Argue
The bullet:
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to argue coherently and persuasively, displaying knowledge of the elements and inner workings
of argument--that is, using logical organization, adequate support, independent thought, and
sound reasoning, as modeled in many of the arguments in course readings.
The clarification:
The significance of developing the skill of arguing is that it is necessary for a person to have this
capability in order to constructively join any conversation or contribute to any disciplined thinking
about a subject. A person who understands argument will be less susceptible to being fooled or
mistaken about what other people are saying. A person who understands argument will realize that
good action follows from well-supported claims. And good argument makes good writing possible.
With these values in mind, someone who is attempting to develop the student’s skills in
argumentation will give them practices which foster excellence in:
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Describing arguments
Evaluating arguments
Constructing arguments
Explanation:
Describing arguments.
The first step in developing the skill of arguing is recognizing and describing arguments. Terms related
to this skill include claim/conclusion, premise/grounds, inference/warrant, rebuttal/challenge, and
backing/support.
Teaching Strategies
Describing arguments, the ground floor of this skill, calls for students to develop an awareness of
arguments in everyday discourse. Connecting personal choices (what to wear, going to a movie,
anticipated the outcome of a game) to the supporting system of facts and principles demonstrates the
pervasive character of arguments in our lives. This skill is developed when the student is able to discern
the components of arguments in their own speaking and writing and in that of others. Note that one
important aspect of “Reading for Structure” is reading to recognize the various parts of an argument in a
text.
Suggested assignments
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Restate an argument. This exercise is a good way to introduce the prevalent
character of arguments in our living and academic experience. Have the students describe an
argument made by a parent or friend verbally. Then have them write it down. This can be
continued by having students find examples of arguments in print (newspaper editorial). Lead
them to identify argument components (basic elements: facts/grounds/premises- statements
that are accepted by both parties, conclusion/claim- the point being argued for,
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warrant/inference/principle- the idea used to connect the grounds to the claim) in a reading for
class by underlining or circling words and labeling.
FDN Example: Identify the arguments Socrates gives for why he is not guilty of
the charges brought against him in Apology. For the Melian Dialogue divide students and have
them describe either the argument made by the Melians or the argument made by the
Athenians. For each of these readings, work in class to develop an outline of the argument
throughout the essay or excerpt.
Barriers/Frustrations
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For many students paying attention to arguments appears redundant or
unnecessary.
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The separation of arguments into elements is often difficult and painstaking.
Overcoming this barrier can occur if you are able to demonstrate to them that everything they
decide to do or believe is the result of some kind of argument, whether they are aware of it or
not.
Evaluating arguments
Those evaluating arguments might ask, at minimum, “Does the conclusion follow from the
premises/grounds?” and “Are the premises/grounds true (how successfully can they withstand
possible objections?)”
Teaching Strategies
Evaluating arguments introduces the aspect of judgment and choice in arguments and their
components. Formulating questions about the choices of facts used, principles articulated, and the
quality of support for conclusions stated are the principal practices to develop. Classical logic focuses on
this skill using terms of validity (conclusion is assured based on the facts and principles presented) and
soundness (a valid argument with true grounds) in the case of deductive arguments or relative strength
where arguments are inductive. Examining the strength of the chief premises/grounds (explicit or
implicit) used in an argument is the critical skill for highest level of argument evaluation. Note the
connections between “Evaluating Arguments” and “Reading to Critically Engage.”
Suggested Assignments
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Display an argument provided by one of the students in class. Ask the class to 1)
identify the claim/conclusion. Ask if it is worded clearly. 2) evaluate the quality of the facts
presented (Is this information trustworthy? Is this information sufficient? What other
information would support the argument and what information would challenge the stated
conclusion?) 3) Identify any explicit or implicit warrants needed to make the conclusion follow.
Ask the students to evaluate the quality or trustworthiness of that warrant.
Sample argument: UK is going to have another top-5 recruiting class in 2013 (claim/conclusion).
In the first two years at UK Calipari has had top-5 recruiting classes (grounds). And he is likely to
continue having the same kind of success in future years (warrant).
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Present a classically valid argument (e.g. All men are mortal, Socrates is a man,
Socrates is mortal) and have them interchange other terms in order to create a new argument
with the same form. (All mammals are hairy, hairy animals are susceptible to fleas, all mammals
are susceptible to fleas). (For other forms, instructors may google valid argument forms.)
FDN Example: For Machiavelli’s The Prince have students identify the actions he
argues typify a good prince. For each action (expressed as a conclusion in the form: “A good
prince does X”) have the students find the warranting principle related to it (that is, what basic
principle helps justify the belief that such actions typify a good prince—students might try
something like “the good prince is one that preserves the state and x helps to preserve the
state”, e.g.). Have the students describe the origin of this principle (tradition, expert opinion,
developed trust through practice). Ask students to write a paragraph either supporting or
challenging the principle or warranting inference. Have them compare their responses in class.
Believing and Doubting Game: Slightly modified version of the assignment described in the Skills
Handbook. Offer a selection of important passages from a given reading which contain key
claims (conclusions or premises of arguments) that are controversial. Students write three
formal or informal paragraphs: (1)One offers an interpretation of one of these key claims; (2) A
second offers the believing response (possible reasons in support of the claim); and (3) A third
offers the doubting response (possible reasons to reject the claim).
Barriers/Frustrations
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This part of the argument skill is very difficult, even for professors. Admit the
difficulties in sorting out the language of facts, inferences, and conclusions. If possible, use an
example from your own research or graduate school experience to demonstrate the importance
of careful argument analysis.
Constructing arguments
Constructing and formulating cogent arguments is the final goal of this skill. This skill includes
identifying critical facts and principles, making connections from these to conclusions beyond those
that are presented, and demonstrating rhetorical awareness in speaking or writing the argument.
Teaching Strategies
Constructing arguments culminates the skill of arguing. Ideally, students will assemble evidence, identify
the most compelling warranting principle, and reach a sound conclusion. Reaching appropriate
conclusions from good evidence and articulating this movement accurately and persuasively is the goal.
Connecting this skill to Compose and with Reading to Engage is essential.
Suggested assignments
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Divide the class into two sides and have them develop oral arguments
supporting opposing sides of a current issue in campus life. Next, keep the groups intact but
have them develop arguments for the opposite conclusion.
For a debate that develops in class concerning a class reading, ask the students
to write a paragraph arguing for their position. Have them identify the argument terms they
use, and evaluate the strength of their argument. Allow them to modify their argument before
turning it in.
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FDN Example: For Wollstonecraft, have the students describe and analyze her
argument concerning the education of women. Have the students formulate a similar argument
for a class of people who presently do not have the benefits of education.
FDN Example: For Rauschenbusch, have the students outline the ten reasons he
gives for the loss of the idea of the Kingdom of God. Have them respond to his claims by arguing
for their own views of the Kingdom of God.
FDN Example: For the draft of their thesis-driven essay, have the students
include an outline description of their argument. Propose logical challenges to their arguments
and have them include that challenge and a response in their essay.
Barriers/Frustrations

Composing arguments can appear stifling to students who prefer simply to write and see what
emerges. The notion of developing a coherent argument before writing is the primary hurdle.
To overcome this barrier, engage the student in a conversation about a topic they care about,
show them how they are already structuring an argument about that, and encourage them to
transfer that practice to their writing.
Argument Resources in The Georgetown College Skills Handbook
1. “Argument: An Introduction”: 126 - 147. This section of the handbook offers a general purpose
introduction. It seeks to complicate the notion that argument is merely pro/con debate by showing
that the skills of describing, analyzing and constructing arguments have two important functions: 1)
to seek truth and 2) to persuade. In other words, the text defines argument in terms of “rational
inquiry” (147). Useful resources:
Definitions and defining Features of argument: 126-130 and 139
Examples of visual arguments: 126, 131. 132, 133
Graphic and discussion explaining why The Exploratory Essay” is a good exercise for learning to
argue: 137.
Argument as part of collaborative problem-solving: 142 -147, including very good “For Class
Discussion Questions” on page 146.
2. “Argument as Inquiry: Reading and Exploring”: 148-182. As the title suggests, this chapter will
most helpful to support the work of teaching students to discover the relevance of argument to
their academic work and how to become thoughtful “consumers” of argumentative texts. Useful
resources:
Believing and Doubting Game: 155.
Graphic representation of genres of argument: 157.
Discussion of empathetic reading or “reading to believe”: 162
Directions for writing a summary of an argument: 164 -167
Discussion of skeptical reading or “reading to doubt”: 168
Description, organization plan and example of an exploratory essay: 174 – 182.
3. “The Core of an Argument: A Claim with Reasons”: 183 – 195. This section will support the work
of teaching students how to construct arguments. Useful Resources:
Description of “The Classical Structure of Argument,” specifically, argumentative essays, including a
very useful graphic on page 184 illustrating the structure of such an essay and the Latin terms for its
various parts. (Students truly enjoy learning these.): 183-185.
Graphic and explanation of The Rhetorical Triangle: 146 – 187.
Discussion of the difference between a thesis (claim) and support (reasons): 190-195.
4. “The Logical Structure of Arguments”: 196 -211. An Overview of “Logos” (with apologies to all
who might be offended by the text’s distinction between “formal logic” and “real-world logic”).
The Toulmin approach to describing arguments: 199 -203.
5. “Using Evidence Effectively”: 212 -231. The title of the chapter speaks for itself. Useful resources:
“STAR Criteria for Evaluating Evidence” is an excellent explanation of why evidence needs to be
Sufficient, Typical, Accurate and Relevant: 212 – 214.
Graphic illustration of types of evidence, from anecdotal to “reasoned sequence of ideas”: 214 –
217.
6. “Moving Your Audience Ethos, Pathos and Karios”: 232-246. This chapter is probably more suited
for a class centered solely on persuasive writing. Useful Resources:
Questions for analyzing the needs of the audience: 242-243
7. “Responding to Objections and Alternative Views”: 247-267. This chapter contains valuable
discussions of how to manage counter-evidence and counter-arguments. Useful resources:
Strategies for refuting, rebutting, and conceding to opposing views: 252-255
8. “Informal Fallacies”: 268 -275. This chapter introduces definitions of common informal fallacies.
Students find learning about these to be very empowering. Once they are aware of them, it’s
useful to point them out in feedback on their work. Useful resources:
Definition of a syllogism and examples of valid and invalid syllogisms: 268-269.
Definitions and examples of informal fallacies: 269 – 274.
Examples of fallacies to identify by type and discuss: 275.