyses, needs to be completed for this project. Comparisons with results of habitat selection within the study area would be valuable.
 Home range analyses using different methods (ie. Adaptive Kernel, Harmonic
Mean) would be valuable for comparison with the method used in this project. Areas of core use could be identified and used in management planning.
 To determine possible range shifts and the effects of changing landscape by logging practices, inventory projects should be conducted for >2years (or for the battery life of the radio collars) in order to gain as much information as possible while time permits.
 Further research needs to be conducted on elk habitat use during moderate and
 severe winters in order to confirm use in those areas currently reserved as critical elk winter range and potentially identify new areas of importance.
Mature habitats along riparian areas may be valuable as calving areas. Current
Forest Practices Code regulations allow for approximately 30-50m of timber to be reserved along major river systems and fish bearing creeks. In these areas, where there is high forage value to elk, the reserve area should be increased to a minimum of 100m to ensure adequate security and thermal cover for cows and calves.
33

 Continued monitoring of elk and predator populations is important for understanding predator-prey relationships and determining appropriate harvest numbers.
 Local involvement in this project was invaluable and a greater effort should be made to inform and involve residents with respect to management planning and conservation strategies.
 Fewer animals, or >1 researcher, would allow for more locations to be collected per individual in order to adequately meet the criteria of all statistical analyses.

 Statistical analyses should be decided upon before habitat inventory projects begin for the above reason.
Paired plots for identified calving sites would allow for statistical comparison of microhabitat site characteristics.
 Helicopter flights would have been useful in identifying calving areas of radio collared elk, when access was restricted. It is recommended that a minimum of 2 flights/week be conducted during the calving period. However, it is important that the cows are not harassed during this time, as this may affect calf survival.
34

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39

Appendix 2. Total number and type of locations collected for radio-collared elk in
the Nimpkish Valley, between Nov. 15, 1996 and Jul. 22, 1998.
Winter 96/97 Spring/Summer 97 Winter 97/98 Spring/Summer 98
Elk ID Ground Aerial Ground Aerial Ground Aerial Ground Aerial Total
Females
540 14 5 20 0 12 1 13 0 65
570
590
610
630
16
9
9
13
6
4
5
6
43
30
37
40
0
0
2
0
15
6
13
17
1
0
1
1
1
0
14
1
0
0
0
0
82
49
81
78
740
760
780
790
810
820
830
840
890
10
8
12
9
8
9
9
9
7
4
6
6
7
4
6
5
6
4
13
34
42
8
34
9
34
40
18
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
17
20
8
12
7
19
15
12
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
2
2
1
20
1
16
1
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
40
67
83
33
79
33
84
72
42
40

1010
1830
1840
1860
1870
1880
1890
Males
550
730
1810
1900
TOTAL
10
8
8
13
15
10
10
9
7
10
11
253
4
6
3
5
2
6
5
7
4
4
1
121
31
39
35
32
33
34
37
11
14
13
14
695
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
4
14
17
19
16
20
12
17
8
12
12
13
345
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
2
0
0
1
17
21
2
12
22
18
19
20
1
1
1
1
192
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
79
73
82
87
93
78
90
38
38
40
41
1627
41

Appendix 4a. Mortality rates of radio-collared male elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver
Island, from Nov. 15, 1996 – Jul. 22, 1998.
Length of Time Collared Status
Elk ID (months) (as of July 1998)
550
700
730
1810
1900
5 elk
18.5
23
18.5
18.5
18.5
97 collar months
Alive
Unknown
Alive
Alive
Alive
Mortality = O%
Appendix 4b. Mortality rates of radio-collared female elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver
Island, from Nov. 15, 1996 – Jul. 22, 1998.
Length of Time Collared Status
ELK ID
530
(months)
23
(as of July 1998)
Unknown
42

540
570
590
591
610
630
670
740
760
780
790
810
811
820
830
840
890
1010
1830
1840
1850*
1860
1870
1880
1890
23
23
3.5
11
18.5
23
3.5
18.5
18.5
23
18.5
3
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
18.5
0
23
23
18.5
18.5
Alive
Alive
Hunter Kill
Hunter Kill
Alive
Alive
Predator kill
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
Hunter Kill
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
Capture injury/kill
Alive
Alive
Alive
Alive
25 elk 441 collar months = 17.6 months (mean time collared)
Predation 1/25 = 4% /17.6 = 0.23%/month = 2.7% / year
Legal Hunting 3/25 = 12%/17.6 = 0.68%/month = 8.2% /year
* this individual was not included in the calculations because of accidental death from capture.
Appendix 5a. Calving habitat site description forms (example)
Nimpkish Elk Inventory Project - Calving Habitat Investigation Form
Date (dd/mm/yy) : Site # :
Elk ID (Frequency) : Photo ref. # :
Surveyors :
UTM Location : E _ _ _ _ _ _ N _ _ _ _ _ _ _ Lat/Lon (deg/min/mmm) :
Plot size: ___ x ___
Location description :
Elevation (m): Slope : Aspect :
Visual confirmation of calf : Y N
Date of visual:
# Days female present at this location :
43

Habitat Characteristics - CWHxm2, CWHvm1, CWHvm2, MHmm1(p), AT
Soil Moisture Regime Soil Nutrient Regime Site Series
0 very dry A very poor 01 HwFd - Kinbergia
1 mod dry B poor 02 FdPl - Cladina
2 mod dry C medium 03 FdHw - Salal
3 slightly dry D rich 04 Fd - Sword Fern
4 fresh E very rich 05 Cw - Foamflower
5 moist 06 HwCw - Deer Fern
6 very moist 07 Cw - Foamflower
7 wet *08 Ss - Salmonberry
*Floodplain high bench *09 Act - Red-osier dogwood
*Floodplain med bench *10 Act - Willow
*Floodplain low bench 11 Pl - Sphagnum
12 CwSs - Skunk cabbage
Stratified % Cover : Tree Tall Shrub Small shrub Herb Moss
Stand Age:
Stem Density:
Understory veg ht (cm) : uniform clumped dispersed
% cover :
Terrain description :
Stand history : Distance to human activity (m) : Distance to water ( m ):
1) recent clearcut Description of activity : Description:
2) planted 1) main road/spur :
3) natural regeneration 2) deactivated spur :
4) spacing / pruning 3) campsite/recreational : Distance to edge( m ):
5) prescribed fire 4) falling, hauling, yarding Type of edge:
6) Herbicide 5) road construction / blasting
6) other :
Comments :
44

Appendix 6a. Estimates of 95% winter ranges (km 2 ) for radio-collared elk in the Nimpkish
Valley, Vancouver Island, from Nov. 1996 – Mar. 1997 and Nov. 1997- Mar. 1998.
Sex and Elk ID Number
Females 540
570
590
610
630
740
760
Winter 1996/97 km 2 # locations
10.2
2.3
4.2
8.3
4.1
10.3
9.0
19
22
13
14
19
14
14
Winter 1997/98 km 2 # locations
8.0
2.0
9.0
16.0
9.3
8.0
3.0
13
16
6
14
18
12
17
45

780
810
830
840
890
1010
1830
1840
1860
1870
1880
1890
790*
820*
Males 550*
730
1810
1900
* Migratory elk
8.3
16.0
11.4
5.0
12.3
2.0
2.4
1.0
7.0
8.3
2.0
6.0
2.0
6.0
1.0
7.0
4.0
2.0
15
16
15
13
17
21
13
16
11
14
12
18
12
14
15
11
12
14
14.0
12.4
10.0
7.0
13.0
1.0
2.0
25.0
11.3
10.0
1.2
7.0
6.3
3.0
4.4
12.0
9.0
10.0
Appendix 6b. Estimates of 95% summer ranges (km 2 ) for non-migratory collared elk in the
Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, from Apr. - Oct. 1997 and May- Jun. 1998.
18
7
7
20
16
21
12
10
12
12
14
21
13
20
16
12
15
18
Sex and Elk ID Number
Summer 1997 km 2 # locations
Females 540
570
590
610
630
14.0
4.4
5.4
32.0
5.0
20
43
30
39
40
May/June 1998 km 2 # locations
19.0
0
0
2.4
0
13
0
0
14
0
46

740
760
780
810
830
840
890
1010
1830
1840
1860
1870
1880
1890
Males 1900
1810
730
7.0
19.0
33.0
24.0
27.3
10.1
23.2
9.0
19.0
45.0
3.3
18.0
1.3
10.0
19.4
12.0
23.0
33
34
37
31
39
37
32
13
34
42
34
34
40
18
14
13
14
6.0
0
4.3
13.2
6.0
9.0
11.4
0
0
0
9.0
3.4
0
0
0
0
0
Appendix 6c. Estimates of 95% annual and 100% cumulative ranges (km 2 ) for non-
migratory collared elk in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island, during
Nov. 1996 – Jul. 1998.
18
19
20
21
0
12
22
0
0
0
20
16
0
0
0
0
0
Sex and Elk ID Number
Females 540
570
95% Annual Ranges km 2
24.2
7.0
# locations
33
59
100%Cumulative ranges km 2
52.3
10.2
# locations
73
83
47

1010
1830
1840
1860
1870
1880
1890
Males 1900
1810
730
590
610
630
740
760
780
810
830
840
890
6.3
31.4
15.0
10.0
16.2
55.0
9.3
21.0
2.0
12.4
11.4
18.0
38.0
24.4
27.4
14.0
21.2
17.0
15.3
20.0
51
63
47
54
56
30
36
53
58
25
47
57
57
48
54
46
55
28
25
26
21.0
44.0
35.0
17.2
27.2
67.4
17.0
28.0
4.0
27.0
15.4
26.0
50.0
57.1
45.0
19.4
43.0
33.0
23.1
30.0
Appendix 7. Location description and UTM coordinates of identified calving sites
(n=12) in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island.
Year and site number
1997 1
2
Elk ID
Number
1870
830
Location
Description
Upper Stuart - valley bottom
Barber lake/ powerline
UTM Coordinates
Easting Northing
693450 5549150
685350 5548650
67
84
79
87
72
42
49
86
79
40
82
73
86
88
97
78
90
41
40
38
48

3 1880
4 1890
5 1860
1998 6 1860
7 830
8 1840
9
10
610
540
11 1010
12 1870
Mt. Alston
Kla-anch valley
Mt. Maquilla
East side of Upper Klak lake
Barber Lake/powerline
Upper Fiona rd
Upper Stuart
Albert rd
Kla-anch rd
Kaypea rd
696800
693100
686350
683150
686050
693100
695650
676050
694750
686350
5541700
5535200
5549750
5556500
5547660
5546075
5549100
5545050
5536650
5548040
Appendix 8. Elevation, percent slope, and aspect at calving sites (n=12) in the Nimpkish
Valley, Vancouver Island.
Aspect Elk ID Number Elevation (m) Slope (%)
1870 a b
570
250
<5% flat
<5% flat
1860 a
b
830 a b
1880 a
1890 a
1010 b
1840 b
610 b
540 b
460
350
250
290
840
530
415
1020
800
570
<5% flat
<5% flat
<5% flat
<5% flat
23%
25-26%
<5% flat
23-25%
<5% flat
<5% flat n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
S –West
N – East n/a
S-West, West n/a n/a
Mean elevation (+SD) = 529 (+248) a = 1997 calving site b = 1998 calving site
Appendix 9. Biogeoclimatic units (BGC), soil moisture (SMR) and nutrient (SNR) regimes,
and site series at each calving site in the Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island.
Elk ID
Number
BGC
Unit*
Soil moisture regime
1870 a CWHvm1 very moist
Soil nutrient regime
Site series rich, very rich BaCw-salmonberry b CWHxm2 moist (very) rich, very rich
1860 a CWHxm2 slightly dry-fresh very poor
Cw-foamflower
HwBa-blueberry
Secondary Site series
HwCw-salal
49

b CWHxm2 very moist (wet) rich, very rich Act-willow
830 a CWHxm2 moist (very) very poor (poor) HwCw-deer fern b CWHxm2 moist very poor HwCw-deer fern
1880 a CWHvm2 dry-fresh
1890 a CWHvm1 very moist very poor med- very rich
HwBa-blueberry
BaCw-salmonberry
1010 b CWHvm1 fresh - moist very poor HwBa-deer fern
1840 b MHmm1 moist (very) very poor (poor) HmYc –deer cabbage
610 b CWHvm2 moist rich, very rich BaSs-Devils club
540 b CWHvm1 moist rich, very rich BaCw-salmonberry
CwSs-skunk cabbage
HwFd-Kindbergia
HwBa-blueberry
BaSs-Devils club
* CWHxm2 = Very Dry Maritime Coastal Western Hemlock subzone, CWHvm1= Submontane Very Wet Maritime Coastal
Western Hemlock variant, CWHvm2 = Montane Very Wet Maritime Coastal Western Hemlock variant, MHmm1 = Windward
Moist Maritime Mountain Hemlock variant
Appendix 10. Percent cover of tree and understory vegetation at calving sites in the
Nimpkish Valley, Vancouver Island.
Stratified % Cover
Year and Elk ID
Number
1997
1870
830
1880
1890
1860
1998
1840
610
540
1010
830
1870
1860
Stand classification
Young
Young
Young
Young
Immature
Mature
Mature
Mature
Mature
Young
Young
Swamp
50
70
50
45
19
10
2
Trees
(>10m)
Tall Shrubs
(2-10m)
Small Shrubs
(<2m)
Herbs Mosses
0
0
60
33
30
20
8
45
2
1
1
4
20
8
10
10
60
70
60
30
15
8
1
1
2
5
5
7
13
2
5
7
22
15
28
30
40
75
85
9
12
15
15
35
7
5
1
3
1
6
1
2
3
Appendix 11. Mean understory vegetation height (cm) at calving sites in the Nimpkish
Valley, Vancouver Island.
Elk ID Number
1870 a
Habitat type
Young
Understory Vegetation Height (cm)
Range Mean ht Overall mean (+SD)
100
50

b
830 a b
1880
1890 a a
1840 b
610 b
540 b
1010 b
1860 a
1860 b a = 1997 calving site
Young
Young
Young
Young
Young
70-160
80-120
Mature
Mature
Mature
Mature
50-60
20-70
45-60
100-150
Immature 120-150
Swamp/Immature 50-100 b = 1998 calving site
100
100
115
100
130
55
45
53
125
135
75
112 +16
70 + 37
Appendix 12. List of common and scientific names of plants found at calving sites.
Common Name Scientific Name
Trees
amabilis fir (pacific silver)
Douglas-fir
mountain hemlock
red alder
western hemlock
western redcedar
western white pine
yellow-cedar
Abies amabilis
Pseudotsuga menziesii
Tsuga mertensiana
Alnus rubra
Tsuga heterophylla
Thuja plicata
Pinus monticola
Chamaecyparis nootkatensis
Shrubs
Alaskan blueberry
black twinberry
creeping raspberry
devil's club
dull Oregon-grape
false azalia
hardhack
Labrador tea
oval-leaved blueberry
Shrubs cont’d
Pacific ninebark
red elderberry
Vaccinium alaskaense
Lonicera involucrata
Rubus pedatus
Oplopanax horridus
Mahonia nervosa
Menziesia ferruginea
Spiraea douglasii
Ledum groenlandicum
Vaccinium ovalifolium
Physocarpus capitatus
Sambucus racemosa
51

red huckleberry
salal
salmonberry
Sitka mountain-ash
sweet gale
thimbleberry
trailing black current
trailing blackberry
willow spp.
Herbs
bracken fern
broad leaved marigold
bunchberry
clasping twisted stalk
common horsetail
coltsfoot
deer cabbage
deer fern
false bugbain
false lily-of-the-valley
fern-leaved goldthread
fireweed
foamflower
goat's beard
hairy cat's ear
Indian helebore
lady fern
marsh violet
oak fern
one-sided wintergreen
pacific bleeding heart
pearly everlasting
queen's cup
rosy twistedstalk
Sitka burnet
skunk cabbage
star-flowered false Solomon's-seal
stream violet
sweet scented bedstraw
sword fern
twinflower
vanilla-leaf
wall lettuce
Sedges/grasses
(Cyperaceae & Gramineae family)
Vaccinium parvifolium
Gaultheria shallon
Rubus spectabilis
Sorbus sitchensis
Myrica gale
Rubus parviflorus
Ribes laxiflorum
Rubus ursinus
Salix spp.
Pteridium aquilinum
Caltha biflora
Cornus canadensis
Streptopus amplexifolius
Equisetum arvense
Petasites palmatus
Fauria crista-galli
Blechnum spicant
Trautvetteria caroliniensis
Maianthemum dilatatum
Coptis asplenifolia
Epilobium angustifolium
Tiarella trifoliata
Aruncus dioicus
Hypochoeris radicata
Veratrum viride
Athyrium filix-femina
Viola palustris
Gymnocarpium dryopteris
Orthilia secunda
Dicentra formosa
Anaphalis margaritacea
Clintonia uniflora
Streptopus roseus
Sanguisorba canadensis latifolia
Lysichitum americanum
Smilacina stellata
Viola glabella
Galium triflorum
Polystichum munitum
Linnaea borealis
Achlys triphylla
Lactuca muralis
52

Moss
common haircap moss
dusky fork moss
juniper moss
Oregon beaked moss
step moss
sphagnum
Misc
great sundew
Polytrichum commune
Dicranum fuscescens
Polytrichum juniperinum
Kindbergia oregana
Hylocomium splendens
Sphagnum spp.
Drosera anglica
53